ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | LABORATORY

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD:

- Pumped by the heart and carried by blood

BLOOD
vessels throughout the body,

BLOOD COMPOSITION AND FUCNTIONS - BLOOD - is a complex liquid that performs a

number of critical functions. These functions
BLOOD – uniquely specialized connective tissue
relate to maintaining homeostasis.
in that it consists of two components:
1. Transports oxygen from the lungs, where it
o formed elements of blood, or the blood
enters the RBCs, to all cells of the body.
cells
2. Blood transports hormones from endocrine
o fluid part of blood or plasma.
glands to target organs in the body.
o The formed elements of blood are:
3. Blood helps to regulate the water content of
▪ RED BLOOD CELLS or erythrocytes,
cells through its dissolved sodium ions; thus,
▪ WHITE BLOOD CELLS or leukocytes (for
it plays a role in the process of osmosis.
immune response)
▪ platelets or thrombocytes. CLASSIFICATION OF BLOOD

A. ERYTHROCYTES (RBC) – which make up about 95% of

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD: the volume of blood cells.

- Appears as biconcave disks with edges that are
- If sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge, the
thicker than the center of the cell, looking
formed elements, being heavier are packed
somewhat doughnut shaped.
down by centrifugal force, and the plasma rises
- They do not have a nucleus and are simple in
to the top.
structure.
- Plasma - viscous fluid, accounts for about 55% of
- They are composed of a network of protein
blood; the formed elements make up about
called stroma, cytoplasm, some lipid substances
45% of the total volume of blood, where
including cholesterol, and a red pigment called
antibodies are found.
hemoglobin.
- Centrifuge – machine that is used in separating
- Kaya walang nucleus is because para mas
the blood from its components.
magaan at madami ang pag transport ng
- An average woman has about 5 liters of blood;
oxygen at nutrients.
an average man has approximately 6 liters of
- 4 – 6 million per mm cube
blood in the body.
- A single red blood cells contains about 250
- Blood accounts for about 8% of total body
million hemoglobin.
weight.
- Function: Transport oxygen and help transport
carbon dioxide.
- Life span: 120 days
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B. LEUKOCYTES (WBC) – are divided into two o Rarest WBC

subcategories: granular leukocytes and the o Involved in allergic reactions.
agranular or non-granular leukocytes. o Release heparin - (an anticoagulant),
- Has not color of pigment at all. histamine - (an inflammatory substance)
and serotonin - (a vasoconstrictor) into
B.1 The granular have granules in their cytoplasm
tissues.
when stained with Wrights’s stain. There are three
o Histamine – inflammatory chemical that
types:
makes blood vessels leaky and attracts
a. Neutrophils – 60% to 70% of WBCs other WBCs to the inflamed.
b. Eosinophils – 2% - 4% of WBCs o Function: Inflammatory response
c. Basophils – 0.5% - 1% of WBCs o Life span: unknown

B.2 The agranular or nongranular leukocytes do not show

(A) NEUTROPHILS (for bacteria and fungi)
granules in their cytoplasm when stained with
o Most common of leukocytes
Wright’s stain. There are two types:
o When pus accumulates at an infection area,
it consists of cell debris, fluid, and dead a. Monocytes – 3% - 8% of WBCs
neutrophils. d. Lymphocytes – 20% - 25% of WBCs
o Are avid phagocytes at sites of acute
infection. (A) MONOCYTE (for immune surveillance)
o Particularly partial to bacteria and fungi - Largest WBCs
which they kill during a respiratory burst that - More abundant cytoplasm and distinctive U or
deluges the phagocytized invaders. kidney-shaped nucleus.
o Granules are used by neutrophils to transfer - They resemble large lymphocytes.
in the bacteria causing bacteria to die. - When they migrate into the tissues, it turns into
o Function: Phagocytosis macrophage with huge appetites.
o Life span: 7-12 hours - Function: Immune surveillance (precursor of
tissue macrophage phagocytosis)
(B) EOSINOPHILS (for parasitic worms) - Life span: 3 days
o number increases rapidly during infections by
parasitic worms (flatworms, tapeworms, etc) (B) LYMPHOCYTES (for immune response)
ingested in food (Raw fish) or entering via the - Large, dark purple nucleus that occupies most
skin. of the cell volume.
o When eosinophils encounter a parasitic - Only slightly larger than RBCs
worm prey, they gather around and release - Tend to take up residence in lymphatic tissues,
enzymes from their cytoplasmic granules where they play an important role in the
onto the parasite’s surface, digesting it immune response.
away. - Second most numerous leukocytes in the blood.
o Eosinophils produce granules na nilalapit nila - Life span: unknown
sa mga parasitic worms which weakens the - T LYMPHOCYTES:
worms. o Cellular immune response
o Function: defense against allergens and o life span: unknown
worms - B LYMPHOCYTES:
o Lifespan: unknown o Antibody production (precursor od
plasma cells)
(C) BASOPHILS (for allergic reactions) o Life span: unknown
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C. THROMOBOCYTES (PLATELETS)
- For blood clotting
- Disk-shaped cellular fragments with a nucleus.
- Range in size from 2-4 micrometers in diameter.
- Prevent fluid loss when blood vessels are
damaged by initiating a chain of reactions that
result in blood clotting.
- Derived from megakaryocytes.
HEMATOPOIESIS (BLOOD CELL FORMATION)
- Life span: 7- 8 days
- Produced in red bone marrow from large - Occurs in red bone marrow or myeloid tissue.

megakaryocytes. - In adults, this tissue is found chiefly in the flat bones

of the skull, ribs, sternum, and proximal epiphyses of
the humerus and femur.
- All the formed elements arise from a common type
of stem cell, the hemocytoblast - “blood cell
former”, which resides in the red bone marrow
- The hemocytoblast forms two types of descendants:
o LYMPHOID STEM CELL – which produce
lymphocytes.
o MYELOID STEM CELL – produces erythrocytes,
platelets, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils,
and basophils.
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FORMATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS THE BLOOD GROUPS

- Because they are anucleate, RBCs are unable - Human blood is or different types and only
to synthesize proteins, grow, or divide. certain combinations of these blood types are
- As they age, RBCs become more rigid and compatible.
begin to fragment, or fall apart in 100 to 120 - Procedures have been developed for typing
days. blood.
- Their remains are eliminated by phagocytes in - This ensures that donor and recipient blood
the spleen, liver, and other body tissues. transfusions are compatible.
- RBC components are salvaged. - If blood groups are mismatched, agglutination
o The reason why feces are brown is or clumping of RBCs will occur.
because of the dead RBC. - TRANSFUSION REACTION – caused by a reaction
o Lost cells are replaced more or less between protein antibodies in the blood plasma
continuously by the divisions of and RBC surface molecules called antigens.
hemocytoblasts in the red.
o The developing RBCs divide many times
and then begin synthesizing huge ANTIGEN VS ANTIBODIES
amounts of hemoglobin.
- ANTIGENS - is the surface of the red blood cells.
o Suddenly, when enough hemoglobin has
o antigens on the surface of red blood
been accumulated, the nucleus and
cells have been categorized into blood
most organelles are ejected, and the cell
groups.
collapses inward.
o substance that the body recognizes as
o The entire developmental process from
foreign
hemocytoblast to mature RBC takes 3 to
- ANTIBODIES – plasma includes proteins.
5 days.
o very specific, meaning that each
o ERYTHROPOIETIN - The rate of erythrocyte
antibody can only bind to a certain
production is controlled by a hormone.
antigen.
-
o “recognizers”
o present in plasma that attach to RBCs
bearing surface antigens different from
those on the patient’s (recipient’s) RBCs

THE ABO BLOOD GROUP

- The ABO blood group consists of those

individuals who have the presence or absence
of two major antigens on the RBC membrane,
FORMATION OF WBC AND PLATELETS antigen A and antigen B.
- Due to inheritance, a person’s RBCs contain only
- Stimulated by hormones.
one of four antigen combinations: only A, only
- These colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and
B, both A and B, or neither A nor B.
interleukins not only prompt red bone marrow to
- Based on these facts, blood is typed.
turn out leukocytes, but also marshal up an army
- Someone with only antigen A has type A blood.
of WBCs to ward off attacks by enhancing the
- An individual with only antigen B has type B
ability of mature leukocytes to protect the body.
blood.
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- Someone with both antigen A and antigen B has o The O blood cells are not attacked by the anti-A
type AB blood. and/or anti-B in the recipient because the O cells
- If, however, a person has neither antigen A nor do not contain any A or B antigens.
antigen B, then that individual has type O blood. ➢ AGGLUTINATION – causes severe clumping.
o Is an antigen-antibody reaction that occurs when
an antigen is mixed with its corresponding
antibody at a suitable pH and temperature.
o tends to block blood vessels, resulting in brain and
kidney damage and, ultimately, death.
o Antigen is present
➢ BLOOD TRANSFUSION - involves taking blood from one
person (a donor) and giving it to another to replace
blood lost in major accidents, or during life-saving
operations, for instance.
o If the blood is not compatible in a blood
transfusion, then the red blood cells from the
donated blood will clump or agglutinate.
o The agglutinated red cells can clog blood
vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to
various parts of the body.
o The agglutinated red blood cells may also
crack, and their contents leak out in the body.
o The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which
➢ Proteins anchored in the blood plasma and red blood
becomes toxic when outside the cell. This can
cell (RBC) membrane are responsible for the
have fatal consequences for the patient.
phenotypic variations.
o Proteins in plasma function as antibodies, and The Rh BLOOD GROUP
proteins anchored to red blood cells function as
- Was named after the Rhesus monkeys, the
antigens.
animals in which one of the eight Rh antigens or
➢ Type AB blood - is unique because it has both A and B
factors was first identified and studied.
proteins on the surface of the red blood cells, but no
- This was antigen D or agglutinogen D, which was
plasma antibodies.
later discovered in humans.
o Universal recipient since they have no plasma
- If antigen D and other Rh antigens are found on
antibodies to react with the antigens found on A,
the RBC membrane, the blood is Rh positive.
B, and O.
- Most Americans are Rh positive. If the RBCs lack
➢ Type O blood - is equally unique because it has no
the antigens, the blood is Rh negative. The
antigens on the surface of the red blood cells but has
presence or absence of the antigens is an
both A and B antibodies in the blood plasma.
inherited trait.
o Universal donors
o Contains plasma proteins ANTIBODIES
BLOOD TYPES ANTIGEN
o it can be used in emergency transfusions as a BLOOD PLASMA
A A ANTI-B
donor to A, B, and AB blood types since the
B B ANTI-A
proteins in this blood plasma become so diluted in
AB AB NO ANTIBODIES
the recipient’s plasma that the amount of
O O ANTI-A , ANTI-B
agglutination does not reach lethal levels.
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BLOOD ANTIBODIES COMPATIBLE 50% - A

ANTIGEN
TYPES BLOOD PLASMA WITH
A A ANTI-B A,O 50% - B
B B ANTI-A B, O
Pag O blood is recessive to A blood
AB AB NO ANTIBODIES A, B, AB, O
O O ANTI-A , ANTI-B O IA IA
i IAi IAi
i IAi IAi
ANTIBODIES
BLOOD ANTIGE rH COMPATIB
BLOOD
TYPES N
PLASMA FACTOR LE WITH
A A ANTI-B A+ (+)(-) A , O
100% - A
B B ANTI-A B+ (+)(-) B, O
NO (+)(-) A, B, HOMOZYGOUS - IA IA (dominant-dominant)
AB AB AB+
ANTIBODIES AB, O
HETEROZYGOUS - IAi (isang dominant, isang recessive)
ANTI-A ,
O O O+ (+)(-) O
ANTI-B IA i
i IAi i
i IAi i
ANTIBODIES
BLOOD ANTIGE rH COMPATIB
TYPES N
BLOOD
PLASMA FACTOR LE WITH
A A ANTI-B A- (-) A , O 50% - A
B B ANTI-A B- (-) B, O
50% - O
NO (-) A, B,
AB AB AB-
ANTIBODIES AB, O HOMOZYGOUS – AA, BB, AB, OO
ANTI-A ,
O O O- (-) O HETEROZYGOUS – AO, BO
ANTI-B

DOMINANT – BOTH TRAITS ARE MANIFESTED BLOOD PRESSURE

O – recessive BLOOD PRESSURE – important measurable aspect of

the circulatory system.
Pag A and B blood are codominant:
o When the ventricles of the heart contract,
A B blood pressure is increased throughout all the
A AA AB arteries.
B AB BB o Arterial blood pressure - is directly
dependent on the amount of blood
pumped by the heart per minute and the
25% - A
resistance of blood flow through the
50 % - AB
arterioles.
25% - B
o SPHYGMOMANOMETER – device used to
Pag O blood is recessive to AB blood measure arterial blood pressure.
▪ This device consists of an inflatable cuff
IA IB
connected by rubber hoses to a hand
i IAi IB
pump and to a pressure gauge
i IAi IBi
graduated in millimeters of mercury.
▪ KOROTKOFF – sounds
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• The sounds are divided into five HEART

phases based on the loudness and
HEART – is a muscular organ that is essential for
quality of the sounds.
life because it pumps blood through the body.
• Phase 1 - A loud, clear tapping
o cardiovascular system consists of the
sound is evident that increases in
heart and thousands of miles of blood
intensity as the cuff is deflated.
vessels.
• Phase 2. - A succession of murmurs
o The heart is the muscular pump that
can be heard. Sometimes the
forces the blood through a system of
sounds seem to disappear during
vessels made of arteries, veins, and
this time, which may be a result of
capillaries.
inflating or deflating the cuff too
o These vessels transport the blood, which
slowly.
carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
• Phase 3. - A loud, thumping sound
enzymes, and cellular waste to and from
similar to Phase 1 but less clear,
the trillions of cells that make up our
replaces the murmur.
bodies.
• Phase 4. - A muffled sound abruptly
replaces the thumping sounds of
➢ The function of transportation of blood by the
Phase 3.
cardiovascular system occurs 24 hours a day 7
• Phase 5. - No sound.
days per week, nonstop for 70, 80, or 90 years or
o SYSTOLIC PRESSURE - The cuff pressure at
more.
which the first sound is heard (that is, the
➢ This is possible because the heart beats about 72
beginning of Phase 1)
times a minute. It is a unique organ in that it can
o DIASTOLIC PRESSURE - The cuff pressure at
contract, rest, and immediately contract again
which the sound becomes muffled (the
during our entire lifetime.
beginning of Phase 4) and the pressure at
➢ The system has a series of valves that prevent
which the sound disappears (the beginning
blood from back flowing through the blood
of Phase 5)
vessels. It is our pumping heart that helps keep
NORMAL BLOOD PRESSURES FOR MALES AND FEMALES AT us alive and healthy.
DIFFERENT AGES:
ANATOMY OF THE HEART

➢ SIZE, LOCATION, AND ORIENTATION

o Approximately the size of a person’s fist, the
hollow, cone-shaped heart weighs less
than a pound.
o Snugly enclosed within the inferior
mediastinum the medial section of the
thoracic cavity, the heart is flanked on
each side by the lungs.
o Its more pointed apex is directed toward
the left hip and rests on the diaphragm,
approximately at the level of the fifth
intercostal space.
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➢ Pericardium – a sac that enclosed the heart.

➢ It is enclosed in a loose-fitting serous membrane
known as the pericardial sac, which can also be
referred to as the parietal pericardium.
➢ fibrous layer or fibrous pericardium - outermost
layer which it is made of tough fibrous
connective tissue and connects to the large
blood vessels that enter and leave the heart
(the venae cava, aorta, pulmonary arteries, LAYERS OF THE HEART WALL

and veins), to the diaphragm muscle, and to the

Visceral pericardium or epicardium - outermost
inside of the sternal wall of the thorax.
layer of the wall of the heart and the innermost
o The loosely fitting superficial part of this sac.
layer of the pericardium.
o helps protect the heart and anchors it to
o Because of its serous nature, it can also be
surrounding structures, such as the
called the serous pericardium of the
diaphragm and sternum.
heart.
➢ serous layer or serous pericardium - the
pericardial cavity – a space between the
innermost layer of the pericardial sac.
epicardium of the heart and the serous
o This is deep to the fibrous pericardium
pericardium of the pericardial sac.
which is slippery and two layered.
o This cavity contains a watery fluid called
o This layer is thin and delicate.
the pericardial fluid, which reduces
➢ Parietal Pericardium - lines the interior of the
friction and erosion of tissue between
fibrous pericardium. At the superior aspect of
these membranes as the heart expands
the heart, this parietal layer attaches to the
and contracts during a cardiac cycle.
large arteries leaving the heart and then makes
o Lubricating serous fluid - is produced by
a U-turn and continues inferiorly over the heart
the serous pericardial membranes and
surface.
collects in the pericardial cavity between
these serous layers.
▪ This fluid allows the heart to beat
easily in a relatively frictionless
environment as the serous
pericardial layers slide smoothly
across each other.
▪ Pericarditis - results in a decrease in
the already small amount of serous
fluid.
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Myocardium - makes up the bulk of the heart. ➢ The two atria are separated from each other by
o consists of thick bundles of cardiac muscle an internal interatrial septum.
twisted and whorled into ringlike ➢ The lower two chambers are called the:
arrangements. ▪ right ventricle
o It is the layer that actually contracts. ▪ left ventricle
o is reinforced internally by a network of ➢ The two ventricles are separated from one
dense fibrous connective tissue called the another by an internal interventricular septum.
“skeleton of the heart.”
Endocardium - is the innermost layer of the wall
of the heart.
o is a thin, glistening sheet of endothelium
that lines the heart chambers.
o It is continuous with the linings of the blood
vessels leaving and entering the heart.

THE GREAT VESSELS OF THE HEART

➢ Right atrium - receives blood from all parts of the

body except the lungs.
o It receives this blood through three
veins.
➢ Superior vena cava - also known as the anterior
vena cava, brings blood from the upper parts of
the body, the head, neck, and arms.
➢ Inferior vena cava - also known as the posterior
vena cava, brings blood from the lower parts of
the body, the legs, and abdomen.
➢ Coronary sinus - drains the blood from most of
the vessels that supply the walls of the heart with
blood. This blood in the right atrium is then
CHAMBERS OF THE HEART squeezed into the right ventricle.
➢ Right ventricle - pumps the blood into the next
➢ The inside of the heart is divided into four
major vessel, the pulmonary trunk - which splits
chambers that receive blood from various parts
into the right pulmonary artery and the left
of the body.
pulmonary artery. These arteries each carry the
➢ The two upper chambers are called the:
blood to a lung.
▪ right atrium
▪ left atrium
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o In the lungs, the blood releases the carbon THE CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART
dioxide it has been carrying and picks up
oxygen.
o The oxygenated blood returns to the heart
via four pulmonary veins that empty into
the left atrium. The blood is then squeezed
into the left ventricle.
o The left ventricle pumps the blood into the
next great vessel, the ascending aorta.
o From here the aortic blood goes to the
coronary arteries - (which supply the walls
of the heart with oxygenated blood), the
arch of the aorta - (which sends arteries to
upper parts of the body), and the
descending thoracic aorta, which
becomes the abdominal aorta. These
arteries transport oxygenated blood to all
parts of the body.

THE VALVES OF THE HEART

➢ Two atrioventricular valves:

o Tricuspid Valve - The valve between the
right atrium and the right ventricle
which consists of three flaps or cusps.
o Bicuspid or mitral valve - The valve
between the left atrium and the left
ventricle with two cusps or flaps
➢ Valves that prevent blood from flowing back
into the pumping chamber:
o Pulmonary semilunar valve - found in
the opening where the pulmonary trunk
exits the right ventricle.
o Aortic semilunar valve - found in the
opening where the ascending aorta
leaves the left ventricle.
o Both of the valves are made of three
semilunar cusps that allow blood to flow
only in one direction.

SOME MAJOR BLOOD CIRCULATORY ROUTES

➢ Systemic circulation - Route includes all of the

oxygenated blood that leaves the left ventricle
of the heart through the aortic semilunar valve
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and goes to the aorta and the deoxygenated CARDIAC CYCLE DURING FIVE PERIODS:
blood that returns to the right atrium of the heart
via the superior and inferior venae cava after
traveling to all the organs of the body, including
the nutrient arteries to the lungs.
o Two of its significant subdivisions:
▪ coronary circulation (1) Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
▪ hepatic portal circulation. - The heart is completely relaxed.
➢ Pulmonary circulation - Is the route that goes - Pressure in the heart is low, the AV valves are
from the right ventricle of the heart through the open, and blood is flowing passively through the
pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary atria into the ventricles.
trunk that branches into the right and left - The semilunar valves are closed.
pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs. (2) Atrial systole
o Here the deoxygenated blood loses its - The ventricles remain in diastole as the atria
carbon dioxide and picks up the contract, forcing blood into the ventricles to
oxygen and returns to the left atrium of complete ventricular filling.
the heart via the four pulmonary veins. (3) Isovolumetric contraction
➢ Cerebral circulation - The blood circulatory - Atrial systole ends, and ventricular systole
route that supplies the brain with oxygen and begins.
nutrients and disposes of waste. - The initial rise in intraventricular pressure closes
➢ Fetal circulation - a temporary circulation, is the the AV valves, preventing backflow of blood
circulation route that exists only between the into the atria.
developing fetus and its mother. - For a moment, the ventricles are completely
o It contains special structures that allow closed chambers.
the fetus to exchange oxygen and (4) Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
nutrients with its mother and to get rid of - The ventricles continue to contract, causing the
fetal waste products through this intraventricular pressure to surpass the pressure
connection. in the major arteries leaving the heart.
- This causes the semilunar valves to open and
blood to be ejected from the ventricles.
CARDIAC CYCLE AND HEART SOUNDS - During this phase, the atria are again relaxed
and filling with blood.
➢ Systole and Diastole – heart contraction and
(5) Isovolumetric relaxation
relaxation, respectively.
- As ventricular diastole begins, the pressure in the
➢ Cardiac Cycle – the events of one complete
ventricles falls below that in the major arteries,
heartbeat, during which both atria and
and the semilunar valves close to prevent
ventricles contract and then relax.
backflow into the ventricles.
➢ Lub – first heart sound caused by the closing of
- For another moment, the ventricles are
the AV valves.
completely closed chambers and
➢ Dup – occurs when the semilunar valves close at
intraventricular pressure continues to decrease.
the end of the ventricular systole.
- Meanwhile, the atria have been in diastole,
➢ Heart murmurs - Abnormal or unusual heart
filling with blood.
sounds
- When atrial pressure increases above
intraventricular pressure, the AV valves open,
and the cycle repeats.
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CARDIAC OUTPUT – amount of blood pumped out. It is ➢ Tunica externa - the outermost tunic. This layer is
the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV) - composed largely of fibrous connective tissue,
the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with and its function is to support and protect the
each heartbeat. vessels.

BLOOD VESSELS MAJOR ARTERIES AND VEINS OF THE BODY

ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS ➢ Aorta - is the largest artery in the body.

o It begins as it exits from the left ventricle of
Vascular System
the heart as the ascending aorta.
o Arteries – red
o It then arches to the left as the arch of the
o Veins – blue
aorta (or aortic arch) and heads down
Arteries – As the heart beats, it propels blood
along the spine through the thorax as the
into the large arteries leaving the heart.
thoracic aorta.
Arterioles – Capillary beds – as the large arteries
o When it passes through the diaphragm
branch, blood moves into successively smaller
muscle and enters the abdominal cavity, it
and smaller arteries and then into the arterioles,
is called the abdominal aorta.
which feed the capillary beds in the tissue.
o It is as thick as a finger and its branches go
Venules – Veins - capillary beds are drained by
to various regions of the body.
venules, which in turn empty into veins. It is only
o Its arterial branches are usually named
through capillary walls that exchanges between
according to the region of the body, the
tissue cells and the blood can occur.
organ it goes to, or the bone it follows.
Great Veins – veins merge and finally empty into
the great veins (vena cava entering the heart).

➢ Tunica intima - which lines the lumen, or interior,

of the vessels, is a thin layer of endothelium
(squamous epithelial cells) resting on a
➢ Most of the arteries of the body are in deep and
basement membrane.
protected areas of the body.
➢ Tunica media - bulky middle layer, made up
➢ Veins - tend to be closer to the body surface
mostly of smooth muscle and elastic fibers.
and are easily seen through the skin.
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o Deeper veins follow the courses of the

major arteries, and their names are
identical to the arteries.
o Veins converge on either the superior or
inferior vena cava.
o Veins draining the head and arms merge
into the superior vena cava; those draining
the lower parts of the body merge into the
inferior vena cava.

COMMON DISEASE, DISORDER, OR CONDITION

➢ Rheumatic Heart Disease Arrhythmia

➢ Endocarditis Heart Murmur
➢ Myocarditis Stenosed Heart Valve
➢ Pericarditis Incompetent Heart Valve
➢ Atherosclerosis Angina Pectoris
➢ Coronary Heart Disease Heart Failure
➢ Mitral Valve Prolapse Syndrome Hypertension
➢ Congenital Heart Disease
➢ Myocardial Infarction
➢ Angioplasty And Stents