Thermodynamics

Psychrometry
Module 5
Prof. Anand Veeraragavan
[email protected]
Co-Director, Centre for Hypersonics
School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Objectives
So far, we’ve dealt with pure substances:
1. air
2. steam
3. Some refrigerants
However, mixtures in many circumstances are important

In the current module, we’ll look at:

1. Absolute and relative humidity
2. Wet-bulb temperature
3. Psychrometric charts
4. Air-conditioning processes

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Psychrometry, ideal mixtures

1. Air frequently contains water vapour:
• This has a non-trivial effect on properties

2. The characterisation of the properties of humid air is called psychrometry

• Psychrometry is important to human comfort on environment.
• Psychrometric analysis serves as a basis for air-conditioning system designs and
optimisations.

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Mixtures of ideal gases

• Dalton’s law of additive pressures: the pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures each
gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume.

𝑃𝑚 = σ𝑘𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 @ T, V of mixture

 Amagat’s law of additive volumes: the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes each gas
would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.

𝑃𝑚 = σ𝑘𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖 @ T, P of mixture

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Atmospheric air
• Atmospheric (i.e., humid) air is a mixture of ideal gases:
At temperatures below 50oC, the h =
• Dry air: constant lines Coincide with the T=
constant Lines in the superheated
𝑘𝐽 Vapour region of water
𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 , ~constant from -10 to 50℃
𝑘𝑔𝐾

ℎ𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇, ∆ℎ𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ∆ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

• Water vapour: at temperatures sufficiently lower than the boiling point, the vapour
pressure of water is low, and it can be treated as an ideal gas.
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 1.82 , ~constant from -10 to 50℃
𝑘𝑔𝐾

ℎ𝑣 (𝑇, 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑃) ≅ ℎ𝑔 (𝑇) – enthalpy of water vapour in air can be taken to be

equal to that of saturated vapour at the same temperature

• Dalton’s Law: 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝑷𝒗 (kPa) Subscripts:

𝑷𝒂 →Partial pressure of dry air a – dry air
v – water vapour
𝑷𝒗 →Partial pressure of vapour (vapour pressure)

Because it is a mixture of two components (“air” and water), we need to know three thermodynamic properties (pressure, plus
two others) to entirely define the thermodynamic state. We will also define a few additional useful properties for this mixture…
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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Absolute humidity
• Absolute or specific humidity: The mass of water vapour present in a unit mass of dry air.
• Also known as humidity ratio and is denoted by ω: Subscripts:
𝑚𝑣 a – dry air
ω= (kg water vapour/kg dry air) v – water vapour
𝑚𝑎

• Since all chemical species are behaving as an ideal gas:

𝑃𝑣 𝑉 𝑃𝑣
𝑚𝑣 ൗ𝑅𝑣 𝑇 ൗ𝑅𝑣 𝑃𝑣
→ω= = 𝑃𝑎 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0.622 From Dalton’s Law: 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝑷𝒗 (kPa)
𝑚𝑎 ൗ𝑅𝑎 𝑇 ൗ𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑎

𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟐𝑷𝒗
→𝝎= (kg water vapour/kg dry air)
𝑷−𝑷𝒗

• Saturated air: The air saturated with moisture at a given temperature.

𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟐𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 @𝑻 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 @𝑇 is the saturation pressure of water at that temperature

→ ω𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝑷−𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 @𝑻 ω𝑠𝑎𝑡 is deemed as the “moisture capacity” of the air at the temperature
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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Relative humidity
• Relative humidity: The ratio of the amount of moisture the air holds (𝒎𝒗 ) to the maximum amount
of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature (𝒎𝒗,𝒔𝒂𝒕 ).
𝑃𝑣 𝑉
𝑚𝑣 ൗ𝑅 𝑇 𝑃𝑣
𝑣
ф= = = 𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑖𝑠 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 @𝑻
𝑚𝑣,𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 𝑇 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑉
ൗ𝑅 𝑇 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑣

• Important for comfort / qualitative experience / evaporation characteristics

• We can determine the maximum amount of water present from the saturation pressure.

• Absolute and relative humidity are related:

ω𝑷 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐ф𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕
ф= or ω=
(𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐 + ω)𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑷 − ф𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕
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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Enthalpy of humid air

• Total enthalpy in kJ:

𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 + 𝐻𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑎 + 𝑚𝑣 ℎ𝑣

• Specific enthalpy in kJ/kg (dry air):

𝐻 𝑚𝑣
ℎ= = ℎ𝑎 + ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + ωℎ𝑣
𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎 𝑣

ℎ𝑔 is saturated water vapour specific

But ℎ𝑣 ≅ ℎ𝑔
enthalpy in Table A-4 or 5

→ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + ωℎ𝑔 (kJ/kg dry air)

ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + ωℎ𝑔

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Dry bulb temperature

• The ordinary temperature of atmospheric air – i.e., what we would

measure with a normal thermometer.

• It has a different name to differentiate it from other temperatures related to

air-water mixtures.

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Dew-point temperature
• We're all familiar with the phenomenon of dew.

• Dew-point temperature 𝑇𝑑𝑝 : The temperature at which

condensation begins when the air is cooled at constant
pressure.

• 𝑇𝑑𝑝 is the saturation temperature of water corresponding to

the vapour pressure.

𝑇𝑑𝑝 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 𝑃𝑣

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and
Heat Transfer

Adiabatic saturation temperature

𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 → The mass flow rate of dry air is constant
𝑚ሶ 𝑤1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤2 → The mass flow rate of vapour in the air increased by
an amount equal to the rate of evaporation, 𝑚ሶ 𝑓

Mass conservation→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ω1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ω2 → 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ω2 − ω1 )

Energy conservation→ 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 → 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ2

→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ω2 − ω1 )ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ2

→ ℎ1 + (ω2 − ω1 )ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ2

→ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 + ω1 ℎ𝑔1 + (ω2 − ω1 )ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 + ω2 ℎ𝑔2

𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) + ω2 ℎ𝑓𝑔2 0.622𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡2

ω1 = ω2 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 = 𝑃
ℎ𝑔1 − ℎ𝑓2 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡2

𝑇2 is called adiabatic saturation temperature. The specific humidity (and relative humidity) of air can be
determined from these equations by measuring the pressure and temperature of air at the inlet and the exit of
Psychrometry an adiabatic saturator. 11
MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Wet bulb temperature

• Measurement with wet, porous surface around thermometer.
• For air–water vapor mixtures at atmospheric pressure, wet-bulb
temperature 𝑇𝑤𝑏 is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation
temperature.
𝑇𝑤𝑏 ≅ 𝑇2
• This is in fact a coincidence (but a convenient one)!

• This is due to similar rates of heat transfer and mass transfer (i.e.
evaporation of water molecules) at the air-water interface.

• By knowing the relative humidity at state 1 (inlet) and 2 (exit), we can

calculated 𝑇𝑤𝑏 through the equation
𝑻𝒘𝒃 is in ℃
From 𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 + ω1 ℎ𝑔1 + (ω2 − ω1 )ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 + ω2 ℎ𝑔2

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Wet bulb temperature cont’d

Sling psychrometer
→ It is now phasing out due to the
development of electronic
humidity sensors

Capacitive humidity sensors Resistive humidity sensors

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example – specific and relative humidity

The dry- and wet-bulb temperature of air at 1 atm (101.325 kPa) are measured to be 25°C and 15°C,
respectively. Determine (a) the specific humidity, (b) the relative humidity, and (c) the enthalpy of the air.
Strategy: imagine the air goes through the adiabatic saturation process. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures are temperatures at state 1 and 2. Look up Table A-4 to get the corresponding saturation
pressures. Then directly use the equations to get 𝜔 and 𝜙.
𝑘𝐽
State 1:→ 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡1 = 3.1698𝑘𝑃𝑎 @ 25℃, ℎ𝑔1 = 2546.5
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
State 2:→ 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡2 = 1.7075𝑘𝑃𝑎 @ 15℃, ℎ𝑓𝑔2 = 2465 , ℎ𝑓2 = 62.982
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) + ω2 ℎ𝑓𝑔2 0.622𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡2 0.622 ∗ 1.7075
ω1 = ω
Where 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑤𝑏 , and 2 = = = 0.01065 Kg water
vapour/kg dry air
ℎ𝑔1 − ℎ𝑓2 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡2 101.325 − 1.7075
1.005∗ 15−25 +0.01065∗2465.4
→ω1 = = 0.00653(kg water/kg dry air)
2546.5−62.982

𝜔𝑃 0.00653 ∗ 101.325
ф= = = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟐%
(0.622 + 𝜔)𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 0.622 + 0.00653 ∗ 3.1698
𝒌𝑱
ℎ1 = ℎ𝑎1 + ℎ𝑣1 = ℎ𝑎1 + ω1 ℎ𝑔1 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 + ω1 ℎ𝑔1 = 1.005 ∗ 25 + 0.00653 ∗ 2546.5 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟖 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓 14
Psychrometry 𝒌𝒈
MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Psychrometric charts
Psychrometric charts: Present moist air properties in a convenient form. They are used extensively in
A-C applications. The psychrometric chart serves as a valuable aid in visualizing the A-C processes such
as heating, cooling, and humidification.

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 MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

The following can be obtained:

1. Dry-bulb temperature (℃ )

2. Wet-bulb temperature (℃ )

3. Enthalpy of dry air (kJ/kg)

4. Specific volume of dry air

(m3/kg)

5. Specific humidity (kg

H2O/kg dry air)

6. Relative humidity

2 properties needed
to determine the 3rd

Mindful of the units

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example: Psychrometric chart

Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35°C, and 40 percent relative humidity. Use the psychrometric
chart to determine (a) the specific humidity, (b) the enthalpy, (c) the wet-bulb temperature, (d) the dew-point
temperature, and (e) the specific volume of the air.

ω = 0.0142 kg H2O/kg dry air

ℎ = 72 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 dry air

𝑇𝑤𝑏 =24℃

𝑇𝑑𝑝 =19.4℃

𝑣 = 0.893𝑚3/𝑘𝑔 dry air

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Important applications
• Psychrometry relates to human comfort. The comfort of the human body depends primarily on
three factors: the (dry-bulb) temperature, relative humidity, and air motion.
• Heating, ventilation, air conditioning
• Drying, heat exchange (air cooling)
• Evaporation ponds
• Low-temp exhaust properties

• Typically, we can measure wet and dry bulb temperatures directly.

• Modern sensors are replacing these traditional sensors with direct measurement of relative or
absolute humidity.

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Air-conditioning processes
Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at the desired temperature
and humidity requires some processes called air-conditioning processes.

These processes include:

→ simple heating (raising the temperature)
→simple cooling (lowering the temperature)
→humidifying (adding moisture), and
→dehumidifying(removing moisture).

Sometimes, two or more of these processes are needed to

bring the air to a desired temperature and humidity level.

Air is commonly heated and humidified in winter and cooled

and dehumidified in summer.

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Air-conditioning processes cont’d

Most air-conditioning processes can be modelled as steady-flow processes with the following
general mass and energy balances:

Mass balance→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑘𝑔
Mass balance for dry air→ ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ( )
𝑠
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Mass balance for water→ ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 or ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ω = ෍ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ω

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Energy balance→ 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊ሶ 𝑖𝑛 + ෍ 𝑚ℎ
ሶ = 𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ෍ 𝑚ℎ
ሶ
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

The work term usually consists of the fan work input, which is small relative to the other
terms in the energy balance relation.
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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Simple heating and cooling (ω=constant)

• Cooling can be accomplished by passing the air over some coils through which
a refrigerant or chilled water flows.

• Heating and cooling appear as a horizontal line since no moisture is added to

or removed from the air.

Mass balance for dry air→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Mass balance for water→ ω1 = ω2

Energy balance→ 𝑄ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ℎሶ2 − ℎ1 ) or 𝑞 = ℎ2 − ℎ1

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 MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example-Simple heating and cooling (ω=constant)

Humid air at 1 atm, 35°C, and 70 percent relative humidity is cooled at constant pressure to the dew-
point temperature (see Figure). Determine the cooling, in kJ/kg dry air, required for this process.
Assumptions:
1. This is a steady-flow process, and thus the mass flow rate of dry air
remains constant during the entire process ( 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 )
2. Dry air and water vapor are ideal gases.
3. The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.

For simple heating & cooling From psychrometric charts

ф = 0.70
Mass balance for dry air→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎
𝑘𝐽
State 1: ൨ → ℎ1 = 100 dry air; ω𝟏 = 0.0252kg H2O/kg dry air (ω2 ), 𝑇𝑑𝑝,1 = 28.7℃
𝑇1 = 35℃ 𝑘𝑔

Mass balance for water→ ω1 = ω2 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑘𝐽
State 2: 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑑𝑝,1 = 28.7℃቏ → ℎ2 = 93.5 dry air
𝑘𝑔
Energy balance→ 𝑞 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 ф2 = 1

From the energy balance on air in the cooling section→ 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 100 − 93.5 = 𝟔. 𝟓kJ/kg dry air
Discussion: Air is cooled by 6.3°C during this process. The specific humidity remains constant
during a simple cooling process and is represented by a horizontal line in the psychrometric chart.
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Heating with humidification

Problems with the low relative humidity resulting from simple heating can be
eliminated by humidifying the heated air. This is accomplished by passing the air first
through a heating section and then through a humidifying section.

Mass balance for dry air→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Mass balance for water→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ω1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ω2 → ω1 = ω2

Energy balance→ 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ2 → 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

Also, 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ω2 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎3 ω3 →𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ω3 − ω2 )

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Cooling with dehumidification

The specific humidity of air remains constant during a simple cooling process, but its
relative humidity increases. If the relative humidity reaches undesirably high levels, it
may be necessary to remove some moisture from the air, that is, to dehumidify it. This
requires cooling the air below its dew-point temperature.

Mass balance for dry air→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Mass balance for water→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ω1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ω2 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 → 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ω1 − ω2 )

ሶ = 𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + σ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚ℎ
Energy balance→ σ𝑖𝑛 𝑚ℎ ሶ →𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚ሶ ℎ1 − ℎ2 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 ℎ𝑤

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Evaporative cooling
As water evaporates, the latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed from the water body
and the surrounding air. As a result, both the water and the air are cooled during the
process.

Evaporative cooling process is essentially identical to

adiabatic saturation process.

𝑻𝒘𝒃 ≅ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝒉 ≅ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

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MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Example-Evaporative cooling
Air enters an evaporative (or swamp) cooler at 1 atm, 35°C, and 20 percent relative humidity, and it
exits at 80 percent relative humidity. Determine (a) the exit temperature of the air and (b) the lowest
temperature to which the air can be cooled by this evaporative cooler.

Strategy: the air goes through an adiabatic saturation process, but

the air at exit has not become saturated. It follows a constant-𝑇𝑤𝑏
line. Therefore, determine the dry-bulb temperature at state 2 is the
exit temperature.
𝑇2 ≈ 28.6℃
The minimum temperature is the one the air would reach
at the end of this process, which is obviously the wet-bulb
temperature
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑤𝑏 ≈ 18.9℃
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) + ω2 ℎ𝑓𝑔2
Discussion: To get 𝑇2 and 𝑇𝑤𝑏 , we can use → ω1 =
ℎ𝑔1 − ℎ𝑓2

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 MECH3400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Adiabatic mixing of airstreams

Many A-C applications require the mixing of two airstreams. This is particularly
true for large buildings, most production and process plants, and hospitals,
which require that the conditioned air be mixed with a certain fraction of fresh
outside air before it is routed into the living space.

Mass balance for dry air→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎3

Mass balance for water→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ω1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ω2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎3 ω3

Energy balance→ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎3 ℎ3

𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ω2 − ω3 ℎ2 − ℎ3
= =
𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ω3 − ω1 ℎ3 − ℎ1

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The End

Thank you

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