1. What is SPSS?

SPSS means Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. SPSS is a Software widely used
as a Statistical Analytic Tool in the Field of Social Science, Such as Market research,
Surveys, Competitor Analysis, and others. It is a comprehensive and flexible statistical
analysis and data management tool.
2. What is data entry in SPSS?
Data entry in SPSS refers to inputting or importing data into the software, which involves
creating a new data file, defining variables, assigning variable properties, and entering
data values for each variable. Accurate and efficient data entry is crucial for ensuring the
integrity and Reliability of statistical analyses in SPSS.
3. What is meant by cleaning the data in SPSS?
Cleaning the data in SPSS refers to identifying and correcting errors, inconsistencies, and
missing values in the dataset to ensure its accuracy and completeness. It involves
identifying duplicates, outliers, missing data, and data entry errors and correcting or
removing them. Data cleaning is essential to data analysis to ensure accurate and reliable
results.
4. What is data manipulation in SPSS?
Data manipulation in SPSS refers to transforming, recoding, and computing variables to
prepare data for analysis. Data manipulation is a crucial step in data analysis, as it enables
researchers to transform the raw data into a format that can be used for statistical analysis.
5. What is data transformation in SPSS?
Data transformation in SPSS refers to modifying the original data to make it suitable for
analysis. It involves applying mathematical functions, scaling, or standardizing variables
to create new ones. Data transformation is a crucial step in data analysis, as it helps
improve the data's distributional properties, reduce skewness, and make the data more
suitable for statistical modelling.
6. Why do we compute variables in the datasheet?
Computing variables in SPSS allows us to transform and manipulate the data, which can
help us better understand relationships between variables and make the data more suitable
for statistical analysis. By computing variables in SPSS, we can create more informative
and meaningful variables that can be used for statistical modelling and hypothesis testing.
7. What is meant by recode into the same variables?
Recode into the same variables in SPSS is a process of changing the values of a variable
by assigning new values to the existing categories or range of scores within the same
variable. For example, we can recode a variable measuring age into groups such as
young, middle-aged, and elderly. Recode into the same variables in SPSS is a powerful
feature that enables us to transform the data quickly, and it is commonly used in data
analysis to simplify the variables and make them more interpretable
8. What is meant by recode into different variables?
Recode into different variables in SPSS is a process of creating a new variable by
changing the values of an existing variable. In other words, a new variable is created with
new values assigned to the original variable categories. For example, we can recode a
variable measuring age into groups such as young, middle-aged, and elderly and save it as
a new variable. Recode into different variables in SPSS is a powerful feature that enables
us to transform and manipulate the data to create new variables for statistical analysis. By
creating new variables, we can better understand the relationship between variables and
make the data more suitable for hypothesis testing.
9. What is a graphical representation of data?
Graphical representation of data refers to using visual elements such as graphs, charts,
and diagrams to display data in a way that is easy to understand and interpret. Graphical
representation is an essential tool in data analysis and communication, enabling us to
identify patterns, trends, and relationships between variables quickly. It allows us to
visualize data in various forms, such as scatter plots, histograms, bar charts, line graphs,
and pie charts. For example, scatter plots show the relationship between two continuous
variables, while bar charts help compare categorical data.
10 What is meant by statistical analysis?
.
Statistical analysis collects, cleans, organizes, and interprets numerical data using
statistical methods and techniques. Statistical analysis involves various styles, including
descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, hypothesis testing, and regression analysis.
These techniques explore the relationships between variables, detect patterns and trends,
and identify significant differences and associations between groups.
11 What is SPSS output?
.
The SPSS output window displays the results of data analysis, including tables, graphs,
and charts, and allows users to customize the output and save it in various formats. It is an
essential part of the data analysis that facilitates data interpretation and communication of
results.
12 What is the purpose of Frequency analysis?
.
The purpose of frequency analysis is to summarize and display the distribution of a
categorical variable in a dataset. It provides information about the number and percentage
of cases in each category, allowing us to identify the most common and least common
classes in the data. Frequency analysis is often used as a first step in data exploration and
can provide valuable insights into the characteristics of a dataset.
13 What values do we report from the frequency output in the table?
.
The frequency output table typically reports the following values for each category of a
categorical variable:
1) Category or response option (variables name): This is the label for each category
or response option in the variable.
2) Frequency: This is the count or number of cases in each category.
3) Percentage: This is the percentage of cases in each category, calculated as
(frequency/total number of cases) *100.
14 Define psychometric properties.
.
Psychometric properties refer to the characteristics of a measure or assessment tool that
determine its Reliability, validity, and sensitivity to change.
 Reliability: It refers to the consistency of the measure, indicating how well it
produces the same results when used repeatedly under the same conditions.
 Validity refers to the degree to which the measure accurately measures what
it intends to measure.
 Sensitivity to change: It refers to the ability of the measure to detect meaningful
 changes over time.
15 What is α Reliability?
.
α Reliability, also known as Cronbach's alpha, is a statistical measure of the internal
consistency or Reliability of a scale or measure. α Reliability ranges from 0 to 1, with
higher values indicating greater internal consistency. Generally, α values of 0.70 or above
are considered acceptable for research purposes, while values above 0.80 are considered
good. High α reliability indicates that the items in the measure are the same and
consistent.
16 What is meant by normal distribution?
.
The normal distribution is a statistical term that describes a symmetric and bell-shaped
distribution of data around the mean. Many natural phenomena and human
characteristics, such as height, weight, and IQ, are approximately normally distributed.
The normal distribution is important in statistics because many statistical tests and
techniques are based on the assumption of normality. Both skewness and kurtosis are
necessary measures for assessing the normality of a distribution. A normal distribution
has zero skewness and kurtosis, while non-normal distributions can have positive or
negative skewness and varying degrees of kurtosis.

17 What is skewness? What are its types?

.
Skewness is a statistical measure that provides information about a distribution's shape.
Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the distribution, indicating whether the
 distribution is skewed to one side or the other. A distribution is considered to be positively
skewed if the tail of the distribution is longer on the positive side (i.e., to the right of the
peak) and negatively skewed if the tail is longer on the negative side (i.e., to the left of the
peak). A distribution with zero skewness is perfectly symmetrical.

18 What is kurtosis? What are its types?

.
Kurtosis is a measure of the peak or flatness of the distribution. It indicates how much of
the data is located in the tails of the distribution instead of the centre. A distribution with
high kurtosis is more peaked than a normal distribution, with more data in the bottoms. In
contrast, a distribution with low kurtosis is flatter than a normal distribution, with more
data in the centre.

19 What does the mean (M) and Standard deviation (SD) represent in the descriptive
. table?
 The mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) are critical, descriptive statistics that provide
information about the central tendency and variability of a data distribution
 Mean: It represents the average value of the data or the point around which it is
centred. It is calculated by adding up all the values in the data set and dividing by
the number of values. The mean is influenced by extreme values or outliers, which
can pull the mean away from the centre of the data.
 Standard deviation: It represents the data's variability (change). It measures how
far the data points are from the mean. A high standard deviation indicates that the
data points are more spread out from the mean, while a low standard deviation
indicates that the data points are closer to the mean. The standard deviation is also
influenced by extreme values or outliers, which can increase the spread of the
data.
20 Define Range.
.
The range is the difference between a maximum and minimum values of the data set.
21 What is the Actual and Potential range?
.
 The actual range is the difference between a data set's highest and lowest values. It
measures the variability of the data and provides information about the spread of
values that occurred in the data.
 Potential range: It refers to the theoretical range of values that could have occurred
in a data set, regardless of whether they did appear. It is calculated by subtracting the
minimum possible value from the maximum possible value for a given variable.
22 Define correlation.
.
Correlation is a statistical measure that describes the relationship between two or more
variables. Correlation measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between two continuous variables. Correlation is typically measured using a correlation
coefficient ranging from -1 to +1.
23 What is positive and negative correlation?
.
  A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, where one
variable increases as the other variable decreases.
 A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, where both
variables increase or decrease together.
 A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation between the variables.
24 What is meant by significant findings in statistical analysis?
.
If the probability of observing the finding by chance alone is very low, typically below
0.05 (p < .05), then the result is considered statistically significant. Significant findings
are essential in statistical analysis because they prove that a relationship or effect between
variables will likely be accurate and not by error. This allows researchers to draw
conclusions about the population based on the sample data and to make predictions about
future observations.
25 What are asterisks? What does ***, **, * represent?
.
In statistical analysis, asterisks (*) represent the level of statistical significance of a
finding. The number of asterisks indicates the degree of statistical significance, with more
asterisks representing a higher significance level. For example, in the context of a
hypothesis test, three asterisks (***) may indicate a p-value of less than 0.001, two
asterisks (**) may indicate a p-value between 0.001 and 0.01, and one asterisk (*) may
indicate a p-value between 0.01 and 0.05.
26 Define Regression.
.
Regression is a statistical method to investigate the relationship between a dependent
variable and one or more independent variables. Regression analysis aims to develop a
mathematical model describing how the dependent variable relates to the independent
variable(s).
1. Linear Regression: When we investigate the relationship between a dependent
variable and one independent variable.
2. Multiple Regression: When we investigate the relationship between a dependent
variable and two or more independent variables.
27 What is a predictor?
.
In regression analysis, the independent variable(s) are often called predictor variables,
explanatory variables, or covariates.
28 What is the outcome variable?
.
In regression analysis, the dependent variable is often called the outcome variable,
response variable, or criterion variable. There are two types of Regression
29 What does model B represent in Regression?
.
In regression analysis, Model B refers to a multiple regression model that includes more
than one independent variable to predict the dependent variable. Model B aims to identify
which independent variables are most strongly associated with the dependent variable and
quantify the strength and direction of those associations.
The Coefficients of Model B represent each independent variable's estimated effect on the
dependent variable while holding the other independent variables constant.
30 What does the β represent in Regression?
.
In regression analysis, β (beta) represents the coefficient, or slope, of the regression line.
It means the estimated effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable while
controlling for the effects of other independent variables in the model. If β is positive, it
indicates that as the independent variable's value increases, the dependent variable's value
also tends to increase. If β is negative, it suggests that as the independent variable's value
increases, the dependent variable's value tends to decrease.
31 What R2 means in Regression?
.
In regression analysis, R-squared (R²) represents the proportion of variance in the
dependent variable explained by the independent variables included in the model. R²
ranges from 0 to 1. R² is often interpreted as the percentage of variation in the dependent
variable that is accounted for by the independent variables. For example, an R² of 0.80
means that the independent variables in the model explain 80% of the variation in the
 dependent variable.
32 What does the F value mean in regression analysis?
.
In regression analysis, the F-value measures the overall significance of the regression
model. A larger F-value indicates that the model provides a better fit to the data and that it
is less likely that the observed differences between the predicted values and the actual
values are due to chance. In summary, the F-value in regression analysis is used to
determine whether the overall model is statistically significant.
33 What is the Independent Sample T-test? Why is it used?
.
The Independent Samples T-test is a statistical test used to compare the means of two
independent groups. It determines whether a significant difference exists between the
means of two groups on a continuous dependent variable. The Independent Samples T-test
is used when the following conditions are met:
1. The dependent variable is continuous.
2. The independent variable has only two groups (e.g., male and female).
3. The dependent variable is normally distributed in each group.
In summary, the Independent Samples T-test is a widely used statistical test to determine
whether there is a significant difference between the means of two independent groups on
a continuous dependent variable.
34 What does the "t" mean in the independent sample T-test?
.
In the independent sample T-test, the "t" is the test statistic used to determine whether the
difference between the two groups' means is statistically significant.
35 What is the Degree of Freedom (df) in the t-test?
.
In the context of the t-test, the degrees of freedom (df) refers to the number of
independent pieces of information used to calculate the test statistic. Specifically, the
degrees of freedom for an independent samples t-test is calculated as the sum of the
sample sizes of the two groups minus 2. The degrees of freedom for a paired samples t-
test equals the sample size minus 1. The degrees of freedom play an important role in
 determining the critical values of t from the t-distribution, which are used to determine
whether the test statistic is statistically significant.
36 What is a Confidence interval (CI)? What is meant by 95% CI?
.
A confidence interval (CI) is a range of values likely to contain the actual value of a
population parameter with a certain level of confidence. A 95% confidence interval means
that there is a 95% chance that the true population parameter lies within the calculated
interval. The width of the confidence interval depends on the sample size, the variability
of the data, and the level of confidence chosen by the researcher. The larger the sample
size and the smaller the variability, the narrower the confidence interval.
37 What is the lower and upper limit in CI?
.
The lower and upper limits in a confidence interval (CI) represent the range of values
likely to contain the true population parameter with a certain confidence level. For
example, a 95% CI for a population might be calculated as (10.5, 14.3), where 10.5
represents the lower limit, and 14.3 represents the upper limit. We can be 95% confident
that the actual population mean falls between 10.5 and 14.3.
38 What is Cohen's d? How can we compute it?
.
Cohen's d is a measure of effect size that indicates the standardized difference between
two means. It is commonly used to compare the means of two groups in a study, such as a
treatment group and a control group. To compute Cohen's d, you can use the Cohen's d
calculator, available online.
Cohen's d can be interpreted as follows:
 A value of 0.2 represents a small effect size.
 A value of 0.5 represents a medium effect size.
 A value of 0.8 or higher represents a large effect size.
Generally, a larger Cohen's d indicates a stronger effect or a larger difference between the
two groups.
39 What is ANOVA?
.
 ANOVA stands for Analysis of Variance. It is a statistical method to analyze whether
significant differences exist among means of two or more groups. For example, A
researcher wants to investigate whether there are significant differences in levels of
depression among individuals of different age groups (young adults, middle-aged adults,
and older adults).
40 What is the difference between one-way ANOVA & two-way ANOVA?
.
The main difference between one-way and two-way ANOVA is the number of
independent variables involved in the analysis.
 In one-way ANOVA, there is only one independent variable with multiple levels or
categories. The analysis compares the means of the dependent variable across the
different independent variable levels. For example, a one-way ANOVA could be
used to investigate the effect of age on gender.
 In two-way ANOVA, there are two independent variables, and the analysis is used
to investigate the effects of these variables on the dependent variable. Two-way
ANOVA can be used to analyze the interaction between two independent variables
and their individual effects. For example, a two-way ANOVA could be used to
investigate the impact of both gender and age on depression.
41 What is post hoc? What it measures?
.
Post hoc tests are statistical tests used after an analysis of variance (ANOVA) to
determine which pairs of groups have a significant difference. These tests are used to
measure the significance of the differences between the means of all possible pairs of
groups in the ANOVA. Post hoc tests are used when the ANOVA test indicates a
significant difference between the means of the groups.