Integrated Circuits

An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip or computer chip, is a compact electronic
device composed of multiple interconnected components, such as transistors, resistors, and
capacitors. These components are etched onto a small piece of semiconductor material, typically
silicon. ICs are integral to a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones,
and televisions, where they process and store information. Their development has profoundly
impacted the electronics field by enabling significant device miniaturization and enhanced
functionality.

ICs are much smaller, faster, and more cost-effective than circuits constructed from discrete
components, allowing for a higher transistor count within a compact space. Standard ICs serve
various functions, including power regulation, amplification, and signal processing. They come in
multiple package sizes, from 8-pin to 16-pin configurations, with larger packages used for
complex digital applications.

Integrated circuits are essential in the myriad electronic devices we use daily. Their origins date
back to the invention of transistors in 1947 by William B. Shockley and his team at AT&T Bell
Laboratories. The team discovered how to control the flow of electricity through crystals, leading
to the development of ICs. This breakthrough paved the way for the advanced electronic systems
we rely on today.
The mass production capability, reliability, and modular design of integrated circuits (ICs) have
led to their rapid adoption over discrete transistor designs. ICs are now ubiquitous in electronic
equipment, revolutionizing devices like computers, mobile phones, and home appliances due to
their small size and low cost.

Technological advancements in semiconductor fabrication have enabled very-large-scale

integration (VLSI). Since the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have dramatically
increased, allowing billions of transistors to fit on a chip the size of a fingernail. This progress,
aligned with Moore's law, has resulted in modern chips with millions of times the capacity and
thousands of times the speed of early 1970s chips.

ICs offer three main advantages over discrete component circuits: size, cost, and performance.
They are smaller and cheaper because components are printed as a unit via photolithography,
using less material. Their performance is high due to quick switching and low power
consumption. However, the initial design and factory setup costs are high, making ICs
economically viable only for high-volume production..
One common example of a modern IC is a computer processor,
which contains millions or billions of transistors, capacitors, and
logic gates connected to form a complex digital circuit. While
processors are a type of IC, not all ICs are processors. This article
will explore what ICs are, the different types of ICs, their pros and
cons, and more. Simply put, integrated circuits integrate active
components (transistors) and passive components (resistors,
capacitors) into a silicon chip.
Designing and developing a complex integrated circuit (IC) is highly expensive, often costing tens of
millions of dollars. Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce ICs in high volumes to spread
the non-recurring engineering (NRE) costs across millions of units.
Modern semiconductor chips contain billions of components, making manual design impractical.
Essential to this process are software tools known as electronic design automation (EDA) or
electronic computer-aided design (ECAD). These tools facilitate the design, verification, and analysis
of semiconductor chips, ensuring efficient workflows. Some of the latest EDA tools incorporate
artificial intelligence (AI) to help engineers save time and enhance chip performance.

Types

Integrated Circuit Design

Depending on its input signal type, an integrated circuit can be
classified as an analog integrated circuit, a digital integrated
circuit, or a mixed circuit.
Digital Integrated Circuits
 They are also called Computer and Logistics circuit.
 ICs are used as computer memories (such
as RAM and ROM) and microprocessors.
 The circuit is located either in the on-state area or in the
off-state area and is not located in between.
 Examples such as AND gate, OR gate, and Flip Flops.

Analog Integrated Circuits

 Analog Circuits are also known as linear circuits. These
analog circuits have continuously variable inputs.
 These inputs are also known as analog signals. The output
signal then comes out as a linear function of the input
signal.
  It is used in audio-frequency or radio-frequency amplifiers.
Mixed Circuits
It is a combination of analog and digital design principles. They
function as digital-to-analog converters, analog-to-digital
converters, and clock or timing ICs.
THT (Through Hole Technology)
In this circuit, THT is to be soldered punched cards. These ICs can
be easily used by mounting on a breadboard.
SMD (Surface Mound Device)
In this circuit, SMD is to be soldered on a circuit board. These ICs
are much smaller compared to THD ICs because they are designed
for use on circuit boards produced on machines.
Linear integrated circuits (Operational-Amplifier)
The relationship between the input and output of the circuit should
be linear.
Classification of ICs
There are two types of integrated circuits:
 Linear integrated circuits (Operational-Amplifier)
 Digital integrated circuits.
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
Op-Amp is a fundamental block of electronic functioning that is
used to construct all the electronic circuits. It was first used by John
R. Ragazzini in 1947. It is a direct coupled high gain amplifier and it
consists of one or more different amplifiers followed by a level
translator and output stage. Op-Amp is a versatile device that can
amplify AC as well as DC input. It mainly consists of multistage
amplifiers which get into a number of amplifier stages
interconnected to each other in a complex manner.
Digital integrated circuits
Digital integrated circuits are important component in the modern
electronics as it is used to create digital design approach which can
maximize circuit density and efficiency. These ICs are mostly used
in the Computer memories such as RAM and ROM ,as well as in
microprocessors.
Integrated Circuit Construction
At first N-type semiconductor is taken and the photolithography
process is used. In this technique a layer of silicon dioxide insulator
is coated over it then a thin layer of photo-resistant material is
placed over So2 after this masking is done UV radiation is made
incident on it whenever the light is incident over the surface of
photoresistive-material it becomes hard and there is no chemical
reaction takes place.
Next Silicon dioxide is removed with the help of a process called
Etching, lastly, the required impurities are added the process is
several times to obtain different geometrics required to complete
the required chip circuit design, and the internal connection
between components is made by passing aluminum vapor and then
the chip is enclosed with a protective plastic case.
Finally with the help of thin aluminum leads the connectors are
taken out and this is how the standard package of IC is
manufactured and the IC used in this particular manufacturing
process is Monolithic IC.
Functions of Integrated Circuit
The main function of the integrated circuit is that it can perform
high-level tasks such as amplification, signal processing, and digital
communications etc., the function of IC is cost reduction,
miniaturization, and efficiency & performance enhancement among
all other circuits.
In terms of Cost reduction, IC provides a cheap alternative to
requiring a large amount of semiconductor parts and electrical
parts mounted on a circuit board through soldering.
The performance and efficiency enhancement function in IC is
made possible by implementing complex circuit networks. For
instance, when the sound cards in PCs were just introduced
manufacturers decided to build medium-scale integration circuits
(MSI) that support system sound factors and applications and the
main performance enhancement function is low power optimization
in turn results in high efficiency.
Integrated Circuit Features
Given below are the feature of the integrated circuit
 Construction and Packaging: The ICs are build using
components such as silicon. The small gold and aluminum
wires connect the components. These wires and
components are molded into a flat block of plastic or
ceramic. The solid block helps prevent the chip from
overheating and keeps it cool.
 Size of an IC: The Size of the IC chip is between 1 square
mm and more than 200 mm.
 Integration of an IC: The Integrated chips have various
chip combined together into one chip. Example of an
integrated chips is a microcontroller which integrates
a microprocessor, memory, and interface into a single unit.
Advantages of Integrated Circuits
The advantages of integrated circuits include the following.
 Small size.
 Power consumption is less.
 Batch Processing results in cost reduction.
 Improves System Reliability
  Less weight.
 More consistent.
 It operates at high temperatures.
 Better Functional Performance.
Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits
The disadvantages of integrated circuits include the following.
 It is very Delicate.
 The power consumption is limited to 10 watts
 The indicators/coils cannot be made.
 A low-temperature coefficient cannot be achieved.
 It handles a limited amount of power.
 Cannot operate at high voltage operation.
Applications of Integrated Circuits
Logic Gate: The logical gate are constructed using ICs. It
generates output based on the input signals.
 Timer: The Times ICs are used to produce a timing cycle
with 100% or 50% duty cycle.
 Operational Amplifiers: The Op amp ICs are used
produce high gain voltage amplifier.
 Voltage Regulators: The Voltage Regulators ICs are used
to produce a constant DC output.
### Future of Integrated Circuits

The future of integrated circuits (ICs) is marked by several key

trends. Firstly, the ongoing miniaturization of ICs, known as Moore's
Law, will continue to drive increased computational power and
efficiency. Secondly, the integration of ICs with Artificial
Intelligence (AI) holds the potential to enhance efficiency and
performance significantly. Lastly, the rise of the Internet of Things
(IoT) is increasing demand for ICs as smart devices become more
interconnected. These trends will shape the development of IC
technology, driving innovation and enabling new capabilities across
various industries..
Types[edit]

A-to-D converter IC in a DIP

Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into analog,[66] digital[67] and mixed signal,[68] consisting
of analog and digital signaling on the same IC.
Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[42] of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other
circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power
dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital
ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to
process "one" and "zero" signals.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-

bit NMOS microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048
bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", used in
personal computers, cell-phones, microwave ovens, etc. Several cores may be integrated
together in a single IC or chip. Digital memory chips and application-specific integrated
circuits (ASICs) are examples of other families of integrated circuits.
In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed. These devices contain circuits whose
logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the
integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a chip to be programmed to do various LSI-type
functions such as logic gates, adders and registers. Programmability comes in various forms –
devices that can be programmed only once, devices that can be erased and then re-
programmed using UV light, devices that can be (re)programmed using flash memory, and field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be programmed at any time, including during
operation. Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent of millions of gates and
operate at frequencies up to 1 GHz.[69]
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers (op-amps),
process continuous signals, and perform analog functions such as amplification, active
filtering, demodulation, and mixing.
ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as analog-to-digital
converters and digital-to-analog converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and
lower cost, but must account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be
fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, radio
chips have been developed using RF CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless
phone, or 802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros and other companies.[70]
Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:

 Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs (such

as microprocessors and microcontrollers), memory chips (such as MOS
memory and floating-gate memory), interface ICs (level
shifters, serializer/deserializer, etc.), power management ICs, and programmable
devices.
 Analog ICs are categorized as linear integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio
frequency circuits).
 Mixed-signal integrated circuits are categorized as data acquisition ICs
(including A/D converters, D/A converters, digital potentiometers), clock/timing
ICs, switched capacitor (SC) circuits, and RF CMOS circuits.
  Three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) are categorized into through-silicon
via (TSV) ICs and Cu-Cu connection ICs.

 Generations[edit]
 See also: List of semiconductor scale examples, MOS integrated circuit, and Transistor
count
 In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each
chip to only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process
was relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards.
As metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology progressed, millions and then billions
of MOS transistors could be placed on one chip,[87] and good designs required thorough
planning, giving rise to the field of electronic design automation, or EDA. Some SSI and
MSI chips, like discrete transistors, are still mass-produced, both to maintain old
equipment and build new devices that require only a few gates. The 7400
series of TTL chips, for example, has become a de facto standard and remains in
production.

Small-scale integration (SSI) [edit]

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens
of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or
the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated
circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first
used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[90] that term gave
rise to the terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-
scale integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits
were SSI.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire
development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed
lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance
Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[91] it was the Minuteman missile that
forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States
Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968,
U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million
total production.
The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs
fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually
the consumer market. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to
$2.33 in 1968.[92] Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the
1970s decade. A typical application was FM inter-carrier sound processing in television
receivers.
The first application MOS chips were small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[93] Following Mohamed
M. Atalla's proposal of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[94] the earliest experimental MOS
chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein
at RCA in 1962.[33] The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for NASA satellites.[93]
Medium-scale integration (MSI) [edit]
The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained
hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).
MOSFET scaling technology made it possible to build high-density chips.[28] By 1964, MOS chips
had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips.[35]
In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with a then-
incredible 120 MOS transistors on a single chip.[93][95] The same year, General
Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-
channel MOS transistors.[34] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[33] and
Frank Wanlass.[96][97] MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's
law, leading to chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[35]
Large-scale integration (LSI) [edit]
Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led
to "large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
[98]

The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as
the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape
or similar.[99] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by
specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team of
engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness
and completeness of each mask.
Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that
began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000
transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around
1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)[edit]
Main article: Very-large-scale integration
 Upper interconnect layers on an Intel
80486DX2 microprocessor die
"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a development started with hundreds of thousands of
transistors in the early 1980s, and, as of 2023, transistor counts continue to grow beyond 5.3
trillion transistors per chip.
Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to
smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process
improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors (ITRS), which has since been succeeded by the International Roadmap for
Devices and Systems (IRDS). Electronic design tools improved, making it practical to finish
designs in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS,
avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. The complexity and density of modern
VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand.
Instead, engineers use EDA tools to perform most functional verification work.[100]
In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more
than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989, and
the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[101] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced
in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[102]
ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC[edit]
Further information: Wafer-scale integration, System on a chip, and Three-dimensional
integrated circuit
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale
integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[103]
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an
entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and
reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably
massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale
Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. [104][105]
A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for
a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be
complex and costly, and whilst performance benefits can be had from integrating all needed
components on one die, the cost of licensing and developing a one-die machine still outweigh
having separate devices. With appropriate licensing, these drawbacks are offset by lower
manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals
among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).
[106]
Further, signal sources and destinations are physically closer on die, reducing the length of
wiring and therefore latency, transmission power costs and waste heat from communication
between modules on the same chip. This has led to an exploration of so-called Network-on-
Chip (NoC) devices, which apply system-on-chip design methodologies to digital communication
networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures.
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic
components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit.
Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than
in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce
overall wire length for faster operation.[107]

Silicon labeling and graffiti[edit]

To allow identification during production, most silicon chips will have a serial number in one
corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some
chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or
words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.
[citation needed]

Manufacturing[edit]
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Fabrication[edit]
Main article: Semiconductor fabrication

Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers

(dielectric has been removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the
vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are
polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk.

Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s. The graphic shows LDD-
MISFET's on an SOI substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flip-chip
bonding. It also shows the section for FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (back-end of line) and
first parts of back-end process.
The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most
likely materials for a solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding
to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s.
Today, monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs although some III-V compounds
of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications
like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect
methods of creating crystals with minimal defects in semiconducting materials' crystal structure.
Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process which includes three key process
steps – photolithography, deposition (such as chemical vapor deposition), and etching. The main
process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. More recent or high-performance ICs
may instead use multi-gate FinFET or GAAFET transistors instead of planar ones, starting at the
22 nm node (Intel) or 16/14 nm nodes.[71]
Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other
semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely
silicon. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have
polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on
them. Dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its
electronic properties. Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.

 Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by

photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where
various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define
where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors
(doped polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the
conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a
specific combination of these layers.
 In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer
(polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer (this is called "the self-aligned gate").
[72]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)
  Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a
traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with
insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are
common on ICs.
 Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors,
though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the
resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the
resistance.
 More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated
by gyrators.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices
consume much less current than bipolar junction transistor devices.
A random-access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density
devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the
regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.[which?]) Although the structures are intricate –
with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the
device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although
light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would
be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to
create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are
essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process.
Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process
known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of
which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package
using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are thermosonically bonded[73] to pads, usually found
around the edge of the die. Thermosonic bonding was first introduced by A. Coucoulas which
provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connections to the outside world. After
packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer
probing. Industrial CT scanning can also be used. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost
of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-yielding, larger, or higher-cost
devices.
As of 2022, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) can cost over US$12
billion to construct.[74] The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of increased
complexity of new products; this is known as Rock's law. Such a facility features:

 The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).

 As of 2022, 5 nm transistors.
 Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects.
 Low-κ dielectric insulators.
 Silicon on insulator (SOI).
 Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as Strained silicon directly on
insulator (SSDOI).
 Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors.
ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using
the foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that
design, manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry)
services to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model, fabless
companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure play
foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services.
Packaging[edit]
Main article: Integrated circuit packaging
 A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in 1977, part of a four-
chip calculator set designed in 1970
[75]

### Evolution of Integrated Circuit Packaging

Integrated circuit (IC) packaging has undergone

significant evolution over the years, driven by
the need for reliability, miniaturization, and
enhanced performance. Here's a look at the key
milestones:

1. **Ceramic Flat Packs:** The earliest ICs were

packaged in ceramic flat packs, valued for their
reliability and compact size, particularly favored
by the military.

2. **Dual In-Line Package (DIP):** Commercial

packaging quickly transitioned to the dual in-line
package (DIP), initially in ceramic and later in
plastic. DIP packages were widely adopted for
their convenience and versatility.

3. **Surface Mount Packaging:** Surface mount

packaging emerged in the early 1980s and
gained popularity in the late 1980s. These
packages featured finer lead pitch and reduced
size compared to DIPs. Examples include the
small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC) package,
known for its smaller footprint and thinner
profile.

4. **Plastic Quad Flat Pack (PQFP) and Thin

Small-Outline Package (TSOP):** These
packages became prevalent in the late 1990s,
especially for high pin count devices. They
offered compactness while accommodating
increasing pin counts.

5. **Ball Grid Array (BGA):** BGA packages,

existing since the 1970s, saw significant
advancements with the development of Flip-chip
Ball Grid Array (FCBGA) packages in the 1990s.
FCBGA packages allowed for higher pin counts
and better signal distribution across the die.

6. **Transition to Land Grid Array (LGA) and

BGA:** Intel shifted away from PGA to LGA and
BGA starting in 2004, with AMD following suit.
LGA and BGA packages are now commonly used
for high-end microprocessors, offering
advantages in performance and reliability.

7. **System in Package (SiP) and Multi-Chip

Module (MCM):** Combining multiple dies in
one package gave rise to SiP and MCM
configurations, offering enhanced functionality
in a compact form factor.
8. **Identification and Date Coding:** Packaged
ICs usually include identifying information such
as the manufacturer's name or logo, part
number, production batch number, serial
number, and manufacturing date. The date code
typically consists of a two-digit year followed by
a two-digit week code.

These advancements in IC packaging have

played a crucial role in enabling the
miniaturization, performance enhancement, and
reliability of integrated circuits, driving
innovation across various industries.

Intellectual property[edit]
Main article: Integrated circuit layout design protection
The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and
preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for
the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip
Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to
produce integrated circuits.[79]
A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual
Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,[80] also called the Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty.
The treaty is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.[81]
There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include
patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743, US3,261,081, US3,434,015 and by R.F.
Stewart US3,138,747.
National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including
Japan,[82] the EC,[83] the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK enacted the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it initially took the position that its copyright law fully
protected chip topographies. See British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.
Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are
summarized in further chip rights developments.[84]
Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[85] Korea
passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in 1992.[86]