NOTES

Basic Science
(PHYSICS 311305)
PROF. KHANDAGALE P P
VISHWESHWARAYYA ABHIYANTRIKI PADVIKA MAHAVIDYALAYA , ALMALA
 List of Content

S. No Name Page
Marks Teaching
of Unit No. Weightage Hours
SECTION – I
[PHYSICS]

1 Units and Measurements 03 09 07

2 Electricity, Magnetism and Semiconductors 12 14 13

3 Thermometry and Fibre Optics 36 12 10

Page | 2
 SECTION – I [PHYSICS]
Topic1
Units and Measurements

Introduction:

Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with certain basic measurement are
used by scientist for understanding nature phenomenon, it is used by society for transaction in
business and practical purposes. Engineers use measurements in building drawing, control
systems, data processing etc.
Unit is a standard in which a physical quantity is measured. The measurement of physical
quantity is explored by a number accompanied by a unit. Ex 10 kg, 5 m
Where 10= magnitude , kg= unit and 5= magnitude, m= unit
The physical quantities are large in number, but we require limited number of units to
express them, since they are related to one another.

Significance

All the devices used by engineers for measurement have magnitude and units and hence
understanding of same is necessary for all branches of engineering.

Physical Quantities: The physical quantity is a quantity which can be measured.

For Ex. Length, Mass, time , speed ,acceleration ,force etc

Fundamental units/ base units.

The units of fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.

Fundamental quantities are the physical quantities, which do not depend on any other
physical quantities for its measurements. There are seven base/ fundamental quantities with
two more quantities (plane angle and solid angle)

Table 1.1
Sr. No. Fundamental Physical Quantity Fundamental Unit Symbol
1 length metre m
2 mass kilogram kg
3 time second s
4 electric current ampere A
5 absolute temperature kelvin K
6 luminous intensity candela cd
7 amount of substance mole mol
Page | 3
Derived units

The units of derived quantities are called as derived units derived quantities. These
physical quantities are expressed as combination of one are more fundamental quantity.

Table 1.2
Derived Quantity Formula Derived units
Area Length * Length Square meter
Volume Length * Length * Length Cubic meter
Density Mass/ Volume Kg/m3
Velocity and Speed Length/ Time m/s
Acceleration Velocity/ Time m/s2
Force Mass * Acceleration kg m/s2
Energy and Work Force * Length kg m2/s2
Power Energy/ Time kg m2/s3
Pressure and Thrust Force/ Area kg /m s2
Momentum Mass * Velocity Kg m/s
Charge Current * time As
Potential difference Potential energy /charge kg m2/A s3
Resistance Potential difference / current kg m2/A2 s3

Page | 4
Systems of Unit
The complete set of base/fundamental units and derived units is known as system of
units. Different countries used different systems of units for measurement of physical quantity.
The system of units is as following

The following system of units are in used

1. C.G.S. system. They are centimeter, gram, second respectively
2. F.P.S. system. They are foot pound second respectively
3. M.K.S. system. They are meter kilogram system
4. S.I. system System international
The S.I. systems of units are now accepted worldwide for measurement.

Multiples and Submultiples

A measurement is expressed in terms of units. However, sometimes it finds more
convenient to express a measurement in terms of multiples and submultiples of unit. For
example, meter is convenient unit to express the length of table but it is too small to express the
distance between two cities. It is more convenient to express the diameter of wire in millimeters
and distance between two cities in kilometers.
Thus Multiples and Submultiples of units are expressed by means of prefixes. Each prefix
represents a multiplication factor in terms of a certain power of 10. Any measurement is
expressed in a compact and convenient form by making use of an appropriate prefix for the unit.
Thus while expressing very large as well as very small magnitude of physical quantity prefixes
are used with unit of that physical quantity. They are called multiples and submultiples. Some of
the most commonly used multiples and submultiples (prefixes) are listed below

Table 1.3

Symbol Name Factor Symbol Name Factor

Y yotta 1024 y yokto 10-24
Z zetta 1021 z zepto 10-21
E Exa 1018 a atto 10-18
P peta 1015 f femto 10-15
T tera 1012 p pico 10-12
G giga 109 n nano 10-9
M mega 106 µ micro 10-6
k kilo 103 m milli 10-3
h hecto 102 c centi 10-2
da deka 101 d deci 10-1

Page | 5
Example:
1) 1 meter = x cm x= 100 or 102
2) 1 mm = x m x = 0.001 or 10-3
3 1 GHz =x MHz x= 1000 or 103

Dimension of physical quantity

The physical quantities are described by its dimension. The physical quantities
represented by derived units can be expressed in combination of fundamental quantities. The
dimension is denoted with square brackets [ ]. Thus length has dimensions [L ] , Mass[M ], Time
[T ] eclectic current[A ], Thermodynamic temperature [ K] luminous intensity [cd ] and
amount of substance [mol]. The dimensions of physical quantities are the powers to which the
fundamental quantities are raised to represent that quantity.

Dimension formula

The expression, which shows how which of fundamental quantities represent dimensions
of physical quantity is called the dimensional formula.
Table 1.4
Quantity Formula Dimensions Dimensional Formula
Area Length x Length [L2] [L2 M0 T0]
Volume Length x Length x Length [L3] [L3 M0 T0]
Density Mass/ Volume [L-3 M1 ] [L-3 M1 T0]
Velocity and Speed Length/ Time [L1 T-1] [L1 M0 T-1]
Acceleration Velocity/ Time [L1 T-2] [L1 M0 T-2]
Force Mass x Acceleration [L1 M1 T-2] [L1 M1 T-2]
Energy and Work Force x Length [L2M1T-2] [L2 M1 T-2]
Power Energy/ Time [L2 M1 T-3] [L2 M1 T-3]
Pressure and Thrust Force/ Area [L-1 M1 T-2] [L-1 M1 T-2]
Momentum Mass x Velocity [L1 M1 T-1] [L1 M1 T-1]
Power Energy/ Time [L2 M1 T-3] [L2 M1 T-3]

Errors

The result of every measurement by a measuring instrument contains some uncertainty.

This uncertainty is called as error.
The accuracy and precision are two terms involved measurement. accuracy is a measure how
close the measured value is to the true value while precision tells us to what resolution or limit
the quantity is measured.

Page | 6
The errors are classified as instrumental systematic error, random errors.

Instrumental error

The errors which arise due to imperfect design or calibration of measuring instrument. ex.
In Vernier caliper zero mark may not coincide with zero mask of main scale.
This error can be minimize by selecting better
Instruments

Systematic errors

These errors arise due to imperfection in experiment technique or procedure the pointer
of voltmeter, which does not coincide with any mark.

Random errors

The errors which occur due to unpredictable. Change in experimental conditions. Which
cannot be controlled. Change in temperature, voltage fluctuation, etc. Significant figures
It is a trust worthy digit in measurement of physical quantify . the significant figure is related to
accuracy of measuring instrument more the significant fingers is the accuracy in measurement

Rules for significant figures

All the non-zero digits are significant figures

1. All the zero between non zero digit are digit are significant figures
2. If the number is less than, the zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left of non zero
digit are not significant figures.0.0028 Underlined zero are not significant figures
3. The terminal, number without a decimal point are not significant figure
(123m.12300cm=123000mm) has 3 significant Figures trailing zero are not significant.
4. The trailing zero in number with a decimal point are significant 3.500 or 0.06900 have four
significant figure.
5. The number should be generally reported in scientific notation
(i.e. power of 10 ) 4.700m = 4.700x102cm=4.700x103mm = 4.700x10-3 km
Power of 10 is irrelevant to determine significant figures.
However, the base number in the significant notation is significant thus there are 4 significant
figures.
Table 1.5
Sr. No. Value Number of significant Figures
1 11.080 5
2 0.0196 3

Page | 7
 3 200.0109 7
4 0.0005300 4
5 1.6×10-19 2

Estimation of error
Absolute errors
Suppose the values obtained in the measurement are a1, a2 , a3 , an the arithmetic mean of
these values are taken as best possible value of quantity
a mean a1+ a2+ a3+ … an
=
𝑛
The magnitude of difference between the individual measurement and true of the quantity
is called the absolute error of measurement |∆a|
∆a1 = a1 − a mean
∆a2 = a2 − a mean
∆a3 = a3 − a mean
: : :
: : :
∆an = an − a mean
∆𝐚 calculated may be negative or positive but the absolute error is always taken positive.
Mean absolute error the mean of all absolute errors is called as mean absolute error ∆a mean
∆a1+ ∆a2+ ∆a3+ … ∆an
∆ a mean =
𝑛
Relative error
The relative error is the ratio of mean absolute error ∆a mean to the mean value a mean of the
measured quantity.
Relative error = ∆amean
amean
Percentage error
The relative error expressed in percent is called as percentage error
Percentage error = relative error x 100%
= ∆amean x 100%
amean

If the error ∆L in the measurement of length L then percentage error is given by,
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿 =(∆𝐿/𝐿)×100% ……..(1)

If the error ∆L in the measurement of L then percentage error Ln is given by,

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝐿𝑛 =𝑛×(∆𝐿/𝐿)×100% ………. (2)

Page | 8
If the error ∆L in the measurement of length L, ∆B in the measurement of breadth B then surface
area given by A = L×B and percentage error in the measurement of surface area is given by,

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 =% error in L + % error in B

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 A =(∆𝐿/𝐿)×100+ (∆𝐵/𝐵)×100% ………(3)

If acceleration due to gravity using simple pendulum is given by g = 4π2 L/T2,

4π2 being constant are not considered in calculation hence percentage error in ‘g’ is given by,
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 =% error in L + 2(% error in T)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 = (∆𝐿/𝐿)×100% +2 ×(∆𝑇/𝑇)×100%

Example : In an experiment a venier caliper of least count 0.01cm is used for measurement. The
radius of the sphere measured was 2.0 cm. Find the percentage error in measurement of radius,
area, volume of the sphere?

Solution :
The percentage in measuring the radius of the sphere is given by equation 1
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 radius =(∆r/r)×100%
= (0.01/2) ×100%
=0.5 %

The percentage in measuring the area of the sphere is given by equation 2

Area of sphere is 4π r2 4π being constant are not considered in calculation
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 r2 =𝑛×(∆r/r)×100%
= 2(0.01/2) ×100%
=1 %

The percentage in measuring the volume of the sphere is given by equation 2

Area of sphere is (4/3)π r3 (4/3)π being constant are not considered in calculation
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 r3 =𝑛×(∆r/r)×100%
= 3(0.01/2) ×100%
=1.5 %

Example : Find percentage error in measuring the density of wood cube. When the mass of the
mass of the block is 50 ± 0.1g , and the length of the cube is 2 ± 0.01cm.
Solution :
Density of the wooden block is given as density = (mass /volume)
Volume of the block is V = L3
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 density = (∆m/m)×100% +3 ×(∆l/l)×100%
= (0.1 /50)×100% +3 ×(0.01 /2)×100%

Page | 9
 =0.2 +1.5 =1.7%

Application

1. Measurement of length breadth height of given object

2. Measuring the radius of circular object
3. Dimensional analysis to deduce relation between different physical quantities
4. Estimate error for quality control

E learning website

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_measurement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQdy2Z-GmdY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_CoXqKDyuQ

Page | 10
Sample MCQ
1. of the following is the fundamental quantity?
a) Meter B) length C) force d) speed
Ans (b)
2. There are significant figure in 0.26x102 m.
2 B) 3 C) 4 d) 1 Ans (a)
3. is correct dimension of density.
a) [L-1 M1 T0] b) [L-3 M1 T0] c) [L3 M1 T0] d) [L-3 M1 T1]
Ans (b)
4. Relative error is given as .
∆amean ∆a a amean
a) amean b) mean𝑎 c) ∆amean
mean d) 𝑎
Ans (a).
5. is not a system of units.
C,G,S b) C.I.S c) M.K.S. d) S.I
Ans (a)

Reference:
1. Physics Textbook part 1, J.V.Naralikar, A.W.Joshi et al 11th NCERT New Delhi ISB
N81-7450-508-3

Page | 11
 Topic 2
Electricity, Magnetism and semiconductors.

Introduction:
The concepts of electricity and magnetism is the foundation of engineering and technology The
devices for communication such as radio, television, electric motors, medical instruments,
transportation are based on electricity and magnetism. Semiconductor devices are small in size,
consume less power and have long life and reliability. The following topic we will introduce the
basic concepts of semiconductor physics. Semiconductor basic of electronic gadgets
Significance:
All devices like Electric motors, electrical equipment, transportation devices need knowledge
and understanding of electricity and magnetism. Moreover, electronic gadgets such as mobiles,
computers, power supplies, electronic circuits, sensors require understanding of semiconductors.
1.1 Electric field and electric potential:
We have experience that, when we remove out sweater in winter, we hear crackling sound,
and the sweater appears to stick to our body. Similarly when dry hair is combed with a comb
crackling sound is produced.
This is because of electric charges produced due to friction between two bodies. Due to
friction, electrons get transferred from one substance to other substance, making them charged.
There are two types of charges. The substance receiving electrons becomes negatively
charged and the other which losses electrons become positively charged. Charge is measured in
coulomb.

Page | 12
1.1.1 : Coulomb’s Inverse Square Law:-
There are two types of charges, namely, positive and negative Charges. It was observed that-
a) Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
b) The force of attraction or repulsion between two charge q1 and q2 separated by distance ‘r’ is
given by –

F 𝛼 q1 q2
1
F𝛼
𝑟2

𝑞 1𝑞 2
F𝛼 𝑟2

F = K 𝑞1𝑞2
2 𝑟
… (1)
K is a constant of proportionality depends on the nature of medium.
K= 1
4 𝜋∈0∈ 𝑟

Where,
∈0 Permittivity of free space = 8.854X10 -12 F/m
∈𝑟 Relative permittivity of the medium between two charges = 1 for air

Above equation (1) becomes

𝑞1𝑞2
F= … (2)
4 𝜋 ∈𝑜𝑟2
In equation (2), if q1 = q2 = 1 C
And if r = 1 m , we have
1
F= = 8.99 x 109 N = 9 x 109 N
4𝜋∈𝑜

From this we can define one coulomb or unit charge. It is that charge which when placed in
air at a distance of 1m from and equal and similar charge, experiences a force of 8.99x109 N

Example: The distance between the electron and proton in the atom is 5.8x 10-11 m. Calculate
the electrostatic force between them.
Given ∈𝑟= 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19𝑐
Formula:
F = 9 x 10q x 𝑞1𝑞22
𝑟
1.6𝑥10−19𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
F = 9 x 10q x
(5.8𝑥10−11)2

F = 6.84x10-8 N
Page | 13
1.1.2 : Electric field
A charged body placed near a charge will experience a force. The region in which
a charge experiences a force is called electric field.

1.1.3 : Electric field Intensity

Consider a charge of ‘q’ coulomb. Electric field intensity at point A in its electric field is
the force experienced by unit positive charge placed at that point.

Fig:2.1.3
E=𝐹
𝑞
In above Fig:2.1.3 the electric intensity at point A is given by
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
1 𝑞
∈= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∈𝑟= 1
4𝜋 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑟2
1 𝑞
∈=
4𝜋 ∈0 𝑟2
𝑞
∈ 9𝑥109
𝑟2
Electric Intensity is measured in N/C

Example: A charged sphere of 60 micro coulomb is placed in air. Find the electric field intensity
at a point 30cm from the center of sphere.
Given :-
q = 60µ𝑐 = 60𝑥 10-6 c , r = 30 cm = 0.3m , ∈𝑟= 1
𝑞
∈ = 9 × 109 ×
𝑟2
60×10−6
∈ = 9 × 109 ×
(0.3)2

∈ = 6 X 106 N/C
1.1.4 : Electric potential
Consider a point charge + q Let A is the point in its electric field. Imagine a unit positive charge
at infinity as shown in Fig : 2.1.4.1

Page | 14
 Fig : 2.1.4.1
The electric potential at point A is the amount of work done in bringing unit positive charge
from infinity to that point A against the electric field
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
V= 𝑤
𝑞
The S.I. unit of potential is joule/ coulomb
The potential at point A is,
1 𝑞
VA = × =
4 𝜋 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑟
𝑞 ------ For air
V= 9 x 10 9 x
𝑟

One volt:
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 volt =
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
The potential at point is said to be one volt if one joule of work is done in bringing unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
Concept of potential difference:
Consider two water containers A and B, Connected by a tube. The water will flow through the
tube only when there is a water level difference between A and B.
As water level is the factor deciding the flow of water, similarly charge level i.e. potential
is the factor which decides the flow of charges.
Consider a point charge +q as shown in Fig: 2.1.4.2. A and B are two points in the
electric field of charge +q.

Fig : 2.1.4.2
Potential difference between the two points A and B is the work done in bringing unit
positive charge from point B to point A

Page | 15
The potential at point A is given by,
1 𝑞
VA =
4𝜋∈0∈ 𝑟 𝑟1
The potential at point B is,
1 𝑞
VB =
4𝜋∈0∈ 𝑟 𝑟2
The potential difference between A and B is,
V = VB – VA
V= 1 x( 𝑞 - 𝑞)
4𝜋∈0∈ 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟1

V = 9 × 109 x ( - )
𝑟2 𝑟1
Example : Calculate the potential at point 10 cm away from a
charge of 300 𝜇𝑐, in air
Given :
Q = 300 𝜇𝑐 = 30 X 10-6 C
r = 10 cm = 0.1m, ∈𝑟 = 1
Formula :-
𝑄
V = 9 × 109 ×
𝑟
300𝑥10−6
= 9 × 109 ×
0.1
= 27 x 104 v

1.2 Magnetism
In physics, magnetism is defined as the property by virtue of which a magnetic material is
able to create an attraction or repulsion force. It is the behavior of matter in magnetic field.
Magnetism is a force that can attract or repel objects that have a magnetic material like
iron inside them magnetism is caused by the motion of electric charges. Every substance is made
up of tiny units called atoms. Each atom has electrons, particles that carry electric charges.
The first magnet was discovered from a naturally occurring mineral called magnetite. A
material with its molecular alignment has one effective North Pole and an effective South Pole.
The most basic law of magnetism is that like poles repel each other and unlike poles
attract each other. If a bar magnet is broken, into two or more pieces then each piece behaves like
an independent magnet with somewhat weaker magnetic field. When a bar magnet/ magnetic
needle is suspended freely or is pivoted, it aligns itself in geographically North-South direction.
1.2.1 Magnetic field: - A magnetic field can be produced by either movement of charge or a
magnetized material .The region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within
which the force of magnetism acts. Magnetic field has magnitude and direction at each point. So
it is a vector field. Magnetic field is denoted as ‘B’ .Its SI unit is tesla (T) and CGS unit is gauss.
1.2.2 Magnetic field intensity (H)
Intensity of a magnetic field is the force which a unit North Pole experiences when
placed within the magnetic field. Number of magnetic lines passing through unit area is called

Page | 16
magnetic field intensity. It is also called magnetic field strength or magnetizing force. Its unit is
ampere/ meter (A/M) or ampere turn.
1.2.3 Magnetic lines of force
These are imaginary lines representing direction of magnetic field such that the tangent at any
point is the direction of the field vector at that point. The path along which unit North Pole
moves when placed in magnetic field is called magnetic lines of force.
2.3.1 Properties of magnetic lines of force

Unlike poles attract each other Like poles repel each other
Courtesy: physics stack Exchange

1) The magnetic lines of force of a magnet or a solenoid form closed loops.

2) Magnetic lines of force originate from North Pole and end at the South Pole
outside the magnet.
3) The direction of magnetic field within a magnet is from South Pole to North
Pole.
4) They never intersect each other.
5) The magnetic field strength is proportional to magnetic line density.
6) The magnetic field is tangent to the magnetic lines of force.
7) The magnetic lines of force are denser near the north or south poles indicating
large value of magnetic field.
8) All the lines of force have same strength.

2.2.4 Magnetic Flux

It is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a closed loop surface.
Or
The amount of magnetic lines of forces set up in magnetic circuit is called magnetic flux.
It is analogous to electric current in electric circuit.
SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (wb)
The description of magnetic flux allows engineers to easily calculate voltage generated by an
electric generator even when the magnetic field is complicated. If we choose a simple flat surface
with area ‘A’ as our test area and there is an angle ‘ϴ’ between normal to the surface and
magnetic field vector (B) then magnetic flux is given by

Page | 17
 Fig 2.2.4 (Courtesy: IB physics: Magnetic flux, Saburchill.com)
2
Example: A circular antenna of area 3m is installed at a point. The plane of the area of antenna
is inclined at 470 with the direction of earth’s magnetic field. If magnitude of earth’s magnetic
field at a place is 40773.9 nT. Find magnetic flux linked with antenna.
B = 40773.9 nT = 40773.9 x 10-9 T
𝜃 = 90 – 47 = 430
A = 3 m2
∅ = B A cos∅
∅ = 40.773.9x10-9 x 3 x cos430
∅ = 89.47x 10-6 wb
∅ = 89.47 µ Wb
1.3 : Current Electricity
2.3.1: Electric Current:
Consider a metal rod AB as shown in Fig 2.3.1.1. There are number of free electrons
moving randomly. The number of electrons moving in one particular direction is same as the
number of electrons moving in exactly opposite direction. As a result the net number of electrons
passing in direction is zero.

Fig 2.3.1.1 (Courtesy: Circuit Globe)

Page | 18
Now if potential difference is applied across the conductor AB, by connecting battery or cell as
shown in Fig 2.3.1.2 below, all the electrons will move towards the positive terminal of the
battery. We say the current is flowing through the conductor.
The conventional direction of current I opposite to the direction of flow of electrons

Fig 2.3.1.2 (Courtesy: Circuit Globe)

The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is called as current
If, ‘Q’ is charge flowing through the conductor in time ‘T’ second
Then,
Current = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
I= 𝑄
the unit of current is ampere.
𝑇
1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 ampere =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
One ampere is the current flowing through the conductor, when one coulomb charge is flowing
through the conductor in one second.
When the electrons are flowing through the conductor, the motion of electrons is opposed by the
conductor.
This opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current is called as resistance.
A good conductor have low resistance and poor conductor has high resistance

2.3.2 : Ohm’s law

According to ohm’ law, the current flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to potential difference applied across its ends, provided physical state of the
conductor ( material, length, cross-sectional area, temperature) remains same. If, ‘I’ is
current flowing through the conductor and ‘V’ is the potential difference across the conductor
then,
Then V𝛼I
V = IR
Where,
R is the constant called as resistance of the conductor. The value of R depends on the
nature, dimension, and temperature of the conductor

Page | 19
 Resistance = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
𝑉
R=
𝐼

One ohm = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
One ohm is the resistance, when one ampere current is flowing through a conductor and the
potential difference of one volt is applied across the conductor.
2.3.3 : Specific resistance or resistivity (ρ)
When temperature & nature of material of conductor remain same, the resistance of a conductor
depends on :
(1) Length :- It is observed that resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to its length.
R𝛼L
(2) Area of cross-section:- the resistance of the conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area.
1
R𝛼
𝐴
𝐿
Therefore, R 𝛼
𝐴

R = constant x 𝐿
𝐴

𝐿
R=𝜌×𝐴 ρ

Where ‘ρ’ is constant of proportionality, called as resistivity or specific resistance of the

conductor, It depend on nature of 𝑅×𝐴 conductor and temp,
ρ=
𝐿

If A = 1 m2 and L = 1 m then ρ = R
Specific resistance of the material is the resistance of that material having unit length and unit
cross- section area. Unit of ρ is Ω m
Conductance: -
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
Conductance = 1
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The unit of conductance is mho ( Ʊ)

Effect of temperature on resistance:-

Resistance of conductor increases with increase in temperature.

Page | 20
i. e. R 𝛼 temperature
In case of bad conductors of electricity, resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

2.3.4 : Law of series combination of resistances

Consider three resistances R1 R2 and R3 connected end to end as shown in Fig. 2.3.4. This is
called as series combination.

Fig. 2.3.4
I Current flowing through each resistance
V Total voltage applied across series combination
V1 Voltage drop across R1
V2 Voltage drop across R2
V3 Voltage drop across R3
We have by ohm’s law
V = IR
Similarly ,
V1 = IR1
V2 = I R2
V3 = I R3
But, V= V1+V2+V3
Substituting these values in above equation,
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

This is the effective resistance of series combination.

Law of resistance in series combination:
It states that the effective resistance offered by two or more resistors connected in series
combination is the algebraic sum of resistances of the individual resistors.

2.3.5 : Law of parallel combination of resistances

Page | 21
Consider three resistances R1 R2 and R3 connected as shown in Fig. 2.3.5. This is called as
parallel combination.

Fig. 2.3.5
I Total current flowing through each resistance
V Total voltage applied across parallel combination
I1 Current flowing through resistor R1
I2 Current flowing through resistor R2
I3 Current flowing through resistor R3
We have by ohm’s law
𝑉
𝐼= -
𝑅
Similarly
𝑉
𝐼1 =
𝑅1
𝑉
𝐼2 =
𝑅2
𝑉
𝐼3 =
𝑅3
But, in parallel circuit current gets divided.
Therefore total current,
I= I1+I2+I3
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹𝟑
This is the effective resistance of parallel combination.
Law of resistance in parallel combination:
It states that the reciprocal of effective resistance offered by two or more resistors connected in
parallel combination is equal to the algebraic sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of
individual resistors.
2.3.6 : Heating effect of electric current

Page | 22
Introduction:
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot after
some time and produce heat. This happens due to the conversion of some electric energy passing
through the conductor into heat energy. This effect of electric current is called heating effect of
current.

Fig 2.3.6

The heating effect of current was studied experimentally by Joule in 1941. After doing his
experiments Joule came to the conclusion that heating effect of an electric current depends on
three factors:
1. The resistance, R of the conductor. A higher resistance produces more heat.
2. The time, t for which current flows. The longer the time the larger the amount of heat
produced
3. The amount of current, I. the higher the current the larger the amount of heat generated.
Statement of Joule’s law:
When current flows through a conductor, the heat produced in a conductor is directly
proportional to the product of square of current (I2), resistance of the conductor (R) and the time
(t) for which current is passed. Thus,
H 𝖺 I2Rt

Derivation of Formula
To calculate the heat produced in a conductor, consider current I is flowing through a
conductor AB of resistance R for time t. also consider that the potential difference applied across
its two ends is V.
Now, total amount of work done in moving a charge q from point A to B is given by:
W = q X V .................. (1)
Now, we know that charge = current × time
or q = I X t
and V = I X R ..............(Ohm’s law)
Putting the values of q and V in equation (1), we get

Page | 23
 W = (I X t) X (I X R)
Or W = I2Rt
Now, assuming that all the work done is converted into heat energy we can replace symbol
of ‘work done’ with that of ‘heat produced’. So,
H = I2RT
This equation is called the Joule’s equation of electrical heating.

Applications of Heating Effect of Current

The heating effect of current is used in various electrical heating appliances such as electric
bulb, electric iron, room heaters, geysers, electric fuse etc.
Electrical energy and power
The work done in pushing a charge round an electrical circuit is given by
𝑊 =𝑉×𝐼×𝑡
𝑊
So that power, 𝑃 = =𝑉×𝐼
𝑡

The electrical power consumed by an electrical appliance is given by

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 𝐼2𝑅 =
𝑅

Example: An electrical bulb is labeled 100W, 240V. Calculate:

1. The current through the filament when the bulb works normally
2. The resistance of the filament used in the bulb.
Solution:
𝑃 100
𝐼= = = 0.4167 𝐴
𝑉 240
𝑃 100
𝑅= 2= = 576.04 Ω
𝐼 (0.4167)2
2.4 :Semiconductors

2.4.1 : Conductors
The material which allow electric current to flow through them easily are called conductor. All
metals are almost good conductor like gold, silver, copper, aluminum etc. Conductor possess
larger numbers of free electrons. They possess very low resistivity (ρ) or they have high
conductivity (σ)
2.4.2 : Insulators
The material which does not allow electric current to flow through them are called insulators.
The electrons are tightly bounded to their nucleus as such there are no free electrons to move and
conduct electricity. All nonmetals are insulators like quartz, mica, glass, rubber etc. They have
high resistivity or they have low conductivity.

Page | 24
2.4.3 : Semiconductor
The material which has conductivity in between metal & insulator is called semiconductor. The
semiconducting materials are neither conductor no insulator like germanium, silicon, carbon etc.
Semiconductor are insulators at low temperature and act as conductors at high temperature. They
have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals & insulators.
2.4.4 : Electron volt:
The kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated trough potential difference of one volt
is called as one electron volt.
Energy gained by charged particle = magnitude of charge * potential difference
1eV = charge on electron * 1 volt
=1.6*10-19 *1V
= 1.6*10-19 J
2.4.5 : Valance band (Ev)
The electron in the outermost shell are called as valance electron. The band formed by the series
of energy levels containing the valance electrons is known as valance band. The valance band
may also be defined as a band which is occupied by the valance electrons. A valance band has
highest occupied band energy. The valance band may be partially or completely filled depending
upon nature of crystal.
2.4.6 : Conduction band (Ec)
After the valance band the next higher band is conduction band. The electrons occupying this
band are known as conduction electrons or free electrons. The conduction band may also be
defined as the lowest unfilled energy band. The band may be empty or partially filled in the
conduction band the electron can move felly thus there electrons are known as free elections.
2.4.7: Forbidden gap/Energy gap Eg
The gap between the top of valance band and bottom of conduction band is called the energy
band gap/Forbidden gap.no election can exit in the forbidden gap. The energy gap may be large
small or zero depending on the material.

Fig. 2.4.7.1
Case I Conductors.
The conduction band is partially filled and the valance band is partially empty or the conduction
and valance band overlap. The energy gap is zero (0 eV). In overlap electrons from valance band

Page | 25
can move easily into the conduction band Thus we have electrons available for electrical
conduction. The resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.

Fig. 2.4.7.2
Case II Insulators:
In this case a large band gap exists (Eg >3eV) There are no electrons in the conduction band and
therefore no electrical conduction is possible the energy gap is so large that the electrons cannot
be excited from valance band to conduction by thermal energy.

Fig. 2.4.7.3
Case III Semiconductor:
The energy band gap is finite & small (Eg<3eV) because of the small band gap of room
temperatures some electrons form valance band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy
gap and enter the conduction band. The resistance of semiconductor not as high as that of the
insulator.

Fig 2.4.7.4

Page | 26
 Semiconductor material that are mostly used are Germanium and Silicon. A Silicon and
Germanium has atomic number 14 & 32 respectively. Thus the outer most shell has four
electrons in outermost orbit. The atom is stable if there are 8 electrons in the outer most shell.
Silicon & Germanium has ability to share four electrons.
2.4.8 : Semiconductor are of two type
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
2.4.8.1 : Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor. In Intrinsic
Semiconductor Silicon and Germanium are surrounded by four nearing atoms. The Silicon &
Germanium atoms have four electrons in outermost orbit. The bond is formed by sharing of
valance electron with other atom, such bonds are called as covalent bond. The valance electrons
are not free thus the pure semiconductor are practically nonconductor of electricity at low
temperatures. If thermal energy is provided to semiconductor the covalent band breaks to set the
electron free. The election detached form the atom becomes free to move in this the crystal. It is
called free electron. The free electron leaves behind a vacancy with effective charge (+q). This
vacancy with positive charge is called hole. The hole behaves as a free particle with effective
positive charge.
One free electron produces one hole. Therefore, number of free electron is equal to
number holes. The current is due to electrons as well as holes. When potential different is applied
across the semiconductor free electrons are attracted to wards the positive terminals and holes
forward negative terminal. The number of free electron and hole is small. Therefore, current is
low or conductivity is low in intrinsic semiconductor.

Fig. 2.4.8.1
2.4.8.2 : Extrinsic semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductor is increased by adding a small amount of suitable
impurity to pure semiconductor such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductor. The
process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping and the impurity atoms are

Page | 27
 called dopants. These materials are also called as doped semiconductor. There are two types of
dopants used in doping the tetravalent silicon of germanium
1) Pentavalent (valency5) like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus etc.
2) Trivalent (Valence 3) like Indian, Boron, Aluminum. etc
2.4.8.3 : N type semiconductor
A semiconductor in which number of free electron is much greater than hole, is called N
type semiconductor.
When a small amount of pentavalent impunity is added to a pure semiconductor four
bonds are formed with the silicon atom while the fifth electron remains weakly bound to its
parent atom.
An atom like Arsenic or Antimony having five electron in outer most shell when added to
Germanium or Silicon atom, the four electrons of Arsenic are shared by four electrons of Silicon
to form covalent bond. The fifth electron of Arsenic remains free. Many free electrons are
produced by addition of pentavalent impurity. These free electrons are available as electric
current carriers. The pentavalent dopants are donating one extra electron for conduction and
hence is known as donor impurity. The free electrons are majority carriers and holes are
minority. At room temperature thermal energy generates few electron hole. The majority charge
carrier are electrons which are negative charged hence semiconductors called N type
semiconductor.

Fig. 2.4.8.1
2.4.8.4 : P type semiconductor
A semiconductor in which number of holes is much greater than electron, it is called P
type semiconductor. When a trivalent material is added to a pure semiconductor three covalent
bonds are formed with the silicon atom. While a fourth bond is incomplete as it contains a hole.
An atom like Indium or Gallium having three valance electron is outer most shell when
added to Germanium or Silicon atom, the three electron of Indium are shared by three electron of
Silicon to form covalent bond fourth bond is incomplete and contains hole. Many holes are
produced by addition of trivalent impurity. The trivalent impurity accepts electrons form
surrounding atom hence it is known as acceptor impurity.

Page | 28
 The majority charge carriers are holes which are positively charge and electrons re
minority. At room temperature thermal energy generates few electron holes. The majority
charge carriers are holes which are positively charged hence these semiconductors are called P
types semiconductors.

Fig. 2.4.8.4

2.5 :P-N junction

Two important process occur during formation of P-N junction diffusion current and drift
current. In N type semiconductor the concentration of electron is more than concentration of
holes. Similarly, in P type concentration of holes is more than concentration of electrons. During
formation of P-N Junction concentration difference across the P sides and N sides, holes from P
side diffuse into N side and electrons from N side diffuse into P side. This motion of charge
carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
When an electron diffuses from N side to P side it leaves behind an ionized donor on N side.
The ionized donor which is positively charged and cannot move as it is bounded with
surrounding atom. As electron continue to diffuse from N to P, a layer of positive change is
formed on N side of junction
Similarly, when hole diffuses form P side to N side due to concentration difference it
leaves behind an ionized acceptor which is negativity charged it cannot move as it is bounded
with surrounding atom. As holes continue to diffuse a layer of negative charge is formed on P
side of junction

Page | 29
 Fig.2.5.1
The motions of both majority carriers electrons and holes contribute to the buildup of
space charge regions one positive and one negative these two regions form a depletion region or
depletions layer. The positive space charge region on N side & negative space charge region on
P side of junction. An electric field is directed form positive charge towards negative charge. The
electron on P side of junction moves to N side and hole on N side of junction moves to P side
due to the electric filed. This motion of charges due to electric field is called drift current.
Thus drift current is opposite to diffusion current. Initially diffusion current is large
and different current is small. As the diffusion continues. The space charge regions on either side
of function extends, increasing the electric field strength, hence increases the drift current. This
process continues till diffusion current equals drift current. Thus a P- N junction is formed,
where no net current flows.
The loss of electrons from N region and gain of electron by P region causes a potential
deference across the junction of two regions. This potential tends to prevent the movement of
electron from N region into P region acting as a barrier, also called as barrier potential. The
magnitude of barrier voltage at junction depends upon doping densities, electronic charge and
junction temperature. The typical barrier voltages at room temperatures as 0.3 V for germanium
and 0.7 V for silicon junction
2.5.1 : Semiconductor diode
The semiconductor diode I basically a P-N junction with metallic contact provided at the
ends for application of external voltage. The depletion region I 0.3 V and 0.7v for germanium 4
silicon, above this voltage current increases very rapidly with slight increase in forward voltage
across the diode. In reverse bios connection conduction is very small, reverse saturation current
floods through the diode.

Page | 30
2.5.2 : PN Junction Diode under forward bias
When an external voltage is applied across the semiconductor diode, such that positive
terminal of battery is connected to P region and negative terminal of battery is connected to N
region, the junction is said to be forward biased. The direction of applied voltage (V) is opposite
to the barrier potential (V0), as a result the depletion layer width decreases (V- V0). The +ve of
battery pushes (repels) holes of ‘P’ side and holes cross the junction, similarly − ve of battery
pushes (repels) electrons of ‘N’ side and electron crosses the junction. Thus majority charge
carries cross the junction and reaches other end of battery, current flows through the junction

2.5.3 : Forward bias connection of PN Junction diode

Fig. 2.5.3

2.5.4 : PN junction diode under reverse bias

When an external voltage V is applied across the diode such that N side is connected to
positive terminal of battery while the P side is connected to negative terminal of battery. It is said
to be Reverse biased. The direction of applied voltage (V) is same as the direction of potential
barrier (V0) as a result depletion region width increases. (V+V0)
The negative of battery pulls (attracts) holes of P side and holes move away from the
junction. Similarly, the positive of battery pulls (attracts) electrons of N side and electrons move
away from the junction. Thus majority change charge moves away for the junction. Hence
current does not flat in revere bias.

Fig. 2.5.4

Page | 31
2.5.5 : I – V characteristics.
Forward biased – ( I quadrant)
As Vext is increased , corresponding current If values are recorded. The graph is plotted I f on Y
axis and Vext an X axis (Variation of current as a function of voltage). It is observed that the
current is negligible till the external voltage Vext across the silicon diode crosses 0.7 V (barrier
voltage). After 0.7 V as the external voltage is increased the current I f increases sharply. This
0.7V in Silicon is called as threshold voltage or Cut in voltage The current is measured is
measured in mA for forward bias.
Reverse biased (III quadrant)
Vext is increased and corresponding Ir values are recorded. The graph is plotted I r on Y axis and
Vext on X axis (variation of current as a function of voltage). It is observed that the current is
negligible and constant even tough external voltage is increased. This is called reverse saturation
current. However at high voltage i.e., at break down voltage the current suddenly increases. .
The PN junction diode primary allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward
bias) in forward bias the resistance I law as compared to reverse bias resistance
Applications
Applications of electricity
1. Electricity is used throughout the world to power devices , appliances and transportation
2. Electric trains have many components that use electricity, namely electric horn, electric motor
3. Electricity is used for computing, water heating, television, refrigeration, cooking and lighting
4. Building houses, installing gates and windows, welding of material require current electricity
to operate the machine
5. Street lights, lawn mower, water sprinkler are some uses of electricity in outdoor.
6. Giant magnets require electricity to keep it charged for lifting heavy metals.
7. The lights, lifts, AC, coffee machine, ID Card reader, biometric scanner in office requires
electricity.
8. The satellite and probes that are sent from the earth for space expeditions run on electricity
9. Surgical operations in operation theater requires powerful lights.
10. All the entertainment gadgets such as MP3 player, DVD, VCDS or VCRS run on electricity.
Applications of magnetism
1. Electromagnets are widely used as components of electrical devices such as motors,
generators, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments
and magnetic separation instruments.
2. Mines use magnetic sorting machines to separate useful metallic ores from crushed rock
3. In food processing, magnets remove small metal bits from food grains
4. Common uses of magnets include compass, vending machine, refrigerator magnets and
electric motors.
5. Mass spectrometer use electric or magnetic fields to identify different materials.

Page | 32
6. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction is the basis of many devices such as electric
motors, generators, giant cranes, auto ignition in cars, and alignment of microscopic magnetic
particles on computer hard disk drive.
7. Maglevs are the fastest trains systems in the world. They use the basic principles of attraction
and repulsion in magnetism.
8. MRI (magnetic resonance Imaging) system in medicine uses a combination of a magnetic
field and electromagnetic waves to generate image of parts of human body.
9. Magnetometers are used by astronomers to detect the strength and direction of magnetic field
surrounding Earth and other bodies in space.
Applications of current electricity
1. Ohm’s law helps to determine voltage, current or resistance/ impedance of a linear electric
circuit when any of two quantities are known.
2. Ohm’s law makes power calculations simpler.
3. Parallel circuit is used in wiring system of a house.
4. Batteries are connected in series circuit to increase the output voltage/ power.
5. All mains operated instruments have switches connected in series. It controls the operation of
device.
6. Freezer, refrigerator, water pump, water, heater, fuse, are the examples of series circuit.
7. Car headlights, wiring of speaker system in professional venues, streetlamps, house lighting,
computer address and data buses, alarm systems, electrical subscribers connected to
transformers are connected in parallel.
8. The heating effect of electric current is used in electrical appliances like electric heater,
electric iron, electric room heater, immersion heater, electric kettle, hair dryer etc.

Applications of Semiconductors
1. NP junction diodes are commonly used for rectification (where AC is converted into DC)
2. Used as clipper for clipping AC portion
3. Used as clamper i.e. to change reference voltage
4. Used as switches in most electronic circuits.
5. Used as switches in digital logic circuits
6. Used in demodulator circuit
7. Used in detector circuit
8. Used in voltage multipliers

E-learning websites.
1. Phet. Colovado. Edu
2. www.examfear.com
3. Ocw.mit.edu
4. www.khanacademy.org
5. Amrita virtual labs. Vlab.amrita.edu

Page | 33
Sample MCQs
1. The direction of magnetic field within a magnet is
a) From south to north
b) From north to south
c) Back to front
d) Front to back Ans: (a)
2. If bar magnet is broken into two pieces the pole strength of each half will be

a) ½, b) Same, c) ¼, d) double Ans: (b)

3. SI unit of resistivity is
a) Ohm/inch b) Ohm/foot c) Ohm-m d) Ohm-cm. Ans:(c)
4. Electric field intensity is in
a) Volt/meter b) Newton/meter
c) Newton-meter d) Ampere / meter Ans:(b)
5. In series combination current passing through each resistor is
a) different b) same c) Zerod) high. Ans:(b)
6. In case of semiconductors, the band gap energy is-----
a) Equal to 3 eV
b) More than 3 eV
c) Less than 3 eV
d) Varying and more than 3 eV Ans (c)
7. In p type semiconductor --------
a) electron are majority charge carriers
b) holes are majority
c) holes are minority charge carriers
d) holes & e- carries are in equal amount Ans:(b)
8. When PN junction diode is connected in forward biased condition, then the width of
depletion layer -------
a) Remain same
b) Increases & these decreases
c) Increases
d) Decreases Ans:(d)
9.of the following is not an application of PN junction diode .
a) Used as filter
b) Used in rectifier
c) Used as clamper
d) Used as clipper Ans:(a)
10.of the following is a semiconductor material?
a) Aluminum
b) Carbon

Page | 34
c) Ebonite
d) Germanium Ans:(d)

Reference:
1) Engineering physics R.K.Gaur, S.L.Gupta Dhanpat Rai Publications
2) Text book of physics for class XI & XII (Part-I, Part – II) NCERT New Delhi
3) Physics standart XI Shri vivek uttam Gosavi Controller Maharashtra state
Texbook Bwceau, Mumbai.

Self-directed learning
1) Collect information on following devices Electric bulb, Electric fuse, Electric iron, solenoid
2) Study Earth’s magnetic field
a) C, Si, Ge have same lattice structure. Why is C insulator while Si and Ge intrinsic
semiconductor?
b) Can we take one slab of p type semiconductor and physically join it to an after n type
semiconductor to get P-N junction?
c) Can diodes work as switch?

Page | 35
 Unit 3

Thermometry

and Fiber Optics

Introduction:
Concept of heat plays key role in engineering field. Such as material section, machine
efficiency and kinetics. In this lesson, students learn the scientific concept of temperature, heat
and heat transfer through conduction, convection and radiation. Also bad and good conducting
materials and their industrial applications will be studied. Gas laws are explained to understand
the relation between pressure, volume and temperature. The concept of specific heat indicates;
how much energy will be required to heat or cool an object of a given mass by a given amount.
In the following lesson students will learn the concept of total internal reflection as well as the
principle of optical fiber. Light is a form of energy which travels in the form of electromagnetic
waves. Visible light has wavelength range of 4000 A0 to 7500 A0. Light travels in a straight line
with a speed of 3X108 m/s. The path of light is termed as ray of light.
Significance
Various machines or devices make use of good conductors of heat such as copper, aluminum,
brass and bad conductors of heat such as glass ceramic rubber. These metals work on the modes
of heat transfer. Gas laws are useful in engineering, medical field as well as in everyday life.
Practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects
including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers and fiber optics.
3.1 Heat and temperature
3.1.1 : Heat
During summer we feel hot. It is due to the transfer of heat from Sun to us.
Heat is an energy.
Definition of heat: - heat is an energy which produces sensation of hotness or warmness.

Units of heat: -
S.I. Unit is joule (J)
MKS unit is kilocalorie (kcal)

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 CGS unit is calorie (cal)
One calorie:
The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of one gram of water
through 10 C is called as One calorie.
One kilocalorie:
The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water
through 10 C is called as One kilocalorie.
One joule:
The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water
4.186
through 10 C is called as One joule.
3.1.2 : Temperature
As heat is a cause, temperature is its effect.
Definition of Temperature: - “The temperature is the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of
a body.”
Temperature is measured using thermometer. SI unit of temperature is °k (degree kelvin)
If heat is supplied to a body, its temperature increases and if heat is removed from a body its
temperature decreases.
Temperature is the measure of average K.E. of particles of a body.
3.1.3 : Difference between heat and temperature
Table 3.1
Heat Temperature
1. Heat is an energy which produces 1. Temperature is a measure of degree of
sensation of hotness. hotness or coldness of a body.
2. Heat is the sum of energies of all 2. It is the average K.E of the molecules
molecules in the body. of the body.
3. Heat flows from higher temperature 3. Temperature determines the direction
to lower temperature. of flow of heat.
4. Heat is an extensive property. 4. Temperature is an intensive property.
5. Heat is a cause. 5. Temperature is the effect.
6. SI unit is joule ( j) 6. SI unit is kelvin (k)

3.1.4 : Temperature Scales

Following three scales are commonly used -
Celsius scale of temperature – This scale was given by sanders Celsius in 1742
1. In this scale lower fixed point is considered as 0°c melting point of ice and upper fixed
point as 100°c (B.P of water) then it is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is called as
one degree Celsius (1°c)
This scale was suggested by German physicist Fahrenheit in 1720 c, °K, °F)
2. Fahrenheit scale of temperature: - In this scale lower fixed point is 32 ° F upper 212° F this
interval is divided into 180 equal parts. Each part is called degree Fahrenheit.

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 3. Kelvin scale or absolute scale of temperature- in this scale the lower fixed point is 273 k
and upper fixed point is 373 k. then it is divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called
as one-degree Kelvin (1°K)
3.1.5 : Relation between °K, °C, °F
𝐹−32
𝐶= =K-273
1.8

Fig 3.1.5

Absolute zero :-
According to Charles law and Gay- Lussacs law if temperature heat is supplied to gases i.e. it
temperature increased then its pressure and volume also increases on the
other hand, if we go on Cooling a gas then its pressure and volume decreases. It is observed that
at – 2730c pressure and volume of a gas theoretically becomes zero.
Definition: -
“The temperature at which pressure and volume of a gas theoretically becomes zero is called as
absolute zero temperature”
Practically it is not possible, because much before this temp (-273°C) the gas liquifies and then
solidities.
NTP: - it is the normal temperature and pressure. At sea level the temp is 0°C or 273°K and
pressure is 76 cm of mercury
3.2 Modes of transfer of heat
consider a metal rod AB. If heat is supplied to its one end, it is observed that other end also
gets heated.

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 Heat always transferred from a part at higher temperature to a part which is at lower
temperature.
This transfer of heat takes place in three different ways
1. conduction
2. convection
3. radiation

Fig: 3.2
3.2.1 : Conduction: - Consider a metal rod AB one end of it is placed on a flame as shown in fig
3.2.1

Fig:3.2.1
After some time, the other end of the rod gets heated. Heat transfers from A towards B. Here
heat transfer takes place through molecules. On receiving heat, molecules at end A start
vibrating and collide with its neighboring molecule and transfer heat.
Conduction: - “It is a process of transfer of heat from a part of body at higher temperature to
part of body at lower temperature without actual movement of particles”.

3.2.2 : Convection: -
Consider some water in a container. Supply heat to this container as shown in figure below.

Page | 39
 Fig 3.2.2
On receiving heat, the molecules at the base of the container becomes light in weight. And
moves upward. Now the new colder molecules come to the bottom of the container in this
process heat gets transferred continuously throughout the water, by moving molecules.
It is the process of transfer of heat from part of a body at higher temperature to part of a
body at lower temperature with actual movement of particles.

3.2.3 : Radiation: - It is the process of transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves,
from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature without necessity of the
intervening medium.
When we stand near an open fire we feel warm. Here the heat gets transferred by thermal
radiation
“Radiation is the process of heat transfer of heat from one body to another without necessity of
the medium.

Fig:3.2.3
We receive heat energy from sun by the way of Radiation.

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 Table 3.2
Good conductor Bad conductor
1. The materials through which 1. The materials through which heat
heat conducts easily and is not conducted easily are called
immediately are called good as bad conductors.
conductors.
2. Value of K is high. 2. value of K is low.
3. Value of R is low 3. value of R is high
4. e.g. Al , Cu, all metals 4. e.g. glass, Plastic, Wool etc.

K – coefficient of thermal conductivity

R- thermal resistance bad conductors are also called as insulators
3.2.3 : Applications of Good conductor & bad conductors of heat
1. Good conducting material is used in electronic circuits to protect costly component from
overheating.
2. Bad conductors of heat such as glass, coal, thermocole, saw dust are used as insulating
materials to maintain low temperature.
3. In an electric heater, spiral coil of good conductor is used so that heat developed is
conducted to liquid in contact quickly
4. Condenser coil in a refrigerator is made up of good conductor (copper)
5. A bad conducting material like thermocole is used in ice box. Due to this ice melts very
slowly.
6. Handle of cooker is made up of bad conducting material like plastic, so that handle can be
hold easily.
7. Thermos flask contains double walled glass vessel with vacuum between the walls. As
conduction cannot take place in vacuum and glass is a bad conductor of heat, so liquid in
thermos flask remains hot for longer time.
3.2.4 : Applications of conduction
1. When a car is turned on, the engine of a car becomes hot even the hood will become
warms as heat is conducted from engine to the hood.
2. Cooking utensils, saucepans, kettles and boilers are made of metals use direct heat energy
for conduction
3. Soldering iron is made of iron with a copper tip because copper is good conductor of heat
4. Handles of kettles and spoons are made of plastic or wood because wood is the bad
conductor of heat in this way, the hot kettles utensils and spoons can be picked up
without burning our hands.
5. Woolen clothes or blankets give warmness in cold weather.
6. Sawdust has good insulating property so it acts as a bad conductor when covered up the
ice blocks
7. Heat sinks are used to cover the electronic components.

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 8. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration air conditioning, space heating, power
generation and chemical processing
9. Car radiator uses hot coolant fluid cooled by the flow of air over the surface of radiator
3.2.5 : Application of Convection
1) Room ventilation: Ventilators (exhaust fans) are fitted at high positive in the room.
2) Electric fans.
3) Refrigerators.
4) Air conditioner.
5) Formation of trade winds.
6) Formation of sea breeze & land breeze.
7) Gas filled coiled electric lamps.
8) Cooling system in automobile engines.
3.2.6 : Application of Radiation-
1) Thermal radiator- Electric bulb, The sun.
2) White or light coloured clothes absorb less heat, so they are preferred in summer
3) The teapots and kettle have shining surface.
4) Heat radiators in cars, machines are painted black which radiate heat & maintain cool.
5) Base of cooking utensils is made black, which is a good absorber and cook Food easily.
6) Aeroplanes and ships are painted white to minimize absorption of heat.
7) High absorbing power of water vapour is a natural gift which protects us form high
temperature.
8) The polished surface of space craft reflects most of the heat.
9) Hot water pipes are painted back colour.
3.2.7 : Law of thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal conductivity
Consider a rod AB of metal. This rod is in steady state of temperature.ie. no heat is lost to the
surroundings by convective and radiation.
ie. Heat absorbed =Heat given out
Consider two points C and D in the metal rod, as shown in the fig 3.2.6

Fig :3.2.7

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Let,
A-cross sectional area of rod
Q-the amount of heat flowing form C to D
d- distance between C and D
Ө1-temperature of plane C in thermometer T 1
Ө2 - temperature of plane D in thermometer T2
Here Ө1 > Ө2
The amount of heath conducted through the in steady state is directly proportional to
1) cross sectional area a
2) temperature difference between layers C and D i.e. Ө1- Ө2
3) time for which heat flows i.e. T and inversely proportional to
4) distance d between two planes C & D
QαA
Q α (Ө1- Ө2)
Qαt
Q α 1/d
Combining above we can write
A (𝜃1− 𝜃2) t
Qα
𝑑
Q = constant x 𝐴× (θ1− θ2) ×𝑡
𝑑
𝐴× (𝜃1− 𝜃2) × 𝑡
Q = K×
𝑑
Where K is coefficient of thermal conducting.
Form above equations we get
𝑄.𝑑
K=
(𝜃1−𝜃2)𝑡
If, d= 1, A= 1 , (Ɵ1-Ɵ2)=1, t=1 then K =Q

3.2.7: Definitions of coefficient of thermal conductivity-

It is defined as the amount of heat conducted in steady of temp of the rod per unit time, per unit
cross-sectional area, for unit temperature gradient
Here 𝜃1− 𝜃2
is called as the temperature gradient.
𝑑
Temp gradient is the change in temperature per unit length of the rod.
Unit of temperature gradient is 0c/m or 0k/m

Page | 43
 Example:
A windows pane with glass material has a dimension 100cm x 50cm x 5mm. Amount of heat
conducted in one hour is Q. calculate Q if the temperature difference is 5 0C between outside &
inside. given k for glass =1 W/m/0K
Given A = 100 cm x 50cm
= 1m x 0.5 m = 0.5m2
d= 5mm = 5x10-3m
t = 1hr = 60 x 60 = 3600sec
Ɵ1 – Ɵ2 = 50c
k= 1 w/m / 0k
Formula: Q = k 𝐴 (𝜃1− 𝜃2) 𝑡
𝑑
1𝑥0.5𝑥5𝑥3600
=
5𝑥10−3
= 18 x 105 J
3.3 : Gas laws
3.3.1: Boyle’s law
This law gives the relation between pressure and volume of constant temperature.

Fig:3.3.1

Statement of Boyle’s law

“For fixed mass of a gas temperature of a gas remaining Constant its pressure is inversely
proportional to volume”
1
i.e P𝖺 (at const. temp)
𝑉
P = const , x 1
𝑉
PV = const.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = const
Where P1, P2 are pressure & V1, V2 are volumes at constant temperature of fixed mass
of gas.

Page | 44
3.3.2 : Charle’s law
This law gives relation between volume & temperature at constant pressure.

Fig: 3.3.2
Statement of Charle’s law:
“For fixed mass of a gas, if pressure of a gas is kept constant then its volume is directly
proportional to absolute temperature”
i.e V 𝖺 T---------- ( at constant pressure)
𝑉 = constant
𝑇
𝑉1
= 𝑉2 =constant
𝑇1 𝑇2
Where V1, V2 are volumes and T1, T2 are temperatures of given mass of gas.
3.3.3 : Gay lussac’s law
This law gives the relation between pressure and temperature at constant volume of gas.

Fig:3.3.3

Page | 45
 Statement of Gay Lussacç law:
“For fixed mass of a gas if volume is kept constant, then its pressure is directly proportional
to absolute temperature.”
i.e P 𝖺 T (at constant volume )
𝑃= constant,
𝑇
𝑃1
= 𝑃2 = const
𝑇1 𝑇2
Where P1, P2 are pressure & T1, T2 are temperature of given mass of gas.

3.3.4 : General Gas Equation/Perfect Gas Equation

The relation between pressure, volume and temperature is given by gas laws. Each law gives
the relations of two variables by keeping third variable constant.
The relation between all the three variables is given by Perfect Gas Equation.
According to Gay- Lussac’s Law
PαT
And according to Charles law
VαT
Combining above two equations we get,
PxVαT
P x V= Const. x T
PV=KT (1)
Where,
K = Specific gas constant. (constant K is different for different gases) This constant
depends on mass and nature of gas.
Equation- 1 is known as ideal gas equation.
If mass of gas is 1 kg-mole OR 1 gm-mole then proportionality constant K will have same
value for all gases. Therefore, k is replaced by R

3.3.5 : Perfect Gas Equation

From above two equations we can write
PV α T
PV = constant x T
PV=KT
Where K is constant called as specific gas constant, value of K is different for different gases,
since it depends on mass and nature of gas.
If we consider molecular weight of gas (gram-mole or kg. mole) then constant K will have
same value for all gases. Replacing K by another constant R, we get
PV=RT
This is called General gas equation
OR
Perfect gas equation OR Universal gas equation

Page | 46
 Where R- universal gas constant,
Value of R is same for all gases, because one-gram mole of any gas occupies same volume
under NTP. ( P = 76 cm of mercury, T= 273°K)
R= 8314.91J/0k.kg mole or R=8.314 J/mole0k

Examples:-
1) The volume of a gas at 20 0C is 500 cm3 .What will be its volume at 80 0C.
Solution :-
Given :-
T1 = 20+273= 293 0K
V1 = 500 cm3
T2 = 80+273 = 353 0K
V2 = ?
Formula :-
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑉1𝑇2
V2 =
𝑇1
500 𝑥 353
=
293
= 602. 39cm3
2) A gas at 20 0C and pressure of 70 cm. of mercury has volume 2.5 litres. Find its volume at 30
0
C and pressure of 85cm of mercury.
Solution:-
Given:-
T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 0K
P1 = 70 cm
V1 = 2.5 Litre
T2 = 30 + 273 = 303 0k
P2 = 85 cm
V2 = ?
Formula:- 𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑇2
70𝑥2.5 85 𝑥 𝑣2
⸫ =
293 303
V2 = 2.12 Lit.

3.3.6 : Application of gas laws

Boyle’s law
1) Spray paint
2) Soda can
3) The syringe

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 Charles law
1) Helium ballon
2) Hot air bollon
3) Deodorant spray bottle
4) Type pressure- low in winter (cold)
Gay Lussacs
1) Firing a bullet
2) Heating a closed a aerosol can-may cause the container to explode.
3.4 Heat capacity (s)
The change in temperature of substance, when a given quantity of heat is absorbed or
rejected by it, is characterized by a quantity called ‘heat capacity’ of a substance
Heat capacity (s) of substance is given by
S = 𝑄 ………………………. (i)
𝑡
∵ Q= amount of heat supplied to the substance to change its temperature by t.
If equal amount of heat is added to equal masses of different substances, the resulting
temperature changes will not be same i.e each substance has a unique value for the amount of
heat absorbed or rejected to change the unit mass of it by a unit. This refers to the specific heat
capacity of the substance it is given by
𝑠 1 ∆𝑄
S= = x ……………………(ii)
𝑚 𝑚 ∆𝑡

3.4.1 Specific heat of gases

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1°c.
The specific heat capacity is the property of substance which determines the change in
the temperature of substance when a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected by it.
Specific heat capacity “s” is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or
rejected by the substance to change its temperature by one unit. It depends on nature of substance
and its temperature.
SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg°k
If amount of substance is specified in terms of mole ‘µ’ instead of mass ‘m’ kg then the
molar specific heat capacity ‘c’ is given by
1 𝑄
µ
C= 𝑠 =
𝑡
x …………………… (iii)
µ
SI unit of molar heat capacity is J/mol°k
When we heat a substance it increases in volume. Thus surrounding atmosphere increases
through a small distance. As a result of this external mechanical work is done against the
atmospheric pressure.
In case of solids and liquids the change in volume is very small hence the external
mechanical work done while changing the temperature is very less. But, in case of gases, there is

Page | 48
a large change in volume and pressure and part of this work is utilized to do the external
mechanical work.
In case of solids and liquids heating takes place at constant pressure while in case of
gases heating can be done either at constant pressure or at constant volume. Therefore gas has
two specific heats, namely
i) Specific heat at constant volume (Cv )
ii) Specific hat at constant pressure (Cp)
These two specific heats are called principle specific heats of gases.

3.4.2 Specific heat of gas at constant volume (Cv)

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 1°c
when its volume is kept constant is called specific heat of the gas at constant volume and denoted
by cv .
It we heat ‘m’ gram of gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a piston, the volume of the
gas will not increase but only pressure and temperature will increase. As there is no increase in
volume there will be no external work done and total heat energy supplied will be used to
increase the temperature of the gas.
Let the initial temperature of gas be Ɵ1 and final temperature at constant volume be Ɵ2,
then the heat supplied to the ‘m’ gm of the gas.
Q1 = mass x specific heat at constant volume X rise in temperature.
∴ Q1 = m x cv (Ɵ2-Ɵ1)
∴ Q1 = m cv dT
∴ dT = change in temperature.
3.4.3 Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure (CP)
The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 10c when
its pressure is kept constant is called specific heat at constant pressure denoted as CP.

Fig. 3.4.3 Heating of a gas at constant pressure.

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 Consider a cylinder fitted with piston of negligible mass and friction as shown in fig
3.4.3. Fill the cylinder with ‘m’ gram of gas and start heating. The temperature of the gas
increases with increase in volume of gas. Piston moves upward keeping pressure constant, equal
to atmospheric pressure. As a volume is increased some external work is done and the heat
energy supplied gets utilized in two ways,
i) Increase the temperature of gas. This is equal to mcv (Ɵ2-Ɵ1)
ii) Fording work by increasing the volume of gas.
As during heating the gas at constant pressure, extra work is done therefore c p is
greater than cv

3.4.4 Work done at constant pressure

Work done by heating the gas at constant pressure is given by,
W = R(T2-T1)
∵ W= work done
R = universal gas constant
T2 – T1 = Ɵ2-Ɵ1= change in temperature of the gas at expansion.
S-I unit of work done is joule
Gas unit of work done is erg.
1J = 107 erg.
3.4.5 : Relation between Cp and Cv (Mayor’s relation)
𝑅
Cp – Cv =
𝐽
∵ Cp = specific heat of gas at constant pressure.
Cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume
R = universal gas constant.
J = mechanical equivalent of heat.
3.4.6 Ratio of two specific heats ( )
The ratio of Cp and Cv is denoted by ‘𝛾’. It is also known as adiabatic index.
𝑐𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑣
As Cp > Cv , 𝛾 > 1
𝛾 = 1.66 for monoatomic gas
Γ = 1.4 for diatomic gas (air)
Example
The ratio of two specific heats of a gas is 1.4 and the difference is 0.0808. Find values of c p and
cv
𝐶
Given:- 𝑝 = 1.4
𝐶𝑣
Cp –Cv = 0.0808
∴ Cp = 1.4x Cv ...........................................( I )
∴ Cp –Cv = 0.0808
∴1.4Cv – Cv = 0.0808

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 ∴ 0.4 cv = 0.0808
0.0808
∴Cv = = 0.202 unit
0.4
∴Cp = 1.4 x 0.202
∴ Cp = 0.2828 unit

3.5 : Optics
3.5.1 : Reflection of light-
When light reaches reflecting media then it bounces (rebounds) back in the same media.
Let,
PQ=incident ray
QR=reflected ray
NN’=normal to reflecting media
 i = angel of incidence
 r = angle of reflection

Fig:3.5.1

Laws of reflection
1) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of refection  i =  r
2) Incident ray, reflected ray & normal lie in same plane.

3.5.2 : Refraction of light

When light is allowed to fall on transparent medium such as glass then some light reflects
back & some light travels in other medium. When light travels from one medium into other
medium then it bends (deviates) this bending of light is called refraction
Refraction is defined as property of light on account of which light changes its path
(direction) when it enters form one medium into other medium.
If incident light is perpendicular to the surface, then light passes without bending and for all
other angle of incidence bending of light takes place.
When light travels form one medium to other then there is change in velocity direction as
well as wavelength of light but the frequency remains unchanged.

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Snell’s law or laws of refraction:
Snell’s law state that for any two media the ratio of sine angle of incidence to sine angle of
refraction is constant for a given light beam.
The incident ray Refraction ray & normal lie in same plane
Thus
sin i
 cons tan t
sin r
This constant is called refractive index of second medium with respect to the first
medium & is denoted by 1µ 2.
sin i
 µ
1 2
sin r

Fig:3.5.2.1
Case 1: when light enters form air (rare) to (denser) medium ray bends toward the
normal (Fig:3.5.2.1)
sin i
 Costant >1
sin r
The constant is called refractive index of glass with respect to air and is denoted by aµg
sin i
aµg = >1
sin r
Case 2 when light enters form denser (glass) to air (rarer) medium then ray bends away
from normal (Fig:3.5.2.2)
thus i < r
sin i
=Constant <1
sin r
The constant is called refractive index of air with respect to glass and is denoted by gµa
sin i
aµg= <1
sin r
µ 1
a g =gma

Page | 52
3.5.3 : Total internal Reflection (T.I.R.)
(Principle of optical fiber)
Consider light rays form point source in optically denser medium (glass) fall on the
surface on other side which is less optically medium (air). For the rays a,b,c, there are
both reflection & refraction taking place for the ray e,f no refraction only reflection take
place.

Fig 3.5.3
Critical angle (𝜽𝒄)- It is the angle of incidence at which angle of refraction is 900
OR
Critical angle 𝜽𝒄 is defined as a particular value of angle of incidence at which refracted
ray emerges along interface.
Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.) and necessary conditions
If light travels form high R.I to low R.I. and if angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle then only reflection takes place which is called Total Internal Reflection.
Condition for T.I.R
1) The angle of incidence should be greater than C
2) µ1Should be greater than µ2
3.5.4 : Optical fiber
Optical fiber is a thin dielectric material cables made up of (silica) glass or plastic.
Optical fiber carries light (electromagnetic waves) from one end of fiber to other end
because of total internal refraction
Principle- The optical fiber works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R).
i.e. When monochromatic light is obliquely incident on the interface between optically
denser medium & rarer medium and if angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
then no refraction takes place and only reflection takes place which is called total internal
reflection.
Following two conditions are necessary for T.I.R.

Page | 53
 1) µ1>µ2 i.e. refractive index of first medium should be greater than second medium
2) i > e i.e. angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle
3.5.4.1 : Structure (Construction) of Optical fiber
Communication optical fiber has cylindrical core surrounded with cylindrical coat of cladding
coated with protective skin (insulation, jacket).
When light enters into core it propagates by means of total internal reflection at core cladding
interface and emerges out form the other end
Core- The light is transmitted within core. The core is innermost layer. The refraction index
of core is slightly greater than cladding. The typical value of refraction index of core is 1.48
Cladding- The cladding keeps light waves with core because refractive index of cladding is
less than that of core. Typical value of refractive index of cladding is 1.46 it also provides
some strength to core.
Protective skin- The protective skin protects fiber form moisture. This protective skin
provides mechanical strength to optical cable.
Optical fiber is made from either glass (silk) or plastic

Fig:3.5.4
3.5.4.2 : Dimensions
The length of optical fiber is normally 1km they can be joined using suitable connectors.
Outer diameter of fiber ranges from 0.1 mm to 0.15mm. Core diameter ranges from 5µm to
600 µm (typical value is approximately 50µm) cladding diameter varies from 125µm to
750µm. Thickness of protective skin varies from 30 to 50µm
3.5.4.3 : Conditions for T.I.R. or Propagation of light through optical fiber
1) Refractive index of core should be greater than refractive index of cladding (i.e.
µcore>µcladding)
2) Entering light must have angle of incidence greater than critical angle ( C)
Critical angle (𝜽C) - It is the angle of incidence at which angle of refraction is 90 0
OR
The critical angle is defined as the particular value of angle of incidence at which ray
emerges along the interface
Acceptance angle (𝜽a max)-
The maximum value of external incident angle for which light will propagate in the optical
fiber
It is also called acceptance cone half angle

Page | 54
 Acceptance cone-
If 𝜽a is rotated around the core axis then cone is formed which is called acceptance cone.
If light is allowed to fall within this cone (tunnel) then it will propagate till far end
Numerical aperture (NA)-
It is the sine of maximum acceptance angle
NA = sin 𝜽a max
It measures the light gathering capacity of optical fiber.
Greater the numerical aperture greater the numerical aperture greater is the amount of light
the optical fiber will accept.
Path (propagation or transmission of light through optical fiber)
A beam of light is focused at one end of cable if the angle of incidence of light greater than
critical angle then total internal reflection takes place & light beam are reflected through the
fiber. The beam bounces back and passes the cable & it exit at the other end the light which
travels from one end to other end is called “light is guided” through fiber. Because of total
internal reflection light beam will continue to propagate through the fiber even though it is
bent number of times. More bending may cause angle of incidence to change & hence loss
of light may take place. With long little bends the light with stay within the cable
3.5.5 : Path (propagation) of light through different types of optical fibers
Depending on variation of refractive index of core & mode of propagation, the optical fibers
are of different types. Path of light through different types of optical fibers is different
3.5.5.1 : Type Depending on variation of refractive index of core
1) Step index optical fiber
2) Graded index optical fiber
Type depending on mode of propagation
1) Single mode optical fiber
2) Multimode optical fiber
Thus the different types of optical fiber are
a) Step index single mode optical
b) Step index multimode optical fiber
c) Graded index multimode optical fiber
Step index optical fiber – In this types refractive index of core is uniform through the fiber
thus if we move radially outward form core axis then there is step (sudden) change in
refractive index at core cladding interface. Propagation of light through step index optical
fiber is zig- zag

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Single mode step index optical fiber

Fig:3.5.5.a
Core diameter of this fiber is very small it is about 10µm. There is only one path of ray of
propagation hence it is called single mode & the path is zig-zag i.e. in this type there is only
one zig-zag path
Multimode step index optical fiber-
Core diameter of this is larger than single mode & it is 50-200µm. There are many paths of
propagation hence it is called multimode & paths are zig-zag. Thus there are many paths that
are zig-zag. Some light paths are longer & some are shorter hence some light rays exit latter
some rays exit earlier

Fig 3.5.5.b
Graded index fiber- In this type refractive index of core is not uniform throughout the
fiber. Refractive index of core at core axis is maximum & if we see radially outward from
core axis there is gradual decrease in the refractive index. Refractive index of core material
at core axis is maximum & it is minimum at core cladding interface. In graded index optical
fiber because of different refractive indices within the core light travels with different speeds
through different parts with in core path (propagation) of light through graded index optical
fiber is curved (curled, coiled, helical)
Multimode grades index optical fiber
Core diameter of this fiber varies form 50-200µm. Because of different refractive index
within core light travels with different speed longer paths are faster & shorter paths are
slower. Therefore, all rays reach at same time.

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 Fig 3.5.5.c

3.5.6 : Applications of optical fiber

Fiber optic cable has outstanding properties they are lighter in weight, less bulky flexible
and carries large data with High speed so it has many applications
1) Optical fiber in communication- Because of large bandwidth it can handle number of
channels hence found large applications in communication
3) Telephone- Using optical fiber communication we can connect faster & have clear
conversations
4) Internet– Optical fiber can pass large data & with faster speed. This technology is used
internet cables
5) Computer networking- networking between computer in same building is made easier &
faster with the use of fiber optical cables
6) Used in industrial atomization system
7) Used for signaling purpose in military
8) To observe internal organs in medical field
9) Used in cable television
10) Used in defense for confidential communication
11) Used for transmission of digital data
12) Sensors- Optical fiber sensors are used to control liquid level temperature, pressure,
chemical concentration etc. in automation system example if temperature changes then
refractive index of optical fiber change & this property is used in temperature sensors
13) Used as phase modulated sensors, polarized modulated sensors

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Examples on Refraction:
Example 1 : Find the velocity of light in a glass whose refractive index is 1.5.
Solution: Given: a𝜇g = 1.5

Take va = 3  108 m/s speed of light in air

vg = ?

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 va
We have, a𝜇g =
vg
𝑉 3  108
 vg = 𝑎
= 1.5
𝑎𝜇𝑔

vg = 2  108 m/s

Example 2: Speed of light in diamond is 1.2  108 m/s. Calculate refractive index of diamond.
Solution: Given: vd = 1.2  108 m/s
Take va = 3  108 m/s
a𝜇d = ?
va 3  108
We have, a𝜇d = =
vd 1.2  108
a md = 2.5
Example 3: A light ray enters water medium making an angle of 60 with water surface. If it
suffers deviation of 15 in water, calculate refractive index of water.
Solution: Ray makes an angle of 60 with water surface i.e. it makes an angle of 30 with
normal to water.

Angle of incidence, i = 90  60 = 30

r = (30  15) = 15
Refractive index of water w.r.t. air.
sin i sin 30
i.e. a𝜇w = =
sin r sin 15


a mw = 1.93

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Example 4 : Velocity of light in water is 2.3  108 m/s. Velocity of light in glass is 2  108 m/s.
Calculate (a) R.I. of glass w.r.t. water, (b) Also R.I. of water w.r.t. glass.
Solution: Given: vw = 2.3  108 m/s
vg = 2  108 m/s
w𝜇g = ?, g𝜇w = ?
vw 2.3  108
(a) We have, w𝜇g =
vg = 2  108
 wmg = 1.15
µ vg 2  108
(b) We have, g w =

vw = 2.3  108
gmw = 0.87

Example 5: The refractive index of water is 1.3. The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Find the
velocity of light in water and glass.
µ
Solution: Given: a w = 1.3
µ
a g = 1.5
Take va = 3  108 m/s
vw = ?
vg = ?
µ va µ va
We have, a w =
vw and a g =
vg
va va
 vw = and vg = m
a mw a g
3  108 3  108
= = 1.5
1.3
vw = 2.31  108 m/s vg = 2  108 m/s

Example 6 : How long will light take in travelling a distance 500 m in water ? R.I. of water
is 4/3 and velocity of light in vacuum is 3  108 m/s.
Solution: Given: Distance = 500 m, aµ w= 4/3, v a= 3  108 m/s, t = ?
µ va
a w =
vw
va
= 3  10
8
 vw =
am w 4/3
9
vw = 4  108 = 2.25  108 m/s
Distance covered in water
But vw =
Time
Distance 500
 t = =
vw 2.25  108

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  t = 222.22  10–8 sec


Examples on critical angle:

Example 7 : For silicate glass optical fiber, calculate the critical angle if refractive index of
core is 1.55 and refractive index of cladding is 1.35.
Solution: Given: 𝜇core = 1.55, 𝜇clad = 1.35, c = ?
Clad  1.35 
We have, 𝜃c = sin1 = sin1   = sin1 (0.871) = 60.57°
core 1.55
Example 8: For a typical optical fiber, refractive index of core is 1.48 and refractive index
of cladding is 1.46. Calculate the critical angle required.
Solution: Given: 𝜇core = 1.48, 𝜇clad = 1.46, 𝜃c = ?

We have, 𝜃c = sin1 Clad
core
𝜃c = sin1 (0.9864) = 80.57°

E learning websites
1. www.examfear.com
2. www.khanacademy. Com
3. amrita virtual labs
4. the physics classroom phet interactive simulations
Sample MCQS
THERMOMETRY: SAMPLE MCQ
1. Which statement is the best example of heat energy transfer by conduction.

a) Heat energy is transferred from the bottom of the top of a lake

b) Heat energy is transferred from the sun to the earth
c) Heat energy is transferred from the surface soil to the rocks below
d) Heat energy is transferred from the earth’s surface to the upper atmosphere.

2. Name the method of energy transfer that requires no medium for transfer
a) Conduction b) convection c) radiation d) none of above
3. Heat is measured in

a) Joule b) calorie c) both and B d) joule / second

4. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg by 10c is called as

a) Heat capacity b) work capacity c) specific heat capacity d) energy capacity

5. For a gas, which pair of variables are inversely proportional to each other if the remaining
conditions kept constant.

a) P,V b) P,T c) V,T d) none of above

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 OPTICS SAMPLE MCQ
6. Snell's law states that, for any two media, the 
(a) product of sin i to sin r is constant (b) ratio of sin i to sin r is constant
(c) Sum of sin i and sin r is constant (d) difference of sin i and sin r is
constant
7. When ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and if angle of incidence is
greater than critical angle, then only reflection takes place. This phenomenon is known as
 .
(a) Total internal reflection (b) total internal refraction
(c) Interference (d) diffraction
8. In step index optical fiber, the refractive index of  .
(a) Core is uniform throughout the fiber (b) core and cladding is same
(c) Core is changing from axis to boundary (d) none of these
9. In multimode step index optical fiber, for light 
(a) There are many zig-zag paths (b) there is only one zig-zag path
(c) There are many curved paths (d) there is only one curved path
10. For a glass optical fiber, calculate the critical angle if refractive index of core is 1.5 and
refractive index of cladding is 1.3.
(a) 55.23 (b) 64.25 (c) 57.83 (d) 60.07
Answers
1 (c) 2(b) 3(a) 4(c) 5(a)
6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (d)
References
1. Engineering physics
R.k gaur, S.S.Gupta, Dhanpat rai Pub.
2. Text book of physics for class XI & XII (Part I, Patt –II) NCERT New delhi
3. Physics standard XI, XII
4. Controller Maharashtra state, textbook bwceau, Mumbai
Self directed learning
1. Collect information on good and bad conductors of heat.
2. Find applications of gas laws in everyday life
3. Collect the information on specific heat capacity of gas used in industrial and engineering
application
4. Find the types of optical fibres

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 ONLINE EXAM SAMPLE PAPER (311305)
SUB : BASIC SCIENCE (PHY) BRANCH : ALL BRANCH SUB CODE:311305

Each question carry 1 mark

1) Kelvin is the SI unit of ……………..
a) Heat b) Energy c) Temperature d) Power
2) The units used to measure fundamental quantities are called …………
a) Fundamental units b) chemical units c) physical units d) derived units
3) The length of table is measured by two students are 90.5 cm and 90.4 cm respectively , the error
involved in measurement is called………….
a) Random error b) personal error c) instrumental error d) average error
4) If pointer of voltmeter is not pivoted at zero, then the error introduced in the measurement is called as
…………..
a) Constant error b) instrumental error c) random error d) personal error
5) The number of significant figures in 12.600 are………….
a) 5 b) 3 c) 2 d) 1
6) The dielectric constant (k) of air and vacuum is ………….
a) 0 b) 0.5 c) 1 d) 2.5
7) If three resistances R1,R2 and R3 are connected in series to each other then its equivalent resistance is
given by…………….
a) Rs= R1+R2+R3 b) Rs=( R1+R2+R3/ R1-R2-R3 )

c) Rs= R1-R2-R3 d) Rs= 1/ (R1+R2+R3)

8) If the positive and negative terminals of the battery are connected to p –type and N- type
semiconductor respectively, the diode is said to be ……………
a) reverse bias b)Forward bias c) unbiased d) double biased
9) The voltage at which diode breaks down is called…………………
a) Forward voltage b) breakdown voltage c) barrier voltage d) knee voltage
10) Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to ……………..
a) Length of conductor b) area of conductor c) current d) potential difference
11) If n-type semiconductor is connected to positive terminal and p-type is connected to negative terminal of
the battery, then the diode is said to be ……………….
a) Forward biased b) reverse biased c) unbiased d) none of the above
12) In reverse biased p-n junction diode as the applied voltage increases, the width of depletion layer
……………….
a) Increases b) decreases c) remains same d) initially increases then decreases
13) In case of reverse biased p-n junction diode, when the applied voltage becomes equal to breakdown
voltage the current …………………….. rapidly. Page | 62
 a) Decreases b)Increases
b) initially increases then decreases d) initially decreases then increases
14) when resistances are connected in ………………..combination, its equivalent resistance decreases.
a) Both series and parallel b) parallel c) series d) none of the above
15) Addition of pentavalent impurity to a semiconductor creates many………………..
a) Free electrons b) Holes c) Valence electrons d) Bound electron
16) As the temperature of semiconductor increases, its …………….also increases
a) Resistivity b) potential difference c) conductivity d) none of the above
17) A semiconductor has ……..temperature coefficient of resistance.
a) Negative b) positive c) zero d) infinity
18) The energy gap of semiconductor is 0.7 eV. If the energy received is 0.6 eV, how many conducting
electrons will be formed?
a) 10 b) 5 c) infinity d) 0
19) When number of resistances are connected in series , then the effective resistance of its
combination…………….
a) Decreases b) increases c) remains same d) is zero
20) For diamond the forbidden energy gap is approximately equal to 6 eV. Then diamond is ………..
a) A conductor b) an insulator c) a semiconductor d) a superconductor
21) High voltage electric bulbs will have ..... Resistance.
a) Low b) high c) zero d) low but not zero
22) ......... Of the following is the unit of temperature.
a) Joule b) calorie c) kilocalorie d) kelvin
23) The Ideal gas equation is ...........
a) PT= KV b) PV= KT c)TV = KP d) PV= KR
24) The amount of heat conducted through a uniform metal rod is .............
a) Inversly proportional to cross sectional area of metal rod

b) directly proportional to cross sectional area of metal rod

c) directly proportional to time for which heat flows
d) both b and c
25) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of
media is known as ..........
a) Snells law b) Charles law c) Gay lussacs law d) Boyles law
26) The correct related to heat and temperature is ..........
a) Heat and temperature both are causes. b) heat and temperature both are effect

c) heat is effect and temperature is cause d) heat is cause and temperature is an effect
27) At NTP, the values of temperature and pressure are .............
Page | 63
a) -273 K and 760 cm of Hg b) 273 K and 76 cm of Hg
 c) 0 k 7.6 cm of Hg d) 23.7 K 0.76 cm of Hg

28) The instrument used for measurement of temperature is …………..

a) calorimeter b) thermometer c) hygrometer d) barometer
29) The standard values of universal gas constant are ………………….
a) 8.134 SI units b) 8.241 SI units c)8.314 SI units d) 8.414 SI units
30) In Fahrenheit scale the intervals are divided into …………… divisions
a) 100 b) 180 c) 60 d) 50
31) Solids have only one specific heat because …………. remains constant
a) Only temperature b) only volume
c) both pressure and volume d) all pressure, volume and temperature
32) By filling air inside the tyre is application of …………………….
a) Boyles law b) Charles law c) Gay Lussacs law d) Joules law
33) Material used as insulator are ………………..
a) having high specific heat b) low specific heat
c) constant specific heat d) no specific heat
34) Convert 363 K into degree Celsius ……………………..
a) -90 b) 636 c) 90 d) 1.329
35) If boiling point of water is 100 degree Celsius. Calculate it in Fahrenheit.
A)148 b)212 c) -148 d)87.56

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ANSWER KEY : PHYSICS
Question Answer
Physics physics
1 c
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a
6 c
7 a
8 b
9 b
10 b
11 b
12 a
13 b
14 b
15 a
16 c
17 a
18 d
19 b
20 b
21 a
22 d
23 b
24 d
25 a
26 d
27 b
28 b
29 c
30 b
31 b
32 a
33 d
34 c
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35 b
Page | 66