S.Y Unit 1 Sem 3

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S.Y B.

SC SEM-3(MDC)
Title of the course- soil science
And
Technology theory
DIVYA B. DETROJA

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE


1.1 SOIL DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SOIL SCIENCE

SOIL DEFINITION

Ernst Haeckel (1869) defined ecology as “The total relation of the animal to both
its organic and its inorganic environment”.
The word soil is derived from a latin word ‘Solum’ meaning early material in which
plants grow.
The science which deals with the study of soil is called soil science, Pedology
(pedos=earth) or Edaphology (edaphos=soil).
Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the
earth that provide the medium for plant growth.
Soil can be defined as a mixture of minerals, organic matter, and living organisms.

SCOPE OF SOIL SCIENCE


Soil Science has six well defined and developed disciplines.
Scope of soil Science is reflected through these disciplines.
Soil Science: The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of
the earth, including Pedology (soil genesis, classification and mapping) and the
physical, chemical and biological and fertility properties of soil and these
properties in relation to their management for crop production.
1. Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil
2. Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical properties and the chemical
reactions of the soil.
3. Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties of the soil as well as
measurement and control of physical properties.
4. Soil microbiology: deals with micro organisms, its population, classification, its
role in transformations
5. Soil conservation (soil technology): Dealing with protection of soil against
physical loss by erosion or against chemical deterioration i.e. excessive loss of
nutrients either natural or artificial means.
6. Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey and classification. And also deals
with the weathering of rock and minerals, factors and processes of soil formation
and classification of the soil in a recognized system.
7. Soil survey: It is the systematic examination of soil in the field and laboratories,
their description and classification, the mapping of kinds of an area and also
interpretation of soil according to adaptability to various crops and their
productivity under different management systems.

1.2 SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES (SOIL ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT)


Soil formation or pedogenesis is the process of evolution of soil under the
influence of various physical, biological, climatic, and geological factors.

Soil formation occurs via a series of changes to the parent material, all of which
lead to the formation of layers of soil, also called soil horizons.

These layers can then be separated on the basis of the composition and other
physical properties.

Soil is a mixture of inorganic and organic materials both are decomposition


materials.

Minerals constituents derived from soil forming rocks by fragmentation/


weathering.

Organic compounds of soil are formed either by decomposition of dead remains


of plants or animals or through metabolic activities of living organisms present in
soil.

Soil forming rocks

1) Igneous rocks: Formed due to cooling of lava.


2) Sedimentary rocks: Formed from decomposition of minerals.
3) Metamorphic rocks: formed due to change of pre existing rocks.

The whole process of soil formation is divided into two stages:

i) Weathering: breakdown of bigger rocks into fine, smaller mineral


particles.
ii) Soil development or pedogenesis: modification of mineral matter
through interaction between biological, topographic, and climatic,
effects, which ultimately lead to the development of a great variety of
potential soil types.
1) Weathering process: Weathering is the process of the breaking down rock.
There are two different types of weathering, physical and chemical
weathering.
i) Physical weathering:
Wetting and Drying- soils that are wetted up may be prone to
swelling, thus expanded then shrink when the soil dry out. These
seasonal effects are terned shrinkage and swelling.
Freezing and thawing- water expanded considerably when frozen and
this expansion literally pushes the soil apart, breaking it down.
Freeze-thawing can literally grind mountains down over time.
Heating and cooling- here soils subjected to extremes of temperature
are affected as they expand and contract.
Glaciation- larger mass of snow and ice-glaciers, while falling many
case physical erosion of rocks through grinding process.
Sand blast- in arid, desert conditions the rocks are disrupted by
physical action of wind, sand.

ii) Chemical weathering:


Solution- certain solid components in the soil can be dissolved in the
water.
Hydrolysis- certain compounds in the soil can react to elements in
the water.
Carbonation- soil compounds can react with carbonic acid
Hydration- water in the soil can act to change the chemical structure
of the soil components.
Oxidation- oxygen in the soil can act to change the chemical structure
of the soil components.
Reduction- lack oxygen in the soil can act to change.

2) Pedogenesis: The weathered material undergoes further a number of


changes, which is complex process known as pedogenesis or soil
development.
During this process, living organisms such as, lichen, bacteria, fungi, algae,
arthropods, mollusks, etc. as a result of secration of organic acides,
enzymes, co2 production, addition of organic matter after their death, bring
geochemical, biochemical and biophysical processes.
Due to all these the weathered rock particles are converted to true soil.

Factors affecting Soil Formation


There are five particular factors that influence the process of soil formation;
A. Parent material
 Parent material refers to the initial solid matter that makes up the soil.
 Parent material might include consolidated substances like rocks or
unconsolidated particles like water deposits, volcanic ashes, or organic matter.
 The composition of the parent material affects soil formation as it determines
the soil composition; for example, iron-containing rocks usually result in iron-
rich soil which has higher pH and darker color.
 Usually, parent materials are collected via wind, water, and volcanoes, resulting
in differences in the initial composition of the rock.
 The influence of parent material can also be observed in adjacent soils that
frequently exhibit different soil profile due to different parent materials.
 Changes in the parent material during soil formation can be either abrupt or
subsequent over a long period.
B. Topography
 Topography in the soil formation process includes factors like the geological
structure of the elevation above the sea level, configuration, and the slope.
 The position of parent material or soil during pedogenesis influences the
hydrologic cycle, transpiration, and other such processes.
 However, organic matter of the soil at lower slopes is higher due to runoffs
than the soils at higher slopes.
 Topography might be susceptible to changes over time by processes like soil
erosion and earthquakes, which then affects the process of soil formation.

C. Climate
 Climate as a factor of pedogenesis refers to the weather as the soil evolves over
long time scales.
 These properties might include rainfall, temperature, and storm patterns.
 The direct effect of climate on soil formation is via water and solar energy.
Water is a medium for the life cycles of various soil organisms, whereas sunlight
affects the concentration of water on the soil.
 The effect of climate on soil formation can be clearly seen in the case of desert
soils that are usually present around the equatorial region with high solar and
water energy.
 In the temperate regions, however, the climate is humid, which results in
tropical soil with sufficient moisture.

D. Organisms
 The process of soil formation is heavily influenced by the animal inhabitants,
the human population, and vegetation.
 In the case of effects caused by vegetation, it has been observed that soils
present under tress tend to more acidic and contain much less humus than
those under grass.
 These differences are observed due to the differences in the litter produced by
the two different types of vegetation.
 Human beings also affect pedogenesis by either removal of soil profile during
construction works or the modification of organic matter by agriculture or
irrigation.
 Soil animals and microorganisms affect soil formation as they influence the
organic content of soil and the texture due to their metabolic and physical
activity.
E. Time
 Even though factors like topography and parent materials are site-related,
factors like climate and organisms are flux-related, i.e. input from the
surrounding.
 Time is a factor that is neither dependent on the site or the flux but can bring
significant changes abruptly.
 Time, as an independent factor, however, is considered an abstract variable
that shows that the evolution of soil might change without any external inputs.
 The effects of time on the soil profile can be observed by the composition of
the soil where the accumulation of clay and lime in the sublayers occurs due to
downward translocation.
 The humus content in the soil horizons might also differ with aging.

SOIL PROFILE:

The soil is found in layers, which are arranged during the formation of soil. These
layers called horizons; the sequence of layers is the soil profile. The layers of soil can
easily be observed by their color and size of particles. The main layers of the soil
are topsoil, subsoil and the parent rock. Each layer has its own characteristics.
Layers of Soil
The soil profile is composed of a series of horizons or layers of soil stacked
one on top of the other.
These layers or horizons are represented by letters O, A, E, C, B and R.

The O-Horizon
The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is mainly composed of
organic materials such as dried leaves, grasses, dead leaves, small rocks, twigs,
surface organisms, fallen trees, and other decomposed organic matter.
This horizon of soil is often black brown or dark brown in color and this is
mainly because of the presence of organic content.

The A-Horizon or Topsoil


This layer is rich in organic material and is known as the humus layer.
This layer consists of both organic matter and other decomposed materials.
The topsoil is soft and porous to hold enough air and water.
In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are produced
which grows into a new plant.
This layer consists of microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria,
millipedes, etc.

The E-Horizon
This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons.
This layer is more common in forested areas and has lower clay content.

The B-Horizon or Subsoil


It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil and above the
bedrock.
It is comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil.
It contains less humus, soluble minerals, and organic matter. It is a site of
deposition of certain minerals and metal salts such as iron oxide.
This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown due to the
presence of clay soil.
The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B is often mixed while ploughing the fields.

The C-Horizon or Saprolite


This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of stones and broken
bedrock so, it is very hard.
Bedrock is also known as parent rock and lies just below the subsoil.
This layer is also known as saprolite.
The geological material present in this zone is cemented.

The R-Horizon
It is a compacted and cemented layer.
Different types of rocks such as granite, basalt and limestone are found here.
R-Horizon is the layer that has partially weathered rocks or unweathered
rocks.

Question:-

Q. What is humus layer in the soil?

Ans: It is also called topsoil or horizon A, which is rich in organic material.

This layer consists of decomposed material and organic matter.

This is the reason; the topsoil has dark brown color.

The humus makes the topsoil soft, porous to hold enough air and water.

In this layer, the seeds germinate and roots of the plants grow.
Many living organisms like earthworms, millipedes, and centipedes, bacteria, and
fungi are found in this layer of soil.

Q. What are humus, humidification and mineralisation?

The process of the formation of humus is called humification.The creation of


humus in the soil after interaction with bacteria which has broken down dead and
dying biological matter into humus.
Humus is a dark colored organic, colloidal and amorphous component formed by
the decomposition of dead organic matter.
Humification is defined as the process of decomposition of dead organic matter
leading to the formation of humus.
Mineralisation is the process of further degradation of humus by microbes
resulting in the release of inorganic substance into the soil.

ADVANTAGES OF HUMUS:
It has a great water holding capacity.
It increases the fertility of soil.
It can hold a great amount of minerals in ionic form by absorption.
It facilitates the infiltration of water.
It makes soil porous.
It facilitates the percolation of water.
It facilitates the proper aeration.
It is a source of food for soil organism
It helps the plants to take roots easily.
1.3 SOIL FUNCTION AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
Ecosystem services are a way of putting a value on biodiversity by looking at what
it does and how we value the function that the soil performs. These produce a
range of services which are essential to our health and well being.

 Clean air & water


 Cultural, spiritual & recreational values
 Decomposition and cycling of organic matter
 Gas exchange and carbon sequestration
 Maintenance of soil structure
 Medicines
 Plant growth control
 Pollination
 Production of food, fuel & energy
 Regulation of nutrients and uptake
 Seed dispersal
 Soil detoxification
 Soil formation & prevention of soil erosion

To provide a framework of how ecosystems provide for human lives the term
'Ecosystem Approach' and 'Ecosystem Services' are being used. 'Ecosystem
Services' describe which the process and functions, provided by the natural world,
that are used by humankind for its well being.
Soils have a large function in the health of ecosystem functions in the world.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Soil is the link between the air, water, rocks, and organisms, and is responsible for
many different functions in the natural world that we call ecosystem services.
These soil functions include: air quality and composition, temperature regulation,
carbon and nutrient cycling, water cycling and quality, natural "waste"
(decomposition) treatment and recycling, and habitat for most living things and
their food. We could not survive without these soil functions.

 Habitat
Soils are the environment in which seeds grow.
They provide heat, nutrients, and water that are available for use to nurture
plants to maturity.

These plants form together with other plants and organisms to create
ecosystems.

Ecosystems depend on the soil, and soils can help determine where ecosystems
are located.

These plants then provide valuable habitat and food sources for animals, bacteria,
and other things.

 Air Quality and Composition


A well covered soil prevents erosion.

During times like the great Dust Bowl, wind blows across soils, and suspended
them in the air.

These are easily inhaled and accumulate in lung tissues causing major respiratory
problems.

These particles can contain fungi and bacteria, which can cause infection and
diseases.

 Temperature Regulation
Soil temperature plays an important role in many processes, which take place in
the soil such as chemical reactions and biological interactions.

This includes important processes like seed germination, bugs and microbes that
live in the environment, and how quickly plant and animals break down.

In colder soils, there is less biological and chemical reactions compared to warmer
ones, therefore, there may be more carbon stored in the soils.

 Carbon and Nutrient Cycling


Soil contains large amounts of stored carbon, nearly 5 times more than the plants
that grow in it.
Natural processes are all cyclical.

On a global level, the total carbon cycle is more complex, and involves carbon
stored in fossil fuels, soils, oceans, and rocks.

Physical, biological, and chemical processes in the soil affect the balance in
organic carbon compounds, and if they are released to the atmosphere as CO 2, or
stored in the soil.

This same process occurs with Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and all other materials.

 Water Filtration
Without soil and soil particles, water would be running on bare rocks! When it
rains, the soil acts as a sponge, soaking water into the ground.

From there a few things can happen to the water.

The water can be taken up by plants, microbes, and other living things, or the
water moves into the underground aquifers and lakes, and flows into streams
before eventually making it to the ocean.

If rainfall contains harmful pollutants, the soil acts as a filter; contaminants are
captured by the soil particles, and the water comes out cleaner in the aquifers
and rivers.

Soil filters water as it moves from the land surface into the groundwater.

This occurs through physical, chemical and biological process.

When soils are not protected, soils and nutrients can pollute water, washing away
into streams and oceans.

 Water Cycling and Quality


Application of excess fertilizers, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, can result
in runoff to streams and rivers or contamination of groundwater.
In most freshwater systems, phosphorus is the major limiting nutrient for the
growth of photosynthetic organisms (e.g., plants, algae, and some
microorganisms like phytoplankton).

If a lake or pond receives excess phosphate, it can stimulate these organisms,


especially if nitrates are present with it.

These organisms block out the light and consume oxygen in the water to the
detriment of other organisms (e.g., other plants and fish).

 "Waste" Decomposition
Soils are the stomach that converts these "waste" products into newer, better
things that can be reused by other creatures.

Everything that is living eats, and because of this, everything needs to expel waste
products out of their bodies.

Humans and other organisms use the soil to decompose these waste materials
into new materials.

These new materials are used by other living things. Once a living thing dies, it
falls into the soil and the biological and chemical processes convert these dead
materials into new materials and food for living things. This is nature's way of
recycling.

1.4 TYPES OF SOIL SAND SOIL, SILT SOIL, CLAY SOIL, AND LOAM SOIL:
Soil is classified into four types:

 Sandy soil.
 Silt Soil.
 Clay Soil.
 Loamy Soil.
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand.

It consists of small particles of weathered rock.

Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has
very low nutrients and poor water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the
plant’s roots to absorb water.

This type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed
by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone and quartz.

Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and is
made up of rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller than sand and
larger than clay.

It is the smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand.

Silt is easily transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river,
lakes and other water bodies.

The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it
is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.

Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particle among the other two types of soil.

The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very
little or no airspace.

This soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and
air to penetrate into it.

It is very sticky to the touch when wet but smooth when dried.
Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which does not drain well or provide
space for plant roots to flourish.

It is not suitable for plants.

Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil.

It is a combination of sand, silt and clay such that the beneficial properties of each
are included.

For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more
suitable for farming.

This soil is also referred to as agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all


three types of soil materials, being sandy, clay, and silt, and it also happens to
have humus.

Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic
origins.

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