PHY112: Thermal Physics and Properties of Matter

Part Three
hydrostatics; Pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes' principles. Surface
tension;
Adhesion; cohesion, capillarity, drops and bubbles,
Applications.

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

MECHANICS is the branch of Physics that deals with the study of the relationships among force,
matter and motion of a body. It is divided into two parts: Kinematics and Dynamics.

The part of mechanics that enables us to describe motion is called kinematics and the part that
enables us to relate motion to its causes is called Dynamics.

FLUID

In Physics Fluid is any substance that can flow such as liquid and gas. It is extremely important
in many aspect of everyday life. For example we drink them, breathe them, we swim in them.
They circulate in the body of both animal and plants. It controls our weather; Airplanes fly
through them; Ships floats in them.

FLUID MECHANICS is the branch of Physics that deals with the study of the motion of fluids and
the forces acting on them. It has application in several areas of science and engineering such as
Mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography,
meteorology, astrophysics and Biology.

Fluid mechanics is divided into Fluid statics and Fluid Dynamics

1. Fluid statics or Hydrostatics deals with the study of fluids at rest in stable equilibrium
situation, particularly with pressure in a fluid or exerted by the fluid on an immersed
object.
2. Fluid dynamic deals with the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion or put simply
the study of fluids in motion. It includes the study of air and other gases in motion called
aerodynamics and hydrodynamics which deals with the study of liquids in motion.
Fluid dynamics has a wide range of application including

a) Calculating the forces and moment on aircraft,

b) Determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines,
c) Predicting evolving weather patterns and modeling explosions,
d) Some fluid-dynamical principles are used in traffic engineering and crowd dynamics.

Properties of material relevant to the study of fluid

DENSITY: The density of any material is defined as mass per Unit volume of the material. A
homogenous material such as Ice or iron has the same density throughout.

If a mass m of a homogeneous material has volume V, the density

m mass
ρ= = 1.0
V Volume

Two object made of the same material have the same density even though they may have
different masses and different volumes because the ratio of mass to volume is the same for
both objects

Table 1.0 The density of some common materials at ordinary temperature

Material Density (kg/m3)

1.0 Air (1 atm, 20 deg c) 1.2
2.0 Ice 920
3.0 Water 1000
4.0 Blood 1060
5.0 Concrete 2000
6.0 Ethanol 810
7.0 Copper 8900
8.0 1ron, Steel 7800
9.0 Gold 19300

To obtained the densities in grams per cubic centimeter, simply divide by 1000

The SI unit of density is the Kilogram per cubic meter (1kg/m 3). But the gram per cubic
centimeter (cgs Unit) is also widely used.
1g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of material is the ratio of its density to the density of water (1000 kg/m 3) at
4.0oC. It is a pure number without a Unit.

Assignment:
What is the specific gravity of Aluminum of density 2700 kg/c3? Answer = 2.7

Specific gravity is actually a poor term to use here since it has nothing to do with gravity.
Relative density instead of specific gravity will have been better.

Note
The density of some materials varies from point to point within the material. For example the
material of the human body which contain low density fat of about 970 kg/m 3 and high density
bone whose density ranges from 1700 to 2500 kg/m3.

Also note that the Earth’s atmosphere is less dens at high altitude and Oceans which are denser
at greater depths.
For this materials (i.e. earth atmosphere, ocean, human body etc) equation one describes the
average density.

In general the density of a material depends on environmental factor such as temperature and
pressure?

Application: Measuring Density is an important analytical technique.

We can use our knowledge of density to determine the charge condition of a storage battery by
measuring the density of its electrolyte (i.e. a sulfuric acid solution). As the battery discharges,
the sulfuric acid (H 2 S O 4) combines with lead in the battery plates to form insoluble lead
sulfate(PbS O4 ) and then decreases the concentration of the solution. The density decreases
from about 1300 kg/m3 for fully charged battery to 1150 kg/m3 for a discharged battery.

Another example is measurement of the specific gravity to determine the freezing point of the
permanent type antifreeze, which is usually a solution of ethylene glycol with density of about
1120 kg/m3 and water. The freezing point of the solution depends on the glycol concentration
which can be determine by measuring the specific gravity using an instrument called
hydrometer.
Example 1.0:

Find the mass and weight of the air in a living room at 20 oC with a 4.0m x 5.0m floor and ceiling
of 3.0 m high. What are the mass and weight of an equal volume of water? Assume the air is
homogeneous with a density of 1.2.
Solution:
Even though air is less dense at high elevation than near see level, let us assume that the
variation in density over the 3.0 m height of the room is negligibly small.

The volume of the room V = (3.0m)(4.0m)x(5.0m)=60m3.

The mass M of air is
3 3
M =ρ air V =(1.20 kg /m )(60 m )=72 kg

Weight of the air is

2
W =mg=( 72 kg ) (9.8 m/ s )=700 N
The mass of an equal volume of water is

3 3
mwater =ρwater xV =(1000 kg /m )(60 m )=60,000 kg

The weight is
2
W water=mwater xg=( 60,000 kg ) x 9.8 m/s =590000 N

Assignment 1.0

Rank the object with the following parameters in order from highest to the lowest density.

S/No. Mass (kg) Volume (m3)

1 4.00 0.0016
2 8.00 0.0016
3 8.00 0.0032
4 2560 0.640
5 2560 1.28

Specific Volume

The specific volume of a substance is the reciprocal of its density. It is the volume of unit mass
of the substance. Unit = m3 kg−1 . Note the word specific is used to denote unit mass.
PRESSURE

I am sure you are all familiar with the word pressure being used in the hospital all the time in
relation to blood (Low or high blood pressure) or in automobile (high or low vehicle tire
pressure) etc.

Pressure (P) is defined as Force (F) divided by the Area (A) perpendicular to it over which the
force is applied.

F
P= 2.0
A

The S.I. Unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) where

2
1 Pa=1 N /m

In meteorology, atmospheric pressure is often described in units of bar (b) or millibar (mb),
where
5
1 b=1 x 1 0 Pa

1 millibar=100 Pa

1 Pa=1 0 ¯
−5
¿ 0.01 millibar

In automobiles, Pounds per square inch (Ib/in2 or psi) is often used as the units of tire pressure

In hospitals, millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) is often used as the unit of blood pressure.

Note.

 None of the other Unit of pressure except Pascal is the SI unit.

 Standard atmosphere pressure is 1.01 x 1 05 Pa(3 sig . fig)
 I atm is exactly 760 mm Hg and 1.01 bar

Assignment 2

An astronaut is working outside the international Space Station where the atmospheric
pressure is essentially zero. The pressure gauge on her air tank reads 6.90 x 1 06 Pa . What force
does the air inside the tank exert on the flat end of the cylindrical tank, a disk 0.150 m in
diameter?

Solution
2
F= pA∧A=π R
F= p ( π R 2)
6 2
¿( 6.90 x 1 0 N / m )(3.14) ¿

Exercise

1. As a woman walks, her entire weight is momentarily placed on one heel of her high-heeled
shoes. Calculate the pressure exerted on the floor by the heel if it has an area of 1.50 cm 2 and the
woman’s mass is 55.0 kg. Express the pressure in Pa. (In the early days of commercial flight,
women were not allowed to wear high-heeled shoes because aircraft floors were too thin to
withstand such large pressures.)

2. The pressure exerted by a phonograph needle on a record is surprisingly large. If the

equivalent of 1.00 g is supported by a needle, the tip of which is a circle 0.200 mm in radius,
what pressure is exerted on the record in N/m2?

3. Nail tips exert tremendous pressures when they are hit by hammers because they exert a large
force over a small area. What force must be exerted on a nail with a circular tip of 1.00 mm
diameter to create a pressure of 3.00 × 109 N/m2 (This high pressure is possible because the
hammer striking the nail is brought to rest in such a short distance.)

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere; the pressure at the bottom of
the sea of air in which we live.

This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation. It is less at high altitude than at
sea level and increases with increasing depth below the surface. This is why airplane cabin has
to be pressurized when flying at high altitude of about 35,000 feet.

Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm),

1 atm=1.01325 x 10 Pa=1.013 ¯¿ 1013 millibar

5

Example 2.0

In the room described in example 1.0, what is the total downward force on the surface of the
floor due to air pressure of 1.00 atm?

Solution
 2
The floor areais A=4.0 m x 5.0 m=20 m

So the total downward force is

5 2 2 6
F ⊥= pA=(1.013 x 1 0 N /m ) x (20 m )=2.0 x 10 N
6 5
¿ 2.0 x 1 0 N=4.6 x 1 0 Ib=230 tons

This should be more than enough force to collapse the floor. Yet it does not collapse because
there is an upward force of equal magnitude on the underside of the floor.

Relationship between Pressure and Depth

If the weight of the fluid can be neglected, the pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its
volume. But often, the fluid weight is not negligible.

Let us derive a general relationship between the pressure p at any point in a fluid at rest and
the elevation y of the point.

Assume the density ρ and acceleration due to gravity g are constant throughout the fluid.

If the fluid is in equilibrium, every volume element is in equilibrium.

An element of a fluid at rest

with area A and thickness

Force due to pressure on top surface =

Forces on the four side of the element cancel.

Weight

Force due to pressure on bottom surface =

Consider a thin element of fluid with thicknessdy . The bottom and top surfaces each have area
A and they are at elevation y∧ y+ dy above some reference level where y=0.

Volume of the fluid element dV =Ady

Mass of the fluid element dm= ρdV =ρAdy

Weight of the fluid element dw=dmg=ρgAdy

In addition to the force due to weight of the fluid element, the other forces acting on this fluid
are due to pressure at top and the bottom surface of the fluid.

The pressure at the bottom surface is p and the total y-component of the upward force at the
bottom surface is

F b= pA

The pressure at the top surface is

p+dp∧the y−component of thedownward force on the top surface is

F T =− ( p+ dp ) A

The fluid element is in equilibrium, so the total y-component of the forces including the weight
must be zero.

∑ F y =0
pA−( p +dp ) A−ρgAdy=0

dp
∴ =−ρg
dy

This equation shows that when y-increases, p decreases. That is, as we move upward in fluid,
pressure decreases.

if p1∧ p 2 are the pressures at eleveations y 1∧ y 2 , respectively∧if ρ∧g

are constant, then

p2− p1=−ρg ( y 2− y 1 )=− pgh

Where h = height
Let point 1 represent any level in the fluid with pressure p and point 2 represent the surface of
the fluid with pressure p0 (with subscript zero indicating zero depth)

Then

p0− p=−ρg ( y 2− y 1 ) =−pgh∨¿

p= p 0+ ρgh(3)Pressure∈a fluid of uniform density

The pressure p at depth h is greater than the pressure p0 at the surface by an amount equal to
ρgh

Equation 3 shows that if we increase the pressure p0 at the top surface (by using a piston that
fits tightly inside the container to push down on the fluid surface) the pressure p at any depth
increases by exactly the same amount. This fact was first recognized in 1653 by the French
scientist called Blaise Pascal and is now called Pascal’s law;

Note:

 Pressure in a fluid increases with depth. All points at the same depth in the fluid are at
the same pressure
 Equation 3 is not valid in the case of gases when h is large. The density of a gas
decreases with height and the equation has been derived on the assumption that the
density is constant.
 Any surface in a fluid experience a force due to the pressure of the fluid
i. The force is perpendicular to the surface no matter what the orientation of the
surface
ii. The magnitude of the force is independent of the orientation of the surface. This
statement is illustrated in the figure below

F
F
F F
F
F

iii. The force associated with pressure at a point is a vector quantity, the pressure
itself is a scalar quantity. i.e. pressure has no direction
PASCAL’s LAW

Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid
and the walls of the containing vessels.

Application: The hydraulic lift shown schematically above illustrates the application of Pascal’s
Law.

A piston with small cross sectional area A1 exerts a force F 1 on the surface of a liquid (oil for
example). The applied pressure is

F1
p=
A1

This pressure is transmitted through the connecting pipe to a larger piston of area A2. The
applied pressure is the same in both cylinders, so

F1 F2 A2
p= = ∧F2= F 1
A1 A 2 A1

The hydraulic lift is a force multiplying device with a multiplication factor equal to the ratio of
the area of the two pistons. If Area A2 has 10 times the area A1 for example, it will produce a
force that will be 10 times greater than the original force F 1.

Dentist chair, Car lifts and jacks, many elevators and hydraulic brakes all use Pascal’s principle.

For gases, the assumption that the density is constant or uniform is realistic only over a short
vertical distance. Therefore we cannot use equation 3 for Air if the height is very large.

Liquid, by contrast is nearly incompressible and it is a very good approximation to regard their
density as independent of pressure.
Note:

 Pascal’s principle applies to both liquids and gases but a gas cannot be used as the
working fluid in a hydraulic jack because gases are compressible. Most of the efforts
would go into compressing the gas rather than into moving the load.
 Pascal’s principle illustrates an important difference between fluids and solids, namely
that a fluid transmit pressure (unchanged), whereas a solid transmits force (unchanged).
Consider the figure below. If a force F is applied to the smaller left hand face, X, of the
solid, the solid (assuming stationary) exerts the same force on anything in contact with
its right hand face, Y, even though the faces are not the same size. Thus, when the force
at “X” increases, the force at “Y” increases by the same amount. However, the increase
in pressure at X is greater than that at Y.

Y
X
F F

Solid

Absolute pressure and Gauge Pressure

If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, the tire is flat. The pressure
has to be greater than atmospheric pressure to support the car. When we say that the pressure
in a car tire is 32 pounds per square inch (i.e. 32 Ib/in 2), we mean that it is greater than the
atmospheric pressure (14.7 Ib/in2) by this amount. The total pressure in the tire is 46.7 Ib/in2.

The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is called the gauge pressure and the total
pressure is called the absolute pressure. The engineers use psig and psia for pound per square
inch gauge and pound per square inch absolute respectively.

If the pressure is less than atmospherics pressure and it is a partial vacuum, the gauge pressure
is negative.
The U-Tube Manometer

This consists of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid. It is used to measure the pressure. The
pressure to be measured (say that of a gas) is applied to one arm of the manometer, the other
arm is open to the atmosphere as shown in the figure below. The liquid surface at A is a vertical
distance h below that at B. Therefore, by equation 3, p A = po + ρgh

This arm is open to atmosphere

gas at pressure

Liquid of density ρ

Note:

 Manometer can be used to measure pressure both above and below the atmospheric
pressure.
 Mercury is used as a manometer liquid unless the pressure being measured is close to
atmospheric pressure, in which case a liquid of lower density (i.e. oil or water) is more
suitable.
 The pressure registered by the manometer hρg is known as the gauge pressure. The
actual pressure p A = po + ρgh is called the absolute pressure.
 In the arm on the right of the manometer shown in the figure is closed and evacuated, it
will register absolute pressure directly. i.e. p A =hρg

Fig. 1: No gas supply connected to either arm

Fig. 2: The gas supply is connected to one arm. P gass > Patm
Only atmospheric pressure po acts on both the surfaces of liquid at
Pressure due to gas supply p A at A is higher than the atmospheric
A and B as they are open to air. Thus liquid settles at common level
pressure, po at B (open arm). The liquid level at A being pushed
at A and B downwards
as pressure exerting at A and B is the same.
by a higher gas pressure is lower than that at B to cause a
height difference of h which is proportional to the pressure difference
between the two arms.
When the liquid settles at equilibrium, the pressure at A and C must be
the same as they are at the same liquid level.
p A = pC
¿ Po + Presure due ¿ liquid column BC
¿ Po + ρgh
 Fig. 3: The gas supply is connected to one arm with P gass < Patm
Pressure due to the gas supply p A at A is lower than the atmospheric
pressure po at B (open arm)
Liquid level at A is higher than that at B (being pushed downwards by higher
atmospheric pressure) to cause a height difference of h, which is proportional
to the pressure difference between two arms.
When the liquid settles (at equilibrium), the pressure at B and C must be the
same as they are at same liquid level.
i.e. pB = pC
Po =p A + Presure due ¿ liquid column BC
¿ p A + ρgh
¿ p A =Po− ρgh

ASSIGNMENT

A storage tank 12.0 m deep is filled with water, the top of the tank is open to the air. What is
the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank? The gauge pressure?

Solution

The level of the top of the tank correspond to point 2 in equation 3 and the level of the bottom
of the tank correspond to point 1.

From the question h = 12m and since the top of the tank is open to the atmosphere, p0 equals 1
atmosphere
5
1 atm=1.01 x 1 0 Pa

Now , p= po + ρgh= ( 1.01 x 10 5 Pa ) +(1000 kg/m3 )(9.8 m/s 2)(12 m)

5
p=2.19 x 10 Pa

The gauge pressure is p− p 0=( 2.19−1.01 ) x 1 05 Pa=1.18 x 1 05 Pa

Assignment

Write short not on the pressure gauge.

Buoyancy and Archimedes’s Principle

An object immersed in water seems to weigh less than when it is in air. When the body is less
dense than the fluid, it floats. For example human body usually floats in water and helium filled
balloon floats in air.

BUOYANCY or UPTHRUST is defined as the upward force exerted by a fluid on a partially or fully
immersed object. This force opposes the weight of the object.

ARCHIMEDES’S PRINCIPLE states that when a body is completely or partially immersed in a

fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body.

Example
An object of mass 15 kg and density 19.3 x 10 3 kg/m3 is been raised from a sunken ship. What is
the tension in the hoisting cable when the object is

a) at rest and completely immersed

b) at rest and out of water.

Take the density of air to be 1.2 kg/m3

Solution

When the object is immersed, it experiences an upward buoyant force equal in magnitude to
the weight of fluid displaced. To find the tension, we note that the body is in equilibrium (it is
at rest) and consider the three force acting on it: weight, buoyant force and the tension in the
cable.

To find the buoyant force, we first find the volume of the object using the density provided.

15.0 kg −4 3
V= 3 3
=7.77 x 10 m
19.3 x 10 kg /m

Now we find the weight of this much volume of seawater.

W sw =msw g= ρsw Vg
3 3 −4 3 2
¿( 1.03 x 10 kg/ m )(7.77 x 1 0 m )(9.80 m/ s )

¿ 7.84 N

This equal the buoyant force B

The object is at rest, so the net external force acting on it is zero

∑ F y =B+T +(−W ) =0
2
T =W −B=mg−B=( 15.0 kg ) x (9.8 m/s )−7.84 N

¿ 147 N−7.84 N =139 N

If a spring balance is attached to the upper end of the cable, it will indicate 7.84 N less than if
the object was not immersed in seawater. Hence the submerged object seams to weigh 139 N,
about 5% less than its actual weight of 147 N.

b)

The buoyant force of air on the object is

3 −4 2
B=ρ air Vg=(1.2 kg /m )(7.77 x 1 0 )(9.8 m/s )
−3
9.1 x 1 0 N

This value is very small and we can ignore it. Thus the tension in the cable with the object in air
is equal to the object’s weight 147 N.

Note

1. The buoyant force is proportional to the density of the fluid and not the density of the
object. The denser the fluid, the greater the buoyant force and the small the cable
tension
2. If the fluid had the same density as the object, the buoyant force will be equal to the
body’s weight and the tension would be zero.
3. If the fluid were denser than the object, the tension would be negative. The buoyant
force would be greater than the weight of the object and a downward force would be
required to keep the object from rising upward.

Theoretical verification of Archimedes principle

Consider a cylinder of height h and cross sectional area A a distance h o below the surface of a
fluid of density ρ (see figure below)

Pressure at this level is

 Volume of fluid displaced=volume of cylinder

¿ Ah

Mass of fluid displaced = Ahρ

Weight of fluid displace=mg= Ahρg( x)

The fluid exerts forces of P x A and PY A on the top and bottom faces of the cylinder. The up thrust
(i.e. the resultant upward force due to the fluid) is therefore given by

Upthrust=PY A−P x A

¿ ( h+ ho ) ρgA−ho ρgA

¿ hρgA ( y)

By comparing equation x and y,

Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced

Note

 The result does not depend on the shape of the object.

 If a body is more dense than the fluid in which it is immersed, then its weight is greater
than the weight of the fluid it displaces. By Archimedes principle, its weight is greater
than the upthrust and it falls down through the fluid.
 A body which is less dens than the fluid around it, experiences a net upward force and
rises up through the fluid.
 Principle of flotation

When a body floats the upthrust on it is equal to its weight for it to moves neither up nor
down. Thus the weight of the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. This is a
special case of Archimedes principle called the principle of floatation.

The principle of floatation states that a floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid.

This principle applies to both partially immersed bodies (e.g ships) and a totally immersed
bodies (e.g. submarines and airships)

Assignment

An object is weighed with a spring balance, first in air and then while totally immersed in
water. The readings on the balance are 0.48 N and 0.36 N respectively. Calculate the
density of the object. (Density of water = 1000 kg/m3)

Solution

The object has the same volume as the water it displaces and therefore

Density of Object mass of object

=
Density of water mass of water displaced

weight of object
¿
weight of water displaced

By Archimedes Principle , weight of water displaced =upthrust

Therefore

Density of Object weight of object

= (4)
Density of water Upthrust ∈water

0.48 N −3
weight of object = x 1000 kg m
0.12 N
3 3
¿ 4.0 x 10 kg/m

Measurement of Density Using Archimedes Principle

Density of SOLIDS

For solids weigh the solid in air and in water, and then use the equation below
Density of Object weight of object
=
Density of water Upthrust ∈water

Density of LIQUIDS

The density of liquid can be determine by finding the upthrust on some suitable objects when it
is immersed in the liquid and then when it is immersed in water.

Using similar analogy with equation 4, we can write

Density of Object weight of object

= (5)
Density of liquid Upthrust ∈liquid

Dividing equation 4 by equation 5, gives

Density of liquid Upthrust ∈ Liquid

= (6)
Density of Water Upthrust ∈water

From equation 6, the density of the liquid can be found.

THE HYDROMETER

The hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of liquids. In accordance with the
principle of floatation, whenever the hydrometer floats in a liquid, the weight of the liquid
displaces is equal to its own weight. Therefore it sinks further into water for example than it
does into a liquid of higher density. I.e. it sinks or rises depending on the density of the liquid.
Lighter liquids will make the hydrometer sink and heavier liquids will make the hydrometer rise.
A hydrometer scale increases as you go down the tube. This is because heavier liquids make
your hydrometer rise thus lowering the location where the top part of the liquid reached.
 Scale is read here and records as relative density

Large bulb for buoyancy

Lead shot to keep hydrometer upright.

Hydrometer in three different liquids

Fig. : Image of a typical hydrometer.

Surface Tension

This is the property of a liquid that make it behaves as if its surface is enclosed in an elastic skin
that is in a state of tension. This property results from intermolecular forces. Molecules in the
interior of liquids experiences interactions with other molecules from all sides. But molecule at
the surface can only interact with molecules below it in the liquid.

That is, the surface tension of liquid behaves like a membrane under tension. It arises because
the molecule of the liquid exerts attractive forces on each other. There is zero net force on a
molecule inside the volume of the liquid, but a surface molecule is drawn into the volume. Thus
the liquid tends to minimize its surface area just as a stretched membrane does.

The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting in the surface and
perpendicular to one side of an imaginary line drawn in the surface. It is measured in the unit of
N/m.

This surface tension is responsible for the formation of liquid drops, soap bubbles and meniscus
as well as the rise of liquid in a capillary tube (capillarity), the absorption of liquid by porous
substances and the ability of liquid to wet surface.

Note: Surface tension can also be defined as the energy needed to increase the surface area
isothermally by one square meter or the work done in isothermally increasing the surface area
of the liquid by unit area. It can be measured in the unit of joule per meter square which is
equivalent to N/m.

Liquid Meniscus
Surface tension by capillary rise method

Consider a capillary tube of uniform bore dipped vertically in a beaker containing

liquid that have concave meniscus (i.e. water). Due to surface tension, water rises
to a height h in the capillary tube (see figure above). Surface tension forces cause
the liquid to exert a downward directed force on the walls of the tube. In
accordance with the Newton’s third law, the tube exerts an equal and opposite
force on the liquid and it rises in the tube. At equilibrium, the weight of the liquid
which has been lifted up is equal to the vertical component of the force exerted by
the tube.

The surface tension ‘T’ of the water act inward but the reaction of the tube ‘R’
outward. Thus R is equal to T in magnitude but opposite in direction.

This reaction of the tube can be resolved into two rectangular components

(a) Horizontal component acting radially outwards as

R x =Rsinθ
(b) Vertical component acting upwards as
R y =Rcosθ
The horizontal component acting along the circumference of the tube cancels each
other whereas the vertical component balances the weight of the water column in the
tube. The length of the liquid column in contact with the tube is equal to the
circumference of the tube. Therefore the vertical component of the force can be
obtained as follows.

The total upward force F y =R y x A=Rcosθ x (2 πr )

Where A is the circumference of the tube
F y =2 πrRcosθ ------------------------------------------------- (1)
¿ F y =2 πrTcosθ

This upward force is responsible for the capillary rise. As the water is in equilibrium, this force
acting upward is equal to the weight of the water column acting downwards.

F=W (2)

Now, volume of water in the tube is assumed to be made up of

(i) a cylindrical water column of height h and

(ii) water in the meniscus above the plane CD (see figure above).
2
Volume of cylindrical water column=πr h

Volume of water ∈themeniscus

¿ ( volume of cylinder of height r ∧radius r )−(volume of hemispher of radius r )

Volume of water ∈themeniscus=( πr xr ) −

( 4
32
πr )
2
3

=( πr ) −( π r )
3 3
2 3
 1 3
¿ πr
3

2 1 3 2 r
Total volume of water ∈thetube=πr h+ π r =πr (h+ )
3 3

If ρ is the density of water, then weight of water in the tube is

W =πr 2 h+( r3 ) ρg(3)

Substituting (1) and (3) in (2)

F=2 πrTcosθ=W =πr 2 h+ ( r3 ) ρg

T=
( 3r ) ρg = (h+ r3 ) rρg
πr 2 h+

2 πrcosθ 2cosθ

r
Since r is very small, can be neglected compared to h
3

hrρg
T=
2 cosθ

For water, θ is very small, therefore cosθ=1

1
T = hrρg
2

COHESIVE FORCES

Attractive forces between molecules of the same type are called cohesive forces. In other
words the attractive force exerted on a liquid molecule by the neighboring liquid molecules.

For example, Liquids can be held in open containers because cohesive forces hold the
molecules together.

Cohesive forces between molecules cause the surface of a liquid to contract to the smallest
possible surface area. This general effect is what we called surface tension.

Molecules on the surface are pulled inward by cohesive forces, reducing the surface area.
Molecules inside the liquid experience zero net force, since they have neighbors on all sides
Surface tension is proportional to the strength of the cohesive force, which varies with the type
of liquid. Surface tension T is defined to be the force F per unit length L exerted by a stretched
liquid membrane.

F
T=
L

Adhesive Forces

Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called Adhesive Forces. In other
words it is the attractive force exerted on a liquid molecule by the molecule in the surface of a
solid. Such forces cause liquid drops to cling to window panes,

Concave versus Convex Meniscus

Consider a liquid in a container with vertical sides. If the adhesive force is large compared with
the cohesive force, the liquid tends to stick to the wall and so has a concave meniscus. On the
other hand, if the adhesive force is small compared with cohesive force, the liquid surface is
pulled away from the wall and the meniscus is convex.

Whether the meniscus is concave or convex depends on the liquid concerned and on the solid
with which it is in contact.

For example water has a concave meniscus in contact with glass and convex meniscus when in
contact with wax. Mercury has a convex meniscus with glass.

Angle of contact θ : Concave or Convex meniscus

Angle of contact θ is defined as the angle between the solid surface and the tangent plane to
the liquid surface at the point where it touches the solid. The meniscus is concave when the
angle of contact is less than 9 0 o and is convex when the angle of contact is greater than 9 0 o.
A liquid is said to wet a surface with which its angle of contact is less than 9 0 o. The angle of
contact between water and clean class is zero, but that between mercury and clean glass is
137o. Thus water “wets” clean glass, but mercury does not.

Liquid Bubbles and Droplets

Surface tension is the reason why liquid form bubbles and droplets. The inward surface tension
force causes bubbles to be approximately spherical and raises the pressure of the gas trapped
inside relative to atmospheric pressure outside.

Liquid

Surface tension forces

Fig: Forces on air bubble in a Liquid

Soap and air bubbles

The pressure inside a soap bubble is greater than the pressure of the air outside the bubble. If
this were not so, the combined effect of the external pressure and the surface tension forces in
the soap film will cause the bubble to collapse.

Similarly, the pressure inside an air bubble in a liquid exceeds the pressure in the liquid, and the
pressure inside a mercury drop is greater than that outside it.

DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION FOR THE EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE AIR BUBBLE IN LIQUID

Consider the forces acting on one half of the Air bubble. Assume the radius of the bubble is r
and the surface tension of the fluid is T.

The other half of the bubble exerts a surface tension force around the rim of the half we are
considering. This force is directed to the left and since the length of the rim is its circumference
2 πr , the surface tension force is of magnitude 2 πrT .
The resultant force due to the pressure Po outside is also to the left and is acting perpendicular
to an area π r 2 (the area of the flat face of the hemisphere)

Therefore the magnitude of the force due to the pressure outside is Po π r 2

The resultant force due to the internal pressure Pi is to the right and its magnitude is Pi π r 2

The hemisphere is in equilibrium under the action of this forces and therefore
2 2
Pi π r =P o π r +2 πrT

2 πrT
Pi−P o= 2
πr

The excess pressure ∆ p=P i−Po

2T
∆ p= for air bubbles∧spherical drops( 5)
r

A soap film has two surfaces and therefore the excess pressure ∆ p inside a soap bubble is given
by

4T
∆ p= (6)
r

Where T is the surface tension of the soap solution and r is the radius of the bubble.

(This assume that the inner and outer surfaces have approximately the same radius of
curvature)

Note:

 The smaller the bubble the greater the excess pressure.

 The excess pressure inside a spherical drop of mercury is given by the same expression if
T and r are taken to represent the surface tension of mercury and the radius of the drop
respectively.
 Equation 5 and 6 represent gauge pressure P inside a spherical bubble

Assignment 1
Calculate the gauge pressure inside a soap bubble 2.00×10 −4 m in radius using the surface
tension for soapy water as 0.037 N/m. Convert this pressure to mm Hg.

Solution

4T
Substituting r and T into the equation p=
r

We obtain

4(0.037 N /m)
p= −4
=740 N /m2=740 Pa
2.00 x 1 0 m

We use a conversion factor to get this into units of mm Hg:

2 1.00 mm Hg
p=(740 N /m ) 2
=5.56 mm Hg
133 N /m

Assignment 2

Write short note on the experimental verification of surface tension by JAEGER’s Method.

Practice Problem

1. A reservoir has a surface area of 50.0 km2 and an average depth of 40.0 m.
a) What mass of water is held behind the dam?
b) What is the weight of the water in the reservoir?
2. If the dam is 500 m wide and the water is 80.0 m deep at the dam,
a) what is the average pressure of the dam due to the water
b) Calculate the force exerted against the dam and compare it with the weight of the
water in the dam.

Solution

a . ¿ m=ρV ∧V = Ah=( 50.0 k m2 ) x ( 40.0 m )

[ ( ) ]
3 2
2 10 m
¿ ( 50.0 k m ) ( 40.0 m ) =2.00 x 1 0 9 m3
1 km

3
The density of water ρ=1000 kg /m

Thus
m=( 1000 kg/m3 ) (2.00 x 1 0 9 m3 )
12
¿ 2.0 x 1 0 kg
12 2
b . ¿ The weight of the water ∈the reservior W =mg=2.0 x 10 kg x 9.8 m/s
13
¿ 1.96 x 1 0 N

It is reasonable to ask whether the dam must supply a force equal to this tremendous weight.
The answer is no. The force the dam must supply can be much smaller than the weight of the
water it holds back.

2a)

The average pressure p due to the weight of the water is the pressure at the average depth h of
40.0 m. since pressure increases linearly with depth.

The average pressure due to the weight of the fluid is P=hρg

Taking h to be the average depth of 40.0 m, we obtain

p= ( 40.0 m ) 10
( 3 kg
m
3 )( m
9.80 2
s )
5 N
¿ 3.92 x 1 0 2
=392 kPa
m

b) The force exerted on the dam by the water is the average pressure times the area of contact.

F=PA

Where A=80.0 m x 500 m=4.00 x 1 0 4 m2 , so that

(
F= 3.92 x 10
5 N
m
2)( 4.00 x 1 04 m2 )=1.57 x 1 010 N

Although, this force seems large but it is small compared with the 1.96 x 1 013 N weight of the
water in the reservoir.

CAPILLARITY
The tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or absorbent material to rise or fall as a
result of surface tension is called capillarity. For example water in a capillary tube rise
above the level of the water outside. Capillary rise is associated with liquid whose angle
of contact is less than90 0. A liquid whose angle of contact is greater than this value
suffers capillary depression.
Both capillary rise and Capillary depression are caused by surface tension. It provide a
means by which the surface tension of liquid can be measured.

Fig: Capillary rise and Capillary fall