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International
Relations
A Concise Companion

David Weigall
Department of History,
Anglia Polytechnic University

A member of the Hodder Headline Group

LONDON
Distributed in the United States of America by
Oxford University Press Inc., New York
First published in Great Britain in 2002 by
Arnold, a member of the Hodder Headline Group,
338 Huston Road, London NW1 3BH

http://www.arnoldpublishers.com

Distributed in the United States of America by

Oxford University Press Inc.,
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016

© 2002 David Weigall

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically or mechanically,
including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval
system, without either prior permission in writing from the publisher or a
licence permitting restricted copying. In the United Kingdom such licences
are issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency: 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London WIT 4LP.

The advice and information in this book are believed to be true and
accurate at the date of going to press, but neither the author [s] nor the publisher
can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0 340 76332 9 (hb)

ISBN 0 340 76333 7 (pb)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Production Editor: Rada Radojicic

Production Controller: Martin Kerans
Cover Design: Terry Griffiths

Typeset in 10 on 12 pt Minion by Charon Tec Pvt. Ltd, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Limited, Bodmin, Cornwall

What do you think about this book? Or any other Arnold tide?
Please send your comments to [email protected]
Contents

Preface v

Acknowledgements vi

List of Maps vii

A-Z 1
1
Bibliography 249

Maps 253

\ V
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide a comprehensive cross-referenced dictionary

for those studying international relations and modern and contemporary inter-
national history. Whether as a student, or as a general reader interested in world affairs,
you will be faced with a great variety of concepts, organizations, movements, treaties,
historical and geographical references, doctrines, diplomatic, legal, environmental
and other terms.
Readers are confronted with both new and established terms, a number of them
widely contested and variously interpreted, 'globalising 'isolationism', 'nationalism',
'neo-realism', 'pluralism', 'domestic analogy', 'rogue states' and so on. At the same time,
interpretative concepts combine with event, movements and historical context -
theory with actuality - in a field of study that abounds in allusions. The American
novelist William Faulkner once wrote: 'The past is never dead; it is not even past.' In
foreign policy and defence, 'Munich' has haunted policy-makers, the 'Vietnam syn-
drome' is invoked and the 'Maginot mentality' criticized. The supposed 'lessons' of the
past influence the present, in a world that is in a state of perpetual movement, flux,
change and much instability, and in which theories of order and control are con-
stantly challenged.
You need to understand continuity and change, global and regional interdepend-
ence and conflict and rivalry. At the same time, comprehension of international
relations and world affairs requires, in particular measure, interdisciplinary under-
standing. Linkage is of the essence - establishing connections. This, among other
things, may be between international and domestic politics, between economic devel-
opments and global environmental concerns, between technological developments
and strategy, between international law and humanitarianism, between population
increase and war, and between arms control agreements and human rights. The range
of 1,500 entries in the following pages, then, is intended to meet the needs of ready
reference in a world order and a disordered world of much complexity and many
interactions and to provide the concepts, terms and factual information to make this
task of association easier.
Another major consideration has been the pace of change. The events following
the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the historical sequel to what was announced
as the 'New World Order' have altered perspectives, and significantly so. For a genera-
tion the cold war, to a major extent, dominated and formed the framework for debate
over international relations, in terms of theory and strategy and practice, not least, of
course, with the advent of nuclear weapons. One has only to think of the sheer num-
ber of terms that the cold war added to our vocabulary. Since 1989 there have been
new questionings, reappraisals and agendas. Boundaries have been redrawn and old
assumptions discarded. New fears and dangers have succeeded older threats, or per-
ceptions of threat.
 The aim here has been to provide the reader with a book specific in purpose, and
accessible. For reasons of space, biographical entries have been excluded. Though a
number of entries obviously refer also to earlier periods - for instance, 'balance of
power', 'Grotian', 'Westphalian System' and so on - the essential historical framework
is the period since the French Revolution of 1789.
The entries are presented alphabetically. Small capital letters indicate a separate
entry.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express gratitude to Christopher Wheeler for his encouragement and
excellent advice with this project, and also Lesley Riddle and Hannah McEwen. I am,
additionally, much indebted to Joan Hassock for her preparation of the typescript and
to Hilary Walford for her expertise as copy editor.

David Weigall, 1 July 2002, Cambridge

List of Maps

1. Central Europe and the Iron Curtain

2. Palestine and Israel
3. China and its neighbours
4. Africa, showing dates of independence
This page intentionally left blank
 Acid rain

ABC States Argentina, Brazil and Chile.

ABC weapons These are also known as 'weapons of mass destruction' and
'special weapons' and stand for atomic, biological and chemical weapons, or weapon
warheads. These include toxins and nerve gases. They are synonymous with CBR
weapons, chemical, biological and radiological agents.

Abgrenzung From the German word for 'border'. This was specifically applied to
the line separating East and West Germany during the COLD WAR. It also meant ideo-
logical delimitation and was used in particular to describe the policy adopted by the
East German leader Erich Honecker (1912-94), which was intended to counteract the
potential impact of OSTPOLITIK. He was apprehensive that increased contact between
the two Germanys could destabilize the East German system. He therefore argued that
there were clear historical and social-cultural differences between the two states that
could not be bridged, with the communist German Democratic Republic (GDR)
developing a progressive working-class culture after 1945, while West Germany was
under a capitalist exploiter class.

ABM See ANTI-BALLISTIC MISSILE (SYSTEM).

Abwehr The foreign and counter-intelligence department of the German military

High Command. During the Nazi period it was under Admiral Canaris (1887-1945),
who negotiated for it to run in parallel with the Nazi intelligence organizations, as a mili-
tary rather than a party agency. A number of its personnel were involved in resistance to
Hitler (1889-1945) and it was absorbed into the SS in 1944 and formally dissolved.

ACC See ALLIED CONTROL COUNCIL.

Accidental war An unintended armed conflict touched off by incidents caused by

human error or by mechanical or electronic failure. In the nuclear age this term relates
to the possibility that everything up to an all-out nuclear exchange between the powers
could be triggered by a misinterpretation of intentions or by the accidental launching of
a WEAPON OF MASS DESTRUCTION. To reduce the threat of accidental war the USA and
USSR established the HOT-LINE teletype communications link between Moscow and
Washington in 1963, after the CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962), so that discussions could be
initiated immediately during a crisis.

Accommodation As used in DIPLOMACY and international CRISIS MANAGEMENT,

this term means a willingness of disputant parties to be flexible, reduce friction and
make concessions, though with the clear implication that basic interests and objectives
are not being surrendered by the parties.

Acid rain High levels of acidity in rainfall, destroying forests and polluting rivers
and lakes, became a cause of public and governmental concern in the 1970s. Evidence
of this was particularly noted in Scandinavia and CENTRAL EUROPE and was blamed on
sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions from power stations, not least from the United
 ACLANT

Kingdom. Accumulating evidence of environmental damage led to a DIRECTIVE from

the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC) in 1988 to reduce such emissions. It has been one of
the key causes for environmental campaigners and politicians in the Green parties.

ACLANT Allied Command Atlantic.

ACP See AFRICAN, CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC.

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) The worldwide med-

ical problem, with the destruction of natural immunities following the spread of the
HIV virus, was identified in Southern Africa in the 1970s. It was not until the mid-1980s
that the widespread prevalence of the condition, not least in the USA, aroused major
international concern. AIDS has been particularly highly prevalent in African states.

Acquis communautaire This phrase is used by the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) to

describe all the secondary legislation passed by the EUROPEAN COMMISSION and the
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS under the provisions of the FOUNDING TREATIES and their sub-
sequent amendments. It covers all the DIRECTIVES, DECISIONS and REGULATIONS
adopted by the EU. Any country that lodges an application to join must be willing to
accept the acquis commmunautaire as it exists at the time when it accedes. This has
accumulated since the Founding Treaties came into effect in 1958.

Acquis politique The collective phrase describing all the decisions and reso-
lutions of the member states of the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) in the field of foreign affairs.
The coordinating, intergovernmental mechanism for the member STATES was originally
EUROPEAN POLITICAL COOPERATION (EPC) and, since the TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION
(TEU), which came into force in November 1993, has been the COMMON FOREIGN AND
SECURITY POLICY (CFSP).

Act of war Any act that is incompatible with a state of PEACE. The idea of an act
of WAR comes under the laws relating to the resort to conflict, the so-called JUS AD
BELLUM. States entering into an ALLIANCE frequently take upon each other the respon-
sibilities to help fight each other's wars. The situation under which an alliance
becomes operative is described as the CASUS FOEDERIS. The twentieth century saw
important changes in the laws relating to war. Treaty law, as set out for instance in the
UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, makes a clear distinction between legal and illegal recourse
to FORCE. At the same time, use of less direct forms of AGGRESSION, such as in GUER-
RILLA WARFARE and TERRORISM, have often made it more difficult to apply the laws of
war. Foreign INTERVENTION in CIVIL WARS, for instance, has become widespread, and
many of the most recurrent and seemingly insoluble conflicts, such as that between
the Arabs and Israel, began as communal strife.

Action Committee for a United States of Europe (ACUSE) A

significant pressure group established in 1955 by Jean Monnet (1888-1979), the lead-
ing advocate of West European INTEGRATION, following the failure, after prolonged
debate, of the EUROPEAN DEFENCE COMMUNITY (EDC) in August 1954. Monnet created
ACUSE as a selective group of political and trade union leaders who would work for
closer European unity and it contributed to the ideas and negotiations that led to the
 Adjudication

formation of the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC). After the ROME TREATY
had come into effect in 1958, this organization continued to argue for more intensive
integration and the inclusion of further countries. It was led by Monnet until 1975,
but subsequently, from the 1960s, became less prominent.

Action-reaction This term is often used in writing about international relations

to account for the development of conflicts, whether armed or not, for the way dis-
putants behave in international crises, and for the phenomenon of ARMS RACES. Each
party or ACTOR responds to the behaviour of the opposite party with a pre-planned
move. The sequence of actions as the crisis develops, though, may become more, or
exclusively, directed by the pattern of action-reaction, rather than by long-term object-
ives or intentions. For instance, MOBILIZATION of forces by one side may have unin-
tended consequences and things may spin out of control. In arms races between
powers an action-reaction pattern occurs in the following way: one power may intro-
duce new armaments or a new weapons system that will lead the opposing power to
develop the same or a different and more effective system, introducing an almost auto-
matic arms race momentum. Note, however, that sometimes a new deployment may
have been undertaken by a power to force the opponent into reacting in the confidence
that the cost and strain of additional resources will make the rival weaker.

Actor In discussion of international relations the word 'actor' can refer to any
entity that plays an identifiable role. The term is deliberately inclusive, since the word
'STATE' is too limited, and does not remotely reflect the range of influences at play in
the global order. Actor can mean states, individuals or organizations, governmental or
non-governmental. Some scholars of international relations have argued that the
global system as presently constituted is a 'mixed actor model', not least because the
relative significance of the state and national SOVEREIGNTY have been reduced.

ACUSE See ACTION COMMITTEE FOR A UNITED STATES OF EUROPE.

Additionality This is the rule that EUROPEAN UNION (EU) funds for regional
development must be allocated in addition to, not as a replacement for, the national
funds of the member STATES. The EUROPEAN COMMISSION carefully monitors mem-
ber states' compliance with additionality rules in the disbursement of structural
funds, to ensure that governments do not pocket these grants without making an
equal contribution to the project under consideration themselves.

Adjudication A legal means for settling disputes by submitting them to the deter-
mination by an established court. It is distinguished from ARBITRATION in that the for-
mer involves an institutional process carried on by a permanent court whereas the
latter is an ad hoc procedure. The first international court of general competence was
the PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE (PCIj), which functioned as part
of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS from 1920 to 1946. It was succeeded by the present INTER-
NATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (icj), one of the principal organs of the UNITED NATIONS
(UN). Adjudication has been most effective in settling disputes of less-than-vital
importance, since, in submitting a case to an international court, the STATES concerned
must agree in advance to be bound by a decision that might be detrimental to their
vital interests.
 Administered territory

Administered territory See MANDATES.

Afghanistan Crisis (1979) In December 1979 the USSR invaded Afghanistan,

the first occasion since 1946 of Soviet ground troops being used in any number out-
side the COMMUNIST BLOC. They remained at WAR with the Afghan guerrillas until
1988, when they were withdrawn, unable to assure victory. The crisis accentuated US
anxieties over its strategic position in the Middle East, led to the announcement of the
CARTER DOCTRINE, the temporary eclipse of DETENTE and some SANCTIONS. President
Reagan (b. 1911) followed a policy of very active covert INTERVENTION, supplying large
sums of money and armaments to Pakistan and to the MUJAHIDEEN to assist their
resistance to the USSR. The consequent further destabilization of Afghanistan with
five million REFUGEES in Pakistan and Iran left a legacy that helped to encourage the
events of 2001-2, following the terrorist destruction of the World Trade Centre in
New York on 11 September 2001.

African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) This term refers to the forty-six
developing countries of the above regions that signed the 1975 LOME CONVENTION
with the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC). Most of the countries were former
colonies of Britain, France and Belgium. With the accession of Portugal and Spain to
the Community, the number of countries increased to seventy. The ACP countries are
allowed duty-free access to the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) for most of their products on a
non-reciprocal basis. They are also allowed to apply for grants from the European
Development Fund (EDF) and low-interest loans from the EUROPEAN INVESTMENT
BANK (EIB).

Agency for International Development, US (AID, US) The US

government agency that manages foreign aid directed to diplomatic aims, trade and
investment, humanitarian assistance and SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. It amounts to
about 0.2 per cent of US gross domestic product in recent years, though 80 per cent of
it is not TIED AID - that is, carrying an obligation to buy from the providing country.

Agenda 21 The 800-page programme for the environment that was adopted at
the UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (UNCED) (the
Earth Summit) of 1992. Many of the points demanding action are very specific. The
question of industrial pollution and its effect on the earth's atmosphere has proved
the most controversial.

Aggiornamento (Italian for 'renewal') A term closely associated with the pon-
tificate of John XXIII (1881-1963), who became Pope in 1958. It denoted, among
other things, a new liberalization within the Roman Catholic Church with an emphasis
on natural rights and reconciliation with other religions. In PACEM IN TERRIS Pope
John encouraged the end of COLONIALISM and pleaded for the abandonment of the
ARMS RACE.

Aggravated peacekeeping A term coined by the US Department of

Defense to describe peacekeeping operations in situations where neutral troops may
be required to use force to carry out their mandate.
 Aid

Aggression In international relations, an attack by one country or ALLIANCE

against another. The literature of INTERNATIONAL LAW has on numerous occasions
attempted to define 'aggression' and to distinguish between it and legitimate acts of
individual or COLLECTIVE SELF-DEFENCE. It is complicated by subjectivity, so that what
one POWER may regard as AGGRESSION another will consider a legitimate WAR of lib-
eration; and by the fact that it does not just involve external conflict but may include
internal subversion, aid to insurgents, economic sabotage and so on. It is also the case
that the power that fires the first shot, and is technically, therefore, the aggressor, may,
nevertheless, have been previously unendurably provoked. Discussion and definition
of aggression have been central to attempts to institute COLLECTIVE SECURITY, as with
the LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT. The League called for member STATES collectively
to take action against any state that was declared an aggressor. This included the use
of economic, financial and military SANCTIONS, if needs be. Similarly ARTICLE 51 of
the UNITED NATIONS CHARTER provides for sanctions and allows the UNITED NATIONS
SECURITY COUNCIL to take action including the use of force.

Agonizing reappraisal This phrase was coined as a warning to Western

Europe by the US SECRETARY OF STATE John Foster Dulles (1888-1959). It related to
the protracted debate over the rearmament of Germany in the COLD WAR and the plan
to incorporate German troops in a EUROPEAN DEFENCE COMMUNITY (EDC). On 14
December 1953 Dulles said: 'If EDC should fail, the United States might be compelled
to make an agonizing reappraisal of its basic policy.' This US threat to alter the STRAT-
EGY for the DEFENCE of Western Europe recurred subsequently in US-European rela-
tions when transatlantic differences arose, not least in the context of BURDEN
SHARING. In the event, the French National Assembly rejected the EDC, but the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany (FRG) was subsequently admitted to the NORTH ATLANTIC
TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO).

Agree to disagree A mutual understanding in negotiations that, on a specific

topic under discussion, agreement has proved impossible, because of the diametric-
ally opposed views of the parties concerned. In 1954, for instance, this term was used
to sum up the position of the four occupying powers on the stalemate issue of
German unification at the Berlin Conference.

Agrement This is the formal indication by one country to another that a diplomat
to be sent to it by the other is acceptable. The agrement is a response to enquiries made
by the sending STATE before the formal nomination of the diplomat being considered.
It is a useful device to establish or reaffirm good relations between countries. Advance
enquiries as to whether the nominee is going to be persona grata (acceptable) avoids
embarrassment to either state.

Al See AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL.

AIC Advanced industrial country.

Aid Economic, cultural, social and military assistance given to a country or region
by another government or international agency. Foreign aid is offered bilaterally
by regional institutions and by global agencies under the UNITED NATIONS (UN).
 AID, US

Economic aid includes categories such as technical assistance, capital grants, devel-
opment loans, food supplies, public guarantees for private investments and trade
credits. Military aid includes transfer of hardware and support of military structures
and establishments. The objectives of foreign aid include the support of allies, the
rebuilding of war-shattered economies, promoting economic development, gaining
ideological influence (as in the COLD WAR), obtaining strategic materials and rescuing
countries or areas from economic collapse or national disasters.

AID, US See AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, US.

AIDS See ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME.

Ailleret Doctrine The idea, named after one of the Chiefs of Staff of French
President Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), that the French nuclear deterrent, the
FORCE DE FRAPPE, was 'omnidirectional' - that it should be wholly independent of
other countries and capable of being launched in any direction. It was a military
expression of the President's independent foreign policy and his wish to reduce US
influence in Europe. After the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 by the WAR-
SAW PACT, it was succeeded by the Fourquet Plan (1969), which reverted to the idea of
the USSR as the main target.

Air burst A term used to describe the detonation of a nuclear warhead in the air.

Air superiority The ability of an air force to dominate air space. It has two elem-
ents. First, it means being able to prevent enemy aircraft, especially bombers and
reconnaissance planes, from operating over one's own lines or territory. This requires
a significant interception or fighter force. Secondly, it implies the ability to fly mis-
sions over the enemy's lines, attacking troop concentrations and supply networks. For
instance, the failure of the Luftwaffe to establish air superiority in 1940 was crucial to
Britain's ability to continue the war against Nazi Germany. On the other hand, Allied
air superiority by 1944 was essential to the success of D-DAY.

Alien A person who is not a citizen or a national of the STATE in which he or she is
located. As a general principle of INTERNATIONAL LAW, states possess internal SOVER-
EIGNTY and are free to admit or exclude aliens as they choose. International Law
recognizes distinctions between resident aliens who have established a home, and
transient aliens. Greatly increased international mobility, a rise in the number of illegal
immigrants and government responses to this, in particular in the form of exclusive
immigration policies, have made the question of aliens a highly contentious one.

Aliya Hebrew word for 'ascent'. Jewish immigration to the Holy Land, Palestine
and, latterly, the State of Israel from the DIASPORA. Settlement in the area has been a
central tenet of ZIONISM. Significant immigration began at the end of the nineteenth
century, particularly from EASTERN EUROPE. On 6 July 1950 the KNESSET, the parlia-
ment of Israel, passed the Law of Return granting every Jew the right of immigration
into Israel. Within three-and-a-half years the Jewish population of Israel had more
than doubled with 687,000 new immigrants.
 Alsace-Lorraine

All-source analysis A term in the assessment of INTELLIGENCE. It means the

analysis of information on foreign targets from a range of separate sources. Such exer-
cises are commonly coordinated by organizations such as the CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE
AGENCY (CIA).

Alliance An agreement by STATES to support each other militarily in the event of

an attack against any member, or to advance their mutual interests. Alliances may be
bilateral or multilateral, secret or open, of short or long duration and be directed at
preventing or winning a war. Many contemporary alliances have grown up into
regional groupings. So, for example, the BRUSSELS TREATY (1948). The UNITED NATIONS
CHARTER recognizes the right to COLLECTIVE SELF-DEFENCE in ARTICLE 51. While
alliances may contribute to SECURITY and deter AGGRESSION, they may also contribute
to international rivalry and the formation of counter-alliances, risking the widening of
conflicts and producing ARMS RACES. For example, it is a moot question whether the
alliances in Europe before 1914 stabilized the situation or increased tensions.

Alliance for Progress A US commitment in the 1960s to a long-term assist-

ance programme to encourage economic growth, social modernization and democ-
ratization in Latin America. In a speech on 13 March 1961 President Kennedy
(1917-63) pledged that the USA would work to satisfy the basic human needs of the
Latin Americans. The programme was formally launched in August 1961 at Punta del
Este, Uruguay, promising upwards of $20 billion in public and private investment.
This so-called MARSHALL PLAN for Latin America reflected US fears that the region
had become vulnerable to social revolution and Communist expansion, following
the Cuban Revolution under Fidel Castro (b. 1926). The aid was reduced in the 1970s
and came to a gradual end. Though it brought about some progress, there was a basic
contradiction between its emphasis on social and agrarian reform and its anti-
communism. The more anti-communist a Latin-American government was, the less
likely it was that it would be willing to bring in social and agrarian reform; and the
USA found itself intervening, as in Chile in 1973, to support non-democratic regimes.

Allied Control Council (1945-8) The government of Germany by the Allies

after the Second World War. At a meeting on 5 lune 1945 the Allies declared that the
Council would function as a central government for Germany and would take what-
ever steps were necessary in Germany to secure PEACE and SECURITY. All Council deci-
sions, dealing with such issues as DEMILITARIZATION, REPARATIONS, and denazification,
were to be unanimous, and each commander would be supreme in his own zone of
occupation. Irreconcilable difficulties soon emerged between the Soviet and Western
representatives and the Council met for the last time in March 1948.

Alma-Ata Treaty (1991) The TREATY that replaced the former structure of the
USSR with the COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (CIS).

Alsace-Lorraine The eastern provinces of France that were ceded to the new
German Empire in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War and then restored to France after
the ARMISTICE of 1918. Between these dates these 'lost territories' were the object of
strong French REVANCHISM. US President Woodrow Wilson stipulated their return in
his FOURTEEN POINTS. This was effected in Article 2 of the Armistice, and later conceded
 Alternative world futures

by the German Weimar Republic in the LOCARNO TREATIES (1925). In May-June 1940
the provinces were reoccupied in the Western BLITZKRIEG and the Nazis expelled 70,000
French-speaking inhabitants from Lorraine. In February 1945, as the German armies
retreated, French administration was restored.

Alternative world futures The study of what the WORLD SYSTEM may look
like in the future. The predictive method consists in extrapolating certain contem-
porary trends and projecting them into the future on the basis of certain working
assumptions. This type of study has developed significantly over the years since the
OIL CRISES of the 1970s, with growing popular concern over the population explosion,
depletion of natural resources and destruction of the environment. It has been par-
ticularly illustrated by the work of such institutions as the CLUB OF ROME and the
Hudson Institute, which emphasize the global scope and consequences of such prob-
lems and the inadequacy of seeking simply national, or even regional solutions.

Amazon Pact (1978) A TREATY aimed at coordinating the development of the

Amazon river basin and protecting the region's environment through the rational use
of its resources. The signatories include Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana,
Peru, Surinam and Venezuela. It calls for: (1) careful use of the region's water resources;
(2) the right of each country to develop its Amazon territory so long as it does
not adversely affect other members' territories; (3) free navigation of all rivers;
(4) improvement of health in the region and the construction of transport and com-
munications; (5) encouragement of common research effort; (6) promotion of
tourism. Its prime objective, to prevent the ecologically disastrous plundering of the
resources of the Amazon, has not been achieved.

Ambassador A diplomatic representative or agent of one sovereign STATE usually

resident in another. As international relations implies a system of communications
between states, the idea of an ambassador became one of its principal enabling figures.
The modern practice of resident ambassadors began to appear in Italy in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, but the role became fully established as a vital institution
in international relations at the VIENNA CONGRESS (1814-15) at the end of the
Napoleonic Wars. The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations reaffirmed
the importance of the role of ambassadors.

America First Committee (1940-1) A campaigning front by US isolation-

ists, most notably, but not exclusively associated with Republicans from the Middle
West, who lobbied to keep America out of the Second World War.

Americanismo Evident from the early nineteenth century onwards, the idea of
encouraging continental unity and, latterly, regional INTEGRATION among Spanish
Americans. Simon Bolivar (1783-1830), for instance, envisaged a triple federation
that would incorporate Mexico and Central America, the Spanish states of the north-
ern part of the continent and, thirdly, the nations of southern South America. Later
the USA encouraged it with a view to emphasizing the unity of the American hemi-
sphere, and since the Second World War, as with MERCOSUR, there have been moves
towards greater economic integration in South America.
 Anarchism

Amnesty Amnesty clauses are frequently found in PEACE TREATIES and signify the
willingness of the conflicting parties to apply the principle of tabula rasa, of a clean
slate to past offences, which may also include WAR CRIMES. Amnesty may take a gen-
eral or selective form. In the first case it will provide immunity for all wrongful acts
done by the belligerents. One should distinguish between internal and external
amnesties. The former are issued after CIVIL WARS, revolutions and upheavals and are
political acts of clemency. The latter are provided for in peace treaties between
STATES. Since the end of the First World War amnesty clauses have become increas-
ingly rare. A post-Second World War example is the Evian Accord of 1962 between
France and Algeria, which ended the war of Algerian independence, in which mutual
amnesties were exchanged.

Amnesty International (Al) A leading NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION

(NGO) for advocating and defending HUMAN RIGHTS. It was founded in the UK in 1961
and in 2002 has branches in more than 170 countries, with over 4,000 volunteer
groups. It works for the release of political prisoners, other prisoners of conscience and
victims of torture who neither use nor advocate violence, and issues annual reports on
the status of human rights in different countries. Sustained by the belief that exposure
to public view of such issues as the treatment of dissidents will persuade nation STATES
to improve their record, Amnesty has pursued many campaigns, including those on
behalf of the victims of major POWERS, such as the fate of dissidents in the USSR and
in the People's Republic of China and of the victims of APARTHEID. Its annual reports
have a precise focus and intent: to free prisoners of conscience, ensure prompt and fair
trial for political prisoners, abolish the death penalty and torture and bring an end to
all 'disappearances', such as occurred in the 1970s on a large scale in Argentina, and
inhuman harassment of political opposition groups.

Amsterdam Treaty (1997) Treaty concluded during a marathon summit on

16-17 June at the end of an inter-governmental conference (IGC), which had lasted
more than twelve months, and signed in Amsterdam on 2 October 1997. It was
intended to make the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) more relevant to its citizens at a time of
significant general disillusionment and to prepare the EU for the challenge of enlarge-
ment to include the countries of CENTRAL EUROPE and EASTERN EUROPE. It originated
in a provision to revise the TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION (TEU) and was supposed to
emphasize, by improvement and institutional reform, the effectiveness of a range of
EU policies and procedures. It appeared with six major headings: (1) 'Freedom,
Security and Justice', (2) 'The Union and its Citizens', (3) 'An Effective and Coherent
External Policy', (4) 'The Union's Institutions', (5) 'Closer Cooperation/Flexibility', and
(6) 'Simplification and Consolidation of Treaties'. Its provisions are essentially modest
and illustrate the frequent unwillingness of national governments to make concessions
to the Community interest.

Anarchism A political philosophy that rejects the STATE and other forms of coercive
authority and seeks their replacement by a social order based upon voluntary organiza-
tion, cooperation and regulation. It developed from distinctive traditions, on the one
hand, from extreme liberal individualism and, on the other, from cooperative commu-
nitarianism. In the nineteenth century it came to be associated with TERRORISM because
of the activities of some of its groups. At the same time it influenced the development of
 Anarchy

some socialist ideas. From the 1960s onwards it has manifested itself as a key element in
some PEACE MOVEMENTS and environmentalist groups.

Anarchy Analysts of international relations have commonly referred to the global

order as an 'international anarchy' because there is no common or central world gov-
ernment or authority, or ultimate coercive body to resolve disputes between STATES,
or groups of states.

ANC African National Congress.

Ancien Regime From the French for 'old order'. This refers to the political sys-
tem in France, and across most of Europe, before the French Revolution of 1789 in
which monarchs had (theoretically) absolute authority and the nobles and clergy
enjoyed special privileges. It is sometimes used more loosely and ironically simply to
describe an early political order.

ANF See ATLANTIC NUCLEAR FORCE.

Annexation The forcible acquisition of territory by one STATE at the expense of

another. The population of the annexed territory become subjects of the new posses-
sor state. Annexation may be made by FORCE or by TREATY. It involves an element of
compulsion or threat. Examples include Nazi Germany's annexation of the SUDETEN-
LAND in 1938 and that of ALSACE-LORRAINE in 1871. According to general INTER-
NATIONAL LAW, the legality of annexation depends upon whether the use of force
appears to be legitimate.

Anschluss (1938) From the German anschliessen, 'to connect'. This term is used to
describe the Nazi takeover of Austria on 11 March 1938. This had a long preceding his-
tory, since Austria had been part of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE and had contributed materi-
ally to its defence. A common historical heritage and language resulted in a strong
pro-German feeling among the majority of the Austrian population after the First
World War. A union of Austria and Germany was specifically prohibited by the PARIS
PEACE CONFERENCE (1919-20). Hitler (1889-1945), for whom this was his country of
birth, and the Nazis regarded this takeover as an essential preliminary stage in their real-
ization of a Greater Reich. The invasion followed an earlier abortive Nazi putsch in July
1934 in which the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss (1892-1934) was assassinated. On
13 March 1938 Austria was designated a province of Germany, the 'Ostmark'. Article 4
of the AUSTRIAN STATE TREATY (1955) forbids a future Anschluss.

Antarctic Treaty (1959) This treaty was signed by twelve nations, including
Britain, the USA, France, the USSR and Japan, providing for international cooperation
and prohibiting military and nuclear activity of all kinds in Antarctica, and calling for
mutual inspection. It was an outgrowth of the declaration by the UNITED NATIONS GEN-
ERAL ASSEMBLY establishing 1957-8 as an 'International Geophysical Year' marked by
global scientific cooperation relating to space, the oceans, weather and the Poles.
Initially valid for thirty years, it was renewed in 1991, this time with forty nations sign-
ing the document, which also banned the exploitation of the continent's mineral
resources for another fifty years.
 Apartheid

Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) An arrangement for international cooper-

ation between the STATES at the South Pole. It was established in 1961, originating
from the ANTARCTIC TREATY of two years earlier and it was reaffirmed in 1991.
Originally there were a dozen signatories. In 2002 there are more than forty. Antarctica
counts for 10 per cent of the world's land surface and 30 per cent of the land in the
Southern Hemisphere. ATS attempts to maintain the continent as a zone of peace, as a
region open to all countries that wish to advance scientific discovery and join in its
preservation, rather than as a region of exclusive jurisdictions and SOVEREIGNTY.

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) System A system intended to locate, inter-

cept and destroy BALLISTIC MISSILES and their separated warheads. It was in the early
1960s that the USSR and the USA started to study ways of destroying the other side's
strategic ballistic missiles just after launch. The idea presented multiple difficulties,
involving a very short reaction time, highly complex radars and interceptors and very
high velocity missiles. The first ABM system to be deployed was GALOSH, to defend
Moscow, in 1968.

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972) This was signed by the USA
and the USSR on 26 May 1972, was part of the STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TREATY
(SALT l) and was intended to end any 'defensive' ARMS RACE. The TREATY limited
the SUPERPOWERS to two ABM systems, each having no more than 100 interceptors.
One could be used to defend the national capital and the other to protect INTER-
CONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE (ICBM) sites. When US President Ronald Reagan
(b. 1911) announced the STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE (SDl) in 1983, the USSR and
other powers claimed that this breached the ABM treaty. Furthermore, were such a
system to be foolproof, it could be very destabilizing, conferring on its possessor
FIRST-STRIKE CAPABILITY.

Anti-Comintern Pact (1930) A treaty originally concluded between Germany

and Japan on 25 November 1930, its official title being 'Agreement against the Third
International'. It was renewed in 1936 and again in 1941. Italy joined it on 6 November
1937; Hungary, Manchukuo and Spain in 1939. It obliged the parties to provide infor-
mation to each other on the activities of the COMINTERN and to take counsel on defence
measures. A secret supplementary clause bound the parties to NEUTRALITY in the event
of either of them coming into conflict with the USSR. Although it was a defensive
arrangement, it foreshadowed the formation of the Tripartite Pact of 27 September
between Germany, Italy and Japan. During the Second World War, Croatia, Denmark,
Finland, Romania, Slovakia and the pro-Japanese government of Wang-Ching Wei
(1883-1944) acceded. It became void after the defeat of the AXIS, but outlasted the
Comintern, which was dissolved in 1943.

ANZUS See AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND AND UNITED STATES TREATY (1951).

Apartheid The term meaning 'apartness' in Afrikaans, the language of the former
Dutch colonists in South Africa. Together with another concept, baaskup, meaning
white supremacy, it meant racial segregation and underpinned the rule of the
Nationalist Party in South Africa between 1948 and 1990. This policy resulted in the
territorial separation of Europeans (18 per cent of the population) and non-Europeans
 Apatridos

and guaranteed the Europeans a monopoly of economic, political and social power.
The black populations were confined to their own townships, or tribal 'homelands',
were controlled by internal passports and denied political rights and representation in
the national parliament. This system violated HUMAN RIGHTS both because of discrim-
ination and because, among other things, of the system of arbitrary arrest and deten-
tion. As such it was the focus of international condemnation and SANCTIONS and was
swept away after the release of Nelson Mandela (b. 1918), the leader of the African
National Congress (ANC), in 1990, with nearly all the apartheid legislation being
repealed by 1992.

Apatridos An international term for those without citizenship of any STATE.

APEC See ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION.

Appeasement This term is historically most commonly associated with the

policies of Britain and France towards Germany and Italy in the inter-war years, most
particularly with the surrender of the SUDETENLAND in Czechoslovakia to Nazi
Germany with the MUNICH AGREEMENT (1938). Since then a term, which earlier had
signified magnanimous conciliation and a reasonable willingness to compromise and
negotiate rather than confront and resist, has acquired derogatory overtones in both
historical scholarship and common parlance. It has come to mean cowardice and the
sacrifice of principle, such as the sovereign independence of small countries, for expe-
dience, in this case placating a dictator, Hitler (1889-1945), and buying time. In the
period since the Second World War it has been the subject of very great historical
debate. It has also, more generally, become synonymous with weakness and a policy
not to be repeated. 'No more Munichs' has been invoked time after time to justify
policies of uncompromising firmness and rigidity in international relations - for
instance, during the KOREAN WAR of 1950-3, the SUEZ CRISIS of 1956 and the GULF
WAR in 1991. International relations theorists have not always shared the negative
view. A number of those who have espoused REALISM have regarded appeasement,
properly conducted, as an integral part of the process of the BALANCE OF POWER, and
as necessary accommodation in the light of changing global circumstances to facili-
tate peaceful change.

Arab League This was initiated during the Second World War in September
1944 when delegates from Egypt, Lebanon, Transjordan, Syria and Iraq met in
Alexandria to discuss ways of enhancing Arab cooperation. The subsequent
Alexandria Protocol led to its creation on 22 March 1945 with the addition of North
Yemen and Saudi Arabia. By the 1990s it had twenty-two members including the
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) and four African countries, Dijibouti,
Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan. At one stage Egypt was expelled, though the head-
quarters returned to Cairo again. During the GULF WAR (1991) a majority voted to
support the coalition expulsion of Iraq from Kuwait.

Arbitration A means of peaceful CONFLICT RESOLUTION, in which the contending

parties select an impartial agent, an arbiter or court of arbitration to settle the conflict
by compromise or through legal procedures, as agreed by the parties, who also agree to
accept any decision as binding. A well-known case of arbitration was that arising from
 Armed propaganda

the claims of damages inflicted by the Confederate raider 'Alabama' made by the USA
against Britain in the American Civil War, which was settled in the Washington Treaty
of 1871. The first HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE (1899) institutionalized the procedure by
creating the PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRATION. Both the LEAGUE OF NATIONS and the
UNITED NATIONS (UN) have encouraged the procedure. It is, however, often difficult to
persuade a STATE to entrust itself to a procedure whose results cannot be anticipated.
Arbitration is likely to be used when the relations between the parties are generally
good, where there is a common political culture and mutual respect for the rule of law.

Arcadia Conference (1941-2) The Anglo-US conference held in December-

January at which the two principals were US President Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1882-1945) and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965), follow-
ing the Japanese attack on PEARL HARBOR on 7 December 1941 and the active entry of
the USA into the Second World War. It was agreed that the Allies would defeat
Germany first while undertaking holding action against Japan. The Allies also decided
that they would try to prevent the Japanese capture of Hawaii, Alaska, Singapore, the
Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, Rangoon and the land route from there to China.
Churchill's suggestion of an invasion of North Africa won general approval. The
conference established combined military planning - for instance, with Far East
Command. The UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION was signed at the same time, on
1 January 1942.

Area bombing The controversial strategy, otherwise known as the Strategic

Bombing Offensive, or night-time blanket bombing, of urban centres and civilian
populations, rather than simply military targets. It culminated in 1945 in the British
bombing of Dresden and US attacks on Japanese cities. The strategy had its origins in
the British air doctrine between the wars, which also had proponents in Europe and
the USA, which emphasized the potential of large-scale bombing offences as a means
of achieving victory independently of armies and navies. By the 1930s it was widely
believed that mass long-range bomber raids were unstoppable and that they could
deliver a knockout blow to a hostile power. This was also of considerable concern to
British governments in the 1930s with a widespread fear that the 'bomber would
always get through'.

Armed conflict The clash of armed forces between STATES, the occupation of
foreign territories by such forces with, or without resistance (international conflicts),
as well as non-international clashes within borders. In 1970 the UNITED NATIONS GEN-
ERAL ASSEMBLY stipulated eight basic principles for the protection of civilians during
armed conflict, including preservation of HUMAN RIGHTS discrimination between
combatants and non-combatants, and the exemption of civilians from reprisals.

Armed propaganda This is also known as 'propaganda by the deed', the ter-
roristic and nihilistic use of FORCE to focus wide public attention on demands or
protests. The emphasis is on the symbolic political importance of the action, rather
than its practical effect. The attack on the World Trade Centre in New York on 11
September 2001 falls into this category; so, too, Basque desecration of the memorials
of the SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-9), or the seizure of the US Embassy in Tehran during
the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
 Armistice

Armistice A suspension, or temporary cessation, of hostilities by agreement

between belligerent powers, such as the armistice between Germany and the Allied
and Associated Powers on 11 November 1918, which concluded the First World War.

Arms control The term came into usage in the 1960s to describe the policy and
processes for limiting the development, stockpiling and deployment of weapons. Its
particular, though not exclusive, focus has been on NUCLEAR WEAPONS. It has been
especially concerned with achieving stable DETERRENCE, averting accidents or use of
arms by terrorist organizations, and limitation of PROLIFERATION. The major problem
facing negotiators has been VERIFICATION, and this was especially so during the COLD
WAR. Arms control differs from some of the advocacies of DISARMAMENT, since it
assumes that arms will continue to exist and does not dispute their utility. Arms con-
trol negotiators have often argued that it is a more realistic way to SECURITY.

Arms race This term has been used since the 1850s to describe periodic compe-
tition between STATES or BLOCS by the modernization of weapons and increase in
their numbers and destructiveness, with a view to increasing their SECURITY and gain-
ing a specific level of comparative military strength or advantage. Examples include
the Anglo-German naval rivalry before 1914 and the massive rearmament of the COLD
WAR period. Simultaneous modernization of forces does not necessarily mean an
arms race. At the same time, arms races need not be restricted to technological devel-
opment and arms procurement. For example, the extension of CONSCRIPTION may be
a significant element in an arms race. The situation in which an attempt to gain
greater security by rearmament produces greater insecurity in the rival is called the
SECURITY DILEMMA. An arms race in which increase is repeatedly met by increase is
called the 'spiral model'. Arms races are so dependent upon economic resources
that they must also be seen as a form of economic competition. Hence during the cold
war the argument was commonly advanced in the USA that the Soviet economy
would collapse under the pressure of the arms race, and this was offered as one of its
justifications.

'Arsenal of Democracy' Speech (1940) The radio address by the US

President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) on 28 December 1940 in which he
explained his LEND-LEASE programme. Arguing that Nazi ambitions included the
domination of the Western Hemisphere, he stated that the USA must be 'the great
arsenal of democracy' to supply Britain with munitions to keep it in the fight and 'to
keep war away from our country and our people'.

Article X (LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT) This was one of the most controver-
sial articles in the Covenant in the USA because it invoked the idea of COLLECTIVE
SECURITY to stop AGGRESSION. It led to a heated debate in the Senate. Opponents
argued that it could drag the USA into conflicts not of its own choosing across the
world. They also alleged that such a commitment would override the war-making
powers of Congress. US President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) claimed the com-
mitment would be moral rather than legal. The LODGE RESERVATIONS insisted that,
were Article X to be accepted, Congressional approval would have to be granted
before any act of implementation. In the event the US Senate refused to ratify the
LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
 Assertive multilateralism

Article 51 A key article in the UNITED NATIONS CHARTER (1945), which justifies
the use of FORCE in self-defence and the creation of regional organizations for COL-
LECTIVE SELF-DEFENCE. It reads as follows: 'Nothing in the present Charter shall impair
the inherent right of individual and collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs
against a member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken meas-
ures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by mem-
bers in the exercise of the right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the
Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the
Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such actions as it
deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.'

Article 231 Otherwise known as the 'war guilt clause', it assigned all responsibil-
ity for the outbreak and conduct of the First World War to Germany and its allies in
the VERSAILLES TREATY (1919). It became a hated symbol of Germany's post-war
humiliation and played into the hands in particular of right-wing groups within
Germany, most notably the Nazis, who exploited it to increase dissatisfaction with the
Weimar Government. It also occasioned a long and continuing historiographical con-
troversy over responsibility for the war.

Article 43 forces This term refers to Article 43 of the UNITED NATIONS CHARTER,
which deals with the issue of UNITED,.NATIONS (UN) military FORCE in fulfilling the organ-
ization's resolutions. The Charter implies that the permanent members of the UNITED
NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL would provide the majority of the forces, if required.
Though this happened in the KOREAN WAR of 1950-3 and during the Persian GULF WAR
of 1991, most of the UN missions until the late 1980s used troops from other countries.

ASEAN See ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS.

Asian dollars US dollars deposited in South Asian countries.

Asian Tigers The popular name for a group of Asian economies that have
experienced dynamic economic growth patterns in the post-Second World War
period and have come to be regarded as standard-bearers for economic liberalism and
market economics. Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan have been
included in this category.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) This organization links

countries on both sides of the PACIFIC RIM. It was set up originally in 1989 in Australia
with twelve participants: Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and the
Philippines, the USA, Canada, Japan, South Korea and New Zealand. China, Hong
Kong and Taiwan joined in 1991, followed shortly after by Mexico and Papua New
Guinea, and by Chile in 1994. The combined economies of APEC total more than half
of the world's gross domestic product (GDP). Its objectives are support for the prin-
ciples of the WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO) and it advocates 'open regionalism',
favouring liberalization and avoiding preferential treatment.

Assertive multilateralism The idea particularly advanced by US govern-

ments that there should be international cooperation in upholding global SECURITY.
 Associated states

This idea is inherent in the UNITED NATIONS (UN), and the UNITED NATIONS SECURITY
COUNCIL was given primary responsibility for maintaining the PEACE after the Second
World War. It was evident, for instance, in the coalition against Iraq in 1990-1 after
the invasion of Kuwait, in the interest of HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION and in the
coalition building against TERRORISM in 2001 after the destruction of the New York
World Trade Centre. The idea very much depends on common resolve and wide-
spread support and the belief that an action is to the common benefit rather than, for
instance, serving simply the national interests of the USA.

Associated States An international term used in PEACE TREATIES to distinguish

them from allied STATES. A well-known example is the USA during the latter part of
the First World War. US President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) then proposed its
inclusion in the VERSAILLES TREATY (1919), with those who had defeated the CENTRAL
POWERS being described as 'Allied and Associated Powers'. The term is also used in
organizations of economic INTEGRATION and cooperation. For instance, with the EURO-
PEAN UNION (EU) there are member states and associated states.

Association agreements These are agreements between the EUROPEAN

UNION (EU) and neighbouring countries to develop close economic and political rela-
tions, possibly leading to eventual EU membership for the associated country. They
are negotiated under Article 238 of the ROME TREATY (1957), which gives the EU the
right to establish with non-member STATES 'association involving reciprocal rights
and obligations, common action and special procedure'. The first such agreement was
signed with Greece in 1961, followed by Turkey in 1964. Such agreements generally
grant the associated country free access to the EU's market for most industrial prod-
ucts, and financial and technical aid. The associated country usually grants reciprocal
concessions. The agreements also cover political cooperation with a view to promot-
ing stability and democracy in the associated states. EUROPE AGREEMENTS are those
association agreements with the states of CENTRAL EUROPE and EASTERN EUROPE post-
1989 that stipulate eventual accession to the EU.

Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Formed in 1967

by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei joined in 1984
and Vietnam in 1995. ASEAN was originally an anti-communist alliance. In 2002 it is
an organization for economic cooperation composed of the fastest-growing 'ASIAN
TIGERS'. In 1992 it agreed to establish a FREE TRADE AREA within fifteen years.

Assured destruction A term used in nuclear STRATEGY. It has two meanings.

As a capability, it refers to the technical potential of STATES to launch attacks against
an adversary that lead to large-scale destruction of people and property. Before air
power and NUCLEAR WEAPONS, such destruction was possible only via land invasion.
The capability to achieve assured destruction is usually referred to as SECOND STRIKE
CAPABILITY. As a policy, assured destruction is an example of what is termed in nuclear
jargon 'counter-city targeting', which was particularly associated with US defence pol-
icy in the 1960s.

Asylum A quasi-legal process where one STATE grants protection to a national, or

nationals, of another. In INTERNATIONAL LAW it can be challenged by a request for
 Atlantic to the Urals

EXTRADITION. It is sometimes said that asylum ends where extradition begins, but in
the absence of a specific extradition TREATY there is no duty to extradite. Rights of
asylum belong to states not to individuals, although Article 14 of the UNIVERSAL DEC-
LARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1948) does give individuals a right to political asylum.
As the declaration took the form of a resolution of the UNITED NATIONS GENERAL
ASSEMBLY, it is not legally (though it may be considered morally) binding on states.

Atlantic Charter (1941) The result of the meeting off Argentia, Newfoundland,
between the US President Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) and the British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965). The Atlantic Charter was signed on 14
August, four months before the Japanese attack on PEARL HARBOR. It was a declaration
by the leaders of the principles on which they 'base [d] their hopes for a better future for
the world' and has sometimes been described as an 'updated FOURTEEN POINTS'. The
leaders rejected territorial aggrandizement, renounced the use of FORCE, upheld SELF-
DETERMINATION of peoples, FREE TRADE and FREEDOM OF THE SEAS, specified DISARMA-
MENT of the aggressor STATES and committed themselves to 'a wider and permanent
system of general security'. Incorporating the FOUR FREEDOMS, the Charter provided an
ideological basis for the subsequent GRAND ALLIANCE, was effective propaganda against
isolationist sentiment in the USA and was formally endorsed by the UNITED NATIONS
DECLARATION of 1 January 1942, which was signed by twenty-six countries.

Atlantic Community The idea advanced in particular since the Second World
War of a partnership between Europe and North America, to solve common prob-
lems. The Atlantic Council of the USA, based in Washington DC, and the NORTH
ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) are obvious embodiments of this idea, which
has both produced great RAPPROCHEMENT and successes and led to transatlantic ten-
sions. For instance, in the 1960s the French President Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)
strongly advanced both French nationalism and the notion of a 'Europe for the
Europeans' with conspicuous defiance of the USA and an appeal for a reduction of its
influence in Europe. During the COLD WAR the term incorporated Western Europe.
With the fall of the BERLIN WALL and the transformation of EASTERN EUROPE, with
several previously Communist states joining NATO, the concept has been extended,
but this has not necessarily increased its credibility, since this to a great extent has
depended on a perceived common threat from the EASTERN BLOC.

Atlantic Nuclear Force (ANF) A British defence proposal made in the early
1960s, which called for the nuclear guarantee provided by the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY
ORGANIZATION (NATO) to be shared by its member STATES. Offered as an alternative to
the US MULTILATERAL FORCE (MLF) proposal, it came to nothing. It reflected two con-
cerns, first the dependence of Western Europe on the US nuclear arsenal at a time
when the USSR had effective means of retaliation against the USA, and, secondly,
whether Britain in coming years could continue to have a viable nuclear deterrent.

Atlantic to the Urals An idea advanced by the French President Charles de

Gaulle (1890-1970) in 1958 for an eventual coming-together of EASTERN EUROPE and
Western Europe. At the time Europe was sharply divided by the IRON CURTAIN and
separate socio-economic systems. The idea was associated with de Gaulle's aspirations
for a 'Europe for the Europeans', a reduction of US influence over the Continent, for
 Atlantic Wall

DETENTE and a normalization of East-West European relations. The WARSAW PACT

suppression of the PRAGUE SPRING in 1968 emphasized the current unrealism of the
concept, but the dismantling of the BERLIN WALL in 1989 and events since then in CEN-
TRAL EUROPE and EASTERN EUROPE have transformed perspectives.

Atlantic Wall Hitler's name for the chain of German field fortifications, stretch-
ing along the coastline from the Pyrenees to the Netherlands, a distance of 1,670
miles. It was constructed by forced labour between 1941 and 1944 and consisted of
about 6,000 bunkers. The western bulwark of Nazi FORTRESS EUROPE, it was vacated
by the Germans after D-DAY (1944).

Atlanticism A fundamental post-Second World War British international SECUR-

ITY policy stressing the priority of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO),
of British links with the USA and the USA's commitment to defend Europe. It grew out
of the wartime experience of the so-called SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP and evolved through
the COLD WAR. It assumed that the security of Britain required the maintenance of a
BALANCE OF POWER in Europe, that the USSR posed a military and ideological threat to
Western Europe, and that neither Britian nor its European allies could, of themselves,
defend Europe against a conventional or nuclear attack from the WARSAW PACT. Since
1989 and the fall of the BERLIN WALL, British governments have emphasized the con-
tinuing need for NATO and for US commitment. Some aspects of the policy of
Atlanticism, particularly those involving the stationing of American bases and nuclear
missiles in Britain, have created significant controversy, such as during the 1980s when
Mrs Thatcher (b. 1925) was in power. She has been arguably the most Atlanticist of
British prime ministers and described the British link with the USA as the 'extraordi-
nary relationship'. Atlanticism as a policy option, particularly contrasted with Euro-
peanism, has also been shared by those in other countries, not least in Germany. The
word is sometimes now also used in Britain to indicate a preference for closer economic
ties with the USA to closer integration with the EUROPEAN UNION (EU).

Atomic bomb The type of NUCLEAR WEAPON produced by the MANHATTAN

PROJECT and used twice in August 1945 on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The product of
nuclear fission, rather than fusion, which is the cause of the HYDROGEN BOMB explo-
sion. Its YIELD was under 20,000 tons of TNT equivalent. The explosion of the first
Soviet atomic bomb in August 1949, several years before the West anticipated it, led
the USA to develop the hydrogen bomb. This was to have explosive equivalence of
millions of tons of TNT.

Atomic diplomacy This phrase has been used to describe any foreign policy
stance that depends for its effect on a threat, either stated or implicit, of the use of
NUCLEAR WEAPONS in the international order. It was used particularly widely in the
1950s and 1960s to describe the power politics of the nuclear age. In particular, there
has been a debate among scholars as to the influence of monopoly possession of the
ATOMIC BOMB between 1945 and 1949 on US foreign policy towards the USSR.

Atomic Energy Act (1946) Also known as the McMahon Act after Senator
Brien McMahon (1903-52), this was the first law passed by US Congress with the pur-
pose of controlling atomic energy. A five-man ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC) was
 Aussiedler

made sole owner of fissionable material and given full control over atomic research.
Three committees were also established, for military liaison, technical advice and a joint
congressional committee. It outlawed any transfer of atomic secrets to any other pow-
ers. These included Britain, which had expected continuing partnership, and the Act
was a major stimulus to Britain embarking on its own ATOMIC BOMB and HYDROGEN
BOMB programmes.

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) This was established by the first reso-
lution adopted by the UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY in 1946. It was composed
of all the members of the UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL plus Canada. In 1952 it
was merged with the Commission for Conventional Armaments into a single Dis-
armament Commission with the same membership.

Atoms for Peace Plan (1953) A proposal presented to the UNITED NATIONS
GENERAL ASSEMBLY that would provide for cooperation among the nuclear STATES
and other nations in the peaceful development and application of atomic energy. It
called for the establishment of an international agency under the UNITED NATIONS
(UN) to encourage cooperation in the atomic field and it urged nuclear powers to
divert fissionable materials from their weapons stockpiles to projects for atomic
energy and to restrain the nuclear ARMS RACE. Subsequently, in 1957, the INTER-
NATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA) was Set up.

ATS See ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM.

Attache A person attached to an embassy or other diplomatic post in a specialist

function - for instance, as a press officer, cultural or commercial attache. Some are
recruited by a STATE'S foreign office, while others are recommended from other gov-
ernment agencies. The expanded use of attaches has been accompanied by numerous
international accusations of espionage. Where a diplomatic officer is expelled from a
country on grounds of espionage, it is common for the state from which he or she has
come to retaliate by expelling one or more attaches of similar standing.

Attrition Means 'wearing out'. It is often, for instance, used to refer to the STRAT-
EGY adopted by both sides during the First World War on the Western Front, which
transformed the hope of a short WAR into one that lasted four years with massive
casualties for small territorial gains. Wars of attrition are usually long, drawn-out
affairs and place the entire range of a STATE'S resources at the disposal of the military.
A recent example of a very protracted war of attrition was that between Iraq and Iran
between 1980 and 1989, which brought about almost total exhaustion on both sides.

German for 'emigrant'. As a political term it refers specifically to those

ethnic Germans living outside Germany, the descendants of colonists of earlier times,
in CENTRAL EUROPE and EASTERN EUROPE - for example, in the Volga region of Russia
- who have settled or wish to settle in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). After
1948 they were given an unrestricted right to resettle, as distinct from other immi-
grants and asylum-seekers. Their numbers rose sharply after the fall of the BERLIN
WALL in 1989, leading the German authorities to tighten the regulations by obliging
potential emigrants first to submit an application in their country of residence.
 Australia, New Zealand and United States Treaty (ANZUS)

Australia, New Zealand and United States Treaty (ANZUS)

(1951) The ANZUS Pact between Australia, New Zealand and the United States,
signed on 1 September 1951, came into force on 29 April 1952. It provided for an
indefinite defensive military ALLIANCE and committed the signatories to increase their
military capabilities. It was designed to overcome Australia's and New Zealand's nerv-
ousness over Japanese revival, which was supported by the USA, and as part of the
STRATEGY of CONTAINMENT against COMMUNISM at a time when Mao's victory in
China (1949) and the outbreak of the KOREAN WAR (1950-3) caused widespread
alarm. The pact also significantly reflected Britain's decline as a global power, with the
USA assuming its protective role over these COMMONWEALTH countries. ANZUS was
put under considerable stress in 1984 when the New Zealand government banned
nuclear vessels from entering its ports. This led US President Reagan (b. 1911) the fol-
lowing year to declare that ANZUS was inoperative.

Austrian State Treaty (1955) This ended the Allied occupation of Austria,
which had begun ten years earlier. Having readily agreed to separate Austria from the
unresolved question of a German peace settlement, the USSR in the Moscow
Memorandum of April 1955 offered to sign a PEACE TREATY and remove occupation
FORCES by the end of the year, release remaining prisoners of war and make certain
economic concessions in return for Austria's pledge to remain neutral and pay $150
million for the remaining German assets in the country. The treaty was signed on 15
May, but the most important point, NEUTRALITY, was not put into the treaty itself but
incorporated in the Austrian Constitution in October, after which Austria became
a member of the UNITED NATIONS (UN). This treaty was one indication of the THAW
after the death of Stalin and was one of the more effective early examples of conflict
management in the COLD WAR. In the West it was perceived as something of a victory,
since Western policy had been directed towards preventing Austria from becoming a
Soviet satellite.

Autarky Not to be confused with autarchy (self-rule), autarky means self-

sufficiency. The term is most often used in international economics and has been par-
ticularly applied to the policies of self-sufficiency in Nazi Germany and the USSR.

Autonomy The capacity to act independently; in the case of STATES, independ-

ently from the influence of other states or international organizations in the WORLD
ORDER. The reality (or illusion) of autonomy has occasioned debates among theorists
of international relations. Advocates of DEPENDENCY THEORY have claimed that the
structural system of global CAPITALISM denies small developing states from exercising
much autonomy, stating that they are to a considerable extent dependent on major
interests in the industrialized world and such institutions as the INTERNATIONAL BANK
FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD) (World Bank) and the INTERNA-
TIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF). Liberal theorists have argued from a different perspec-
tive, that the capitalist system, among other things, offering opportunities in a range
of markets, creates greater autonomy.

Avis This term is used to describe the statement issued by the EUROPEAN COMMIS-
SION on whether or not the formal application of a country that wishes to join the
EUROPEAN UNION (EU) is acceptable or not.
 Balance of payments

Avulsion An international term for territorial or border changes as a consequence

of a river changing its course. One of the best-known examples of this is Chamizal,
the Mexican border territory, which from 1864 until 1967 was the cause of a border
dispute between the USA and Mexico, because the bed of the Rio Grande had changed
and the USA had occupied the former river bed, in spite of a ruling by the Inter-
national Arbitration Commission, which stated that it belonged to Mexico. The dis-
pute was finally resolved in Mexico's favour in 1967, when the USA handed it back.

Axis A term first used by the Italian dictator Mussolini (1883-1945) on 1

November 1936 to describe the relationship between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany
that was established by the October Protocols of that year. Mussolini said of the
'Berlin-Rome line' that it was 'not a diaphragm but rather an axis'. Italy acceded to the
German-Japanese ANTI-COMINTERN PACT on 25 November 1936 and on 22 May 1939
Germany and Italy entered a formal alliance, the PACT OF STEEL. On 27 September
1940 Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact in Berlin. During the Second
World War the term 'Axis Powers' was applied to those three countries plus the East
European allies, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia.

Azerbijan Crisis (1946) Also known as the 'Iranian Crisis', this was the first
major post-Second World War crisis between the Western Powers and the USSR. In
1942 the USA, Britain and the USSR agreed to the joint occupation of Iran in order to
prevent a German takeover of the oilfields. Though each ally had promised to with-
draw its troops six months after the end of the war, Soviet troops still remained in
Northern Iran in early 1946 and established the Autonomous Republic of Azerbijan.
Iran appealed to the UNITED NATIONS (UN) and pressure from the powers persuaded
the USSR to withdraw its forces in March 1946. The USSR simultaneously announced
the formation of an Iranian-Soviet oil company, which the Iranian Parliament later
rejected. The Crisis was a significant episode in the growth of the COLD WAR.

Baghdad Pact (1955) This TREATY was originally signed by Turkey and Iraq in
February 1955 aimed against Kurdish groups. In November it was joined by Britain,
Iran and Pakistan, becoming a Middle Eastern security organization to protect the
region against Soviet pressure. It was opposed by Egypt and other Arab STATES, and
after a coup in 1958 Iraq withdrew from the ALLIANCE. It was subsequently reorganized
with the addition of the USA as the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). It came
to an end in 1979 following the Iranian revolution and the proclamation of non-
alignment by both Iran and Pakistan.

Balance Of payments This is the account of a country's international finan-

cial and commercial transactions with the rest of the world. Foreign currency receipts
from the sale of goods and services are called exports and appear as a credit item on
what is called the current account. Vice versa, foreign currency payments are called
imports and appear on the debit side. The same applies to what is called the capital
account - the inflows and outflows of capital, accounted as credits and debits. If
receipts exceed spending, there is a balance-of-payments surplus; and vice versa, a
 Balance of power

deficit. A situation of uncorrected, continuing and unsustainable deficit is called a

balance-of-payments crisis.

Balance Of power The idea of the balance of power is based on the belief that
PEACE is more likely to be preserved when an equilibrium of POWER exists among
powers (particularly the major ones) as otherwise the strong will be tempted to attack
the weak. The term can be used to refer both to how the international system operates
and to how a STATE or ALLIANCE ought to conduct its external policy. Though the term
(whose value has frequently been reduced by its use in a loose descriptive manner) has
been used to describe circumstances from the period of Greek antiquity onwards, it
has been of particular importance since the rise of the modern state system in Europe.
The English international relations theorist Martin Wight (1913-72) specified nine
separate understandings of the much-debated term: (1) an even distribution of
power; (2) the principle that power should be evenly distributed; (3) the existing dis-
tribution of power; (4) the principle of aggrandizement of the strong powers at the
expense of the weak; (5) the principle that one side ought to have a margin of strength
in order to avert the danger of power becoming unevenly distributed; (6) a special
role in maintaining an even distribution of power; (7) a special advantage in the exist-
ing balance of power; (8) predominance; (9) an inherent tendency in international
politics to produce an even distribution of power. While the balance of power is
widely seen as a process that regulates conflict and preserves national independence
and the STATUS QUO, there has historically been much debate as to whether it pre-
serves peace or leads to WAR. During the COLD WAR, during which the SUPERPOWERS
were so dominant in their respective alliances, the terms BIPOLARITY and MULTIPOLAR-
ITY were introduced to describe the new order. So, also, with the NUCLEAR WEAPONS
ARMS RACE after 1945 the term BALANCE OF TERROR came to be used.

Balance of terror A term coined in the COLD WAR to describe the stalemate
produced by NUCLEAR WEAPONS, and the preservation of PEACE through DETERRENCE
or MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION (MAD) as contrasted with the traditional BALANCE
OF POWER. While the balance of power had to produce a recourse to WAR from time
to time to preserve or recreate a balance, the balance of terror predicates the impossi-
bility of a nuclear war because of the probability of utter destruction. Balance here
does not imply absolute equality, but a situation in which the weaker power can still
devastate the stronger to a completely unacceptable degree. The classical balance-of-
power theory was based on MULTIPOLARITY while the balance of terror has referred to
a situation of overwhelming bipolar nuclear strength between the two SUPERPOWERS.
One of the major concerns of the USA and the USSR/Russia has been to prevent
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION, which, it is felt, can only encourage instability rather than
balance.

Balance of trade This is the balance in visible trade over a specified period, the
difference between a country's import of goods and services and its export of them. It
is the most important element of the BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.

Balanced collective forces The requirement for balance in a military force

comes from the consideration that all the elements should be complementary to one
another so that it is constituted to fight with maximum effectiveness. By extension,
 Balkan Question

this should also apply when a force not only comprises the various services but also
extends to more than one nation. In an ALLIANCE the total strength and composition
of the forces should likewise be arranged in the best 'balanced' way to achieve the
objective of the mission.

Balfour Declaration (1917) The pledge, in the form of a letter, sent by the
British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour (1848-1930) to Lord Rothschild
(1868-1937) on 2 November 1917 supporting the aspiration of ZIONISM. Stating that
the British Government viewed 'with favour the establishment in Palestine of a
national home for the Jewish people', it promised that the British would use 'their best
endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood
that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of exist-
ing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by
Jews in any other country'. The declaration at once met with strong objections from
the Arabs, who saw it as contradicting pledges to recognize the Arab leaders of the
Arab Revolt of 1916 as rulers of Palestine. In particular, the Arabs saw the
Hussein-McMahon correspondence as a promise that an independent Arab kingdom
would include all of Palestine, though the British later argued that they had excluded
the territory west of the river Jordan. However, the declaration was confirmed by the
Allies for the British MANDATE over Palestine and endorsed by the LEAGUE OF
NATIONS. With growing Jewish immigration, it became more and more difficult for
Britain to reconcile its undertakings. Mounting tension, revolt, TERRORISM, British
withdrawal and WAR, with Arab defeat, subsequently led to the emergence of the State
of Israel in 1948.

Balfour Definition (1926) This clarified the nature of DOMINION status in the
British Empire. The ex-prime minister Lord Balfour (1848-1930) was invited at the
Imperial Conference of 1926 to chair a committee of dominion prime ministers and
this issued a report defining the imperial relationship. According to this, the domin-
ions constituted 'autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in sta-
tus, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external
affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as
Members of the British Commonwealth of Nations'. This prepared the way for the
1931 STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER. The Balfour Report stressed that in matters of for-
eign affairs and defence the 'major share of responsibility rests, and must for some
time continue to rest, with His Majesty's Government in Great Britain'.

Balkan Question An international term for disputes and conflicts in the Balkan
Peninsula from the early nineteenth century. These resulted from the decline of
the Ottoman and Hapsburg empires, from nationalist and ethnic uprisings and the
rivalry between Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Russia, Germany and Britain. The
Sarajevo assassination of 28 June 1914 and the tension between Austria-Hungary and
the South Slavs triggered the First World War. A serious problem after the WAR was the
resettlement of the Turkish population from Greece. Subsequently, Fascist pressure
exerted on Balkan STATES by Italy and Nazi Germany provoked military conflicts of
Italy with Albania and Germany with Yugoslavia and Greece. With the disintegration
of Yugoslavia in the 1990s the Balkans again became a prime focus of international
concern and INTERVENTION.
 Balkanization

Balkanization The fragmentation of a STATE or larger territorial unit into smaller,

autonomous units. The word was coined in the early twentieth century to describe the
disintegration of the Turkish Ottoman Empire, which produced chronic instability in
the Balkans. It has subsequently been applied elsewhere, for example, to describe events
in Russia since 1991, resulting from the mutual hostility of ethnic groups. Normally the
term is used in a pejorative sense as something leading to, or reflecting, international
upheaval. It is sometimes used to describe a deliberate policy of divide and rule.

BallhausplatZ The location in Vienna of the foreign affairs ministry of the

Austro-Hungarian Empire. This term is sometimes used in describing Austro-
Hungarian foreign policy - for example, in the years leading to the First World War. It
is also the location of the present Austrian foreign ministry.

Ballistic missile From the V2s in the Second World War onwards, any missile
that does not rely on aerodynamic surfaces to produce lift and that follows a ballistic
trajectory when its thrust ends. With INTER-CONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMS)
most of the trajectory lies outside the atmosphere.

Baltic States During the inter-war years this term referred to Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania. After the Second World War, during which these STATES had been
incorporated by the USSR, and during the COLD WAR the term came to be used more
generally to refer to those states on the Baltic Sea.

Bamboo Curtain This phrase was used, analogously to the IRON CURTAIN during
the COLD WAR, to refer to the wall of isolation developed by the communist People's
Republic of China between 1949 under Mao-Zedong (1893-1976) and its opening to
the West in the early 1970s.

Bandung Conferences (1955, 1985) (1) Held on 17 April 1955, with twenty-
nine participating nations in Bandung, Indonesia, the first conference signalled the
beginning of the NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM), calling for NEUTRALITY between the
SUPERPOWERS. The moving spirit here was the Indian Prime Minister Pandit Nehru
(1889-1964). It was primarily concerned with the issues of world PEACE, specifically,
the reluctance of the Western Powers to consult the developing nations regarding
Asia, the tension between the People's Republic of China and the USA and the rela-
tionship of China to the rest of Asia. It also declared opposition to COLONIALISM
throughout the world, and discussed the question of Indonesia's claim to New
Guinea. (2) The second conference of African and Asian nations, held in 1985,
reviewed the progress of the NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM).

Bangkok Declaration (1993) This statement, signed by forty Asian govern-

ments, following a meeting between 29 March and 2 April, asserted that standards for
HUMAN RIGHTS were not universal but determined by regional, cultural and other fac-
tors. While it stressed the 'universality, objectivity and non-selectivity of all human
rights' it confronted the Western nations with the need to 'avoid double standards in
the implementation of human rights'. As against the Western emphasis on civil and
political rights, it drew attention to the need also to respect economic, social and cul-
tural rights and the right to development.
 Barcelona Declaration

Bank for International Settlements (BIS) With headquarters in Basel,

Switzerland, this institution was set up on the basis of a proposal by the Young
Committee in 1930, the body that moderated the REPARATIONS payable by Germany
arising from the First World War. The original purpose was to enable the various
national central banks to coordinate through their own bank the receipts and pay-
ments relating to these reparations. Hopes that it would develop significantly beyond
this were frustrated when the INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF) was instituted at
the end of the Second World War. More recently, however, the BIS has acted as a
trustee for international government loans and carried out transactions for the IMF
and the ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD).

Bantu Originally, this was the term for a wide range of languages in South Africa,
but it came to have a political connotation under APARTHEID as a collective term
for the African peoples of South Africa, as for instance in the Bantu Authorities
Act (1951).

BAOR See BRITISH ARMY OF THE RHINE.

Bar Kochba Syndrome A theory relating to Israel's foreign and security pol-
icies named after the Jewish revolt against the Romans in AD 132-5, which led to the
death of thousands. It was advanced in the early 1980s and argued that by, heroizing
Bar Kochba, the Israelis were in danger of embracing an unrealistic and distorted view
of Jewish and Israeli history, evidencing 'the admiration of rebelliousness and hero-
ism detached from responsibility for their causes'.

Barbarossa (1941) The code name for the operation launched by Nazi Germany
on 22 June 1941 in violation of the NAZI-SOVIET NON-AGGRESSION PACT of 1939. It
was ordered by Hitler (1889-1945) in the 'B'-directive No. 21 of 18 December 1940
and was originally scheduled for 15 May 1941. In his briefing to the commanders of
the WEHRMACHT he had stressed that the Russian campaign differed from that in the
West because it was a life-and-death struggle between two ideologies and was above
the restraints of INTERNATIONAL LAW - hence the 'commissar order' that exempted
Soviet political officers from the protection of the GENEVA CONVENTIONS. Barbarossa
was to serve the primary war aim of shaping EASTERN EUROPE to create LEBENSRAUM,
'living space', for the German people. Contrary to the Supreme Army Command's
intention of waging the decisive battle before Moscow, Hitler had ordered operations
in the Ukraine and north of Leningrad. Only at the end of November did the German
divisions come close to Moscow. Then the offensive came to a halt, their forces being
exhausted and short of supplies. On 5 December the Russian counter-offensive
pushed the Germans back. Their defeat was due to an underrating of the Soviet Red
Army, bad weather and the resistance of the Russian people.

Barcelona Declaration (1995) This was a pledge by the EUROPEAN UNION

(EU) and twelve neighbouring Mediterranean states - Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Israel,
Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey and the Autonomous
Palestinian Territories - at a conference in Barcelona on 28 November 1995 to estab-
lish a Mediterranean FREE TRADE AREA by 2010. This is the essence of the so-called
European-Mediterranean Partnership and it is envisaged that this grouping will be
 Bargaining chip

linked through the EU to another free trade area with the countries of CENTRAL and
EASTERN EUROPE.

Bargaining chip This phrase came to be used in ARMS CONTROL from the
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TREATY (SALT) negotiations in the late 1960s. It meant any
weapons system or forces that a negotiator is willing to surrender in return for speci-
fied concessions from the other side. For example, the Nixon administration in the
USA called on Congress to approve the development of TRIDENT, the B-l bomber and
CRUISE as a bargaining chip in preparation for the SALT II negotiations. The tactic of
developing weapons in order to trade them away in negotiations was criticized both
on grounds of cost and, because, if it did not work, it would simply encourage the
ARMS RACE.

Baruch Plan (1946) A US plan for internationalizing atomic energy that was
submitted to the ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC) of the UNITED NATIONS ( U N ) by
Bernard Baruch (1870-1965), at the time Chairman of the US Atomic Energy
Commission, on 14 June 1946. He proposed a world atomic authority that would
exercise control over all production of atomic energy and the mining of fissionable
material. The plan assumed the cessation of the production of NUCLEAR WEAPONS by
abolishing the rights of VETO on the UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL on decisions
of the proposed agency. The plan was rejected by the USSR.

Base currency This is the currency - for instance, the US dollar - against which
the value of another currency is expressed. It is the other currency that is varied as the
foreign exchange rate changes.

Basel programme (1897) The original official statement of the World Zionist
Organization (WZO), at its first congress in Basel, Switzerland, which was convened by
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), author of The Jewish State published in 1896. 'Zionism', it
stated, 'seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under pub-
lic law'. The congress envisaged immigration into Palestine, a strong sense of Jewish
national consciousness and lobbying of governments for support as all contributing
towards the future foundation of an independent Jewish STATE. He argued that the
construction of a Jewish state was the only effective response to anti-Semitism.

Basic Law In German the Grundgesetz, the constitution of the Federal Republic
of Germany (FRG).

Battle of Britain (1940) The air offensive by Nazi Germany against Britain, initi-
ated by the Luftwaffe on 15 December 1940 with the aim of wiping out the Royal Air
Force to make possible the invasion of Britain, SEA LION. During the first phase, between
23 September and 6 October, there were daily attacks of around a thousand aircraft on
airfields and naval bases, involving heavy losses without achieving the aim of the battle.
On 7 October the Luftwaffe switched to night raids, particularly on London. The climax
of the battle was on 15 October (Battle of Britain Day), when the Germans suffered
record losses. The battle ended with a final raid on London on 11 May 1941.

Battlefield nuclear weapons See TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

 Berlin Blockade

Bay-of-Pigs invasion (1961) The abortive attempt to overthrow the revolu-

tionary Cuban leader Fidel Castro (b. 1927) by about 1,500 Cuban exiles, trained by
the CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA), who landed on 17 April in the Bahia de
Cochinos. Codenamed 'Operation Zapata', this amphibious landing was intended to
spark off a revolt on the island. Its failure was perceived as a humiliation for US
President Kennedy (1917-63), who had approved the invasion, though without
endorsing official US involvement. It strengthened Castro's authority and substanti-
ated his warnings about US intentions towards Cuba. The following year the intro-
duction of Soviet nuclear missiles into Cuba provoked the most serious CRISIS of the
COLD WAR.

Beggar-my-neighbour policy A policy of PROTECTIONISM in foreign trade

that attempts to improve the domestic economy at the expense of foreign countries.
It was particularly in evidence in the GREAT DEPRESSION and, more recently, in cur-
rency devaluations. Negative consequences are foreign retaliation and, if domestic
industries are allowed to ignore foreign competition, inefficiency.

Beijing Spring This term has been used to refer to two movements for greater
democratization in the People's Republic of China. The first is the so-called
Democracy Wall Movement of 1978-9; the second, the pro-democracy campaign
from April to June 1989, which ended with the large-scale massacre of protestors in
TIANANMEN SQUARE on 3-4 June 1989.

Belligerency Formal acknowledgement of being in a state of WAR. When foreign

STATES recognize that a condition of CIVIL WAR exists within a state, the effect of such
recognition is to confer on the parties a DE FACTO recognition, and the rights and
duties of legal warfare. Often this leads to external support to the insurgents.
Recognition of belligerent rights also means acknowledgement that rebel forces have
the right to govern the territory under their control.

Benelux An acronym for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg and the
name of the CUSTOMS UNION (cu) between the three countries that came into exist-
ence in 1948. A new treaty of economic union was ratified in 1960. This regional
grouping survives within the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) because the ROME TREATY (1957)
allows such groupings provided they adhere to the rules and respect the objectives of
the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC), which in 2002 includes fifteen countries.

Benevolent neutrality The behaviour of a STATE when it departs from neu-

tral impartiality during a conflict and gives support to one side.

Berlaymont This is the name of the building in Brussels that housed the EUROPEAN
COMMISSION from 1969 and is frequently used as a synonym for the Commission.

Berlin Blockade (1948-9) This was a major CRISIS in the early COLD WAR aris-
ing from the isolation of the population of West Berlin over 100 miles within the
Soviet occupation zone, when the USSR blocked road, rail and water routes. It lasted
from June 1948 to May 1949 and was motivated by Soviet concern at the emerging
unity of the Western zones and, more immediately, by a Western currency reform.
Ell Berlin Congress

The USA and Britain met this challenge by organizing a continuous airlift, involving
many thousands of flights, until the USSR lifted the BLOCKADE. They also hinted at
further resolve if the airlift was disrupted by announcing the flight of planes to Britain
that would be capable of carrying ATOMIC BOMBS. The effect of this crisis was to
encourage, rather than to hinder, the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany
(FRG) and also to encourage the formation of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGAN-
IZATION (NATO), both in 1949.

Berlin Congress (1878) The international conference that concluded the

Eastern Crisis, convened by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815-98) and
held from 13 June to 13 July 1878. Its purpose was to re-establish a BALANCE OF POWER
acceptable to the Great Powers. Among the results were the creation of an autonomous
principality of Bulgaria (rejecting Russian domination over that territory), confirm-
ation of the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania and recognition of
Russia's possession of the Caucasus and of Austria-Hungary's right to occupy Bosnia-
Herzegovina. In the longer term it did not solve the EASTERN QUESTION. Russia was
embittered by its reduced influence, for which it held Germany responsible and the
Balkan populations remained discontented.

Berlin Crisis (1958-2) Ten years after the BERLIN BLOCKADE (1948-9), this pro-
tracted and perilous crisis was precipitated by Soviet fears of West Germany's rearma-
ment and especially the fear that it might acquire nuclear weapons. This ENCLAVE of
CAPITALISM in the Soviet BLOC was, in any case, a significant, and destabilizing irritant
for the USSR. The crisis was provoked by the insistence of their leader Nikita
Khrushchev (1894-1971) that negotiations on European SECURITY, a nuclear-free
Germany and the end of the four-power occupation of Berlin had to begin within six
months or the USSR would conclude a separate PEACE TREATY with East Germany.
This would have given the Communist German Democratic Republic (GDR) control
over the access routes to West Berlin, which was over 100 miles behind the IRON CUR-
TAIN, something wholly unacceptable to the West. This deadline was subsequently
extended by stages until the end of 1961. Negotiations failed to bring a solution either
in 1959 or at the PARIS SUMMIT (1960), where scheduled talks were sabotaged by the
U-2 INCIDENT. The new US President John F. Kennedy (1917-63) discussed Berlin at
the VIENNA SUMMIT (1961), but to no avail, and in August of that year the BERLIN WALL
was erected to halt the massive emigration, particularly of skilled people, from the
Communist state to the West, which threatened economically to bring the GDR to its
knees. At considerable human cost, this nevertheless stabilized the situation.

Berlin Quadripartite Agreement (1971) This was one of the key agree-
ments associated with DETENTE and OSTPOLITIK. Signed by the USA, Britain, France
and the USSR, the four POWERS renounced the use of FORCE to resolve their disputes
and reaffirmed their responsibility for Berlin. The USSR guaranteed civilian transit
traffic through the German Democratic Republic (GDR) to West Berlin, and the
Western Powers declared that West Berlin had special ties to the Federal Republic of
Germany (FRG) and that it would 'continue not to be a constituent part of the Federal
Republic of Germany and not to be governed by it'. In April 1972 the two Germanys
negotiated transit and visitation agreements relating to Berlin within the framework
of the Four Power understanding.
 Big stick diplomacy

Berlin Treaty (1971) See BERLIN QUADRIPARTITE AGREEMENT.

Berlin Wall (August 1961-November 1989) A key symbol of the East-West

divide of the COLD WAR, the barrier that separated West Berlin from East Berlin and the
Communist German Democratic Republic (GDR). Its speedy construction was begun
on 13 August 1961 by the East German Government to prevent the flow of East
Germans to the West through this loophole that threatened ruin to the GDR economy,
not least since a significant proportion of the emigrants were highly skilled and quali-
fied. In addition to the wall across Berlin, the 858-mile border between East and West
Germany was strengthened with barbed wire, electrified fences, minefields, tank traps,
electronic warning devices, watchtowers and bunkers. East German guards were
instructed to capture or shoot anyone escaping. When the Wall was first built, the
Western Powers did little more than make a verbal protest, including the claim that the
action violated the Second World War agreements. It became symbolic of imprisonment
under COMMUNISM, and of the seeming permanence of that system and the unfeasibil-
ity of West German hopes of reunification. At the same time it stabilized a dangerous sit-
uation over Berlin, which led at one stage to Soviet and US tanks advancing to within a
couple of hundred yards of one another. On 9 November 1989 the East German
Government announced that their citizens would no longer be prohibited from crossing
over the border to the West. The Wall's subsequent breaching and dismantling became
the symbol of the end of the COLD WAR and was followed by German reunification.

Bermuda Conference (1957) An Anglo-American Summit Conference

between President Eisenhower (1890-1969) and the British Prime Minister Harold
Macmillan (1894-1986). This re-established cordial relations between the two coun-
tries after the mutual recriminations of the SUEZ CRISIS of 1956 in which the US had
condemned the military action by Britain and France, in collusion with Israel, to seize
back the Suez Canal, which had just been nationalized by the Egyptian leader Nasser
(1918-70). At Bermuda the USA agreed to supply Britain with 'Thor' guided missiles
and to join the BAGHDAD PACT of 1955. Previously Britain had had to abandon its own
guided missile project 'Blue Steel' because of economic constraints.

Big Brother This term was used sometimes in the West during the COLD WAR to
describe the dominant relationship between the USSR and its satellite STATES.

Big Five (1) A term used after the First World War at the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE
(1919-20) for the Allied and Associated Powers, Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the
USA. (2) After the Second World War it was used for the P5, the permanent members
of the UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL, USA, USSR, China, Britain, and France.

Big Four (1) The name applied to the Council of Four at the PARIS PEACE CON-
FERENCE (1919-20); (2) A diplomatic catchphrase during the Second World War. It
refers to the USA, Britain, the USSR and Nationalist China and was first used in con-
nection with the UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION of 1 January 1942, in which these
nations stood at the head of the list of signatories.

Big stick diplomacy A term derived from the phrase used by US President
Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) in a speech made in New York in 1912: 'Speak softly
and carry a big stick and you will go far.'
 Big Three

Big Three The leaders of the major Allied POWERS during the Second World War,
the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), the British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill (1874-1965) and the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1879-1953).

Bilateral agreements Agreements concluded between two parties. Until

the nineteenth century they related usually to PEACE and trade, but since the VIENNA
CONGRESS (1814-15) have come to cover ever more fields of cooperation. Since the
second half of the twentieth century and into the twenty first, they have often been
agreements between countries and international organizations.

Bilateral aid AID that is based on a direct arrangement between two countries. This
greatly increased during the 1950s owing to DECOLONIZATION and the rivalry of the
SUPERPOWERS during the COLD WAR. Large numbers of colonies became independent
and many turned to their original colonial masters for economic assistance. A good
example of this is Algerian relations with France after the granting of independence to
the former in 1962. At the same time, aid has been used as a means of maintaining influ-
ence in territories formally under the control of the colonial powers, and in the struggle
for influence in the THIRD WORLD of USSR/Russia, the People's Republic of China and
the USA. Bilateral aid has become a permanent aspect of North-South relations.

Billiard ball model A metaphor used for the realist view of international rela-
tions, which emphasizes the primacy of the STATE (STATE-CENTRISM) in a WORLD SYS-
TEM where there is no overall political authority, but the constant interaction, and
competition, of self-contained units.

Bi-multipolarity A term sometimes used to describe the configuration of STATES

during the COLD WAR in which allies were grouped around the two poles of the USA
and USSR, being in turn influenced by the SUPERPOWERS and also constraining them.
It was an attempt to update the theory of the BALANCE OF POWER to the new global
reality, but it was criticized on the grounds that in a worldwide ideological confronta-
tion the influence of the lesser powers was probably not particularly restraining.

Bipartisanship In international relations, inter-party unity in foreign policy

matters and/or agreement between institutions. The underlying assumption is that
domestic party political rivalry should be suspended if a country is faced with a sig-
nificant national danger from abroad, or challenge, and needs to present a united
front. In the USA this would mean agreement both between the President and
Congress and the Republican and Democratic parties. An example in Britain is the
support given by the opposition parties to the Prime Minister Mrs Thatcher (b. 1925)
in her determination to repossess the Falkland Islands after their invasion by
Argentina in the FALKLANDS WAR (1982).

Bipolarity This is a term particularly associated with the East-West confrontation

and BALANCE OF POWER during the COLD WAR. The commonest analysis of the period
after 1945 was that there were now two overridingly dominant global powers, the
USA and the USSR, in place of an international system with several great powers, as
in the earlier CONCERT OF EUROPE. Bipolarity was the concept to fit this new situation.
Some theorists were optimistic and believed that this could offer stability in a nuclear
age of MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION (MAD). Others argued that the bipolar balance
was doomed to break down - for instance, through the technological advance of one
side in the ARMS RACE. In such circumstances there would be no adequately powerful
third party that could, as during the earlier period, ally with the weaker power to can-
cel out any advantage gained by the stronger. Bipolarity is to be contrasted with MUL-
TIPOLARITY and POLYCENTRISM, which are more appropriate models for the study of
the global order since the 1960s.

BIS See BANK FOR INTERNATIONAL SETTLEMENTS.

Bismarckian After Otto von Bismarck (1815-98), the Prussian statesman, archi-
tect of German unification between 1862 and 1871 and subsequently (until 1890)
Chancellor of the German Empire. His name is usually invoked in describing a policy
of REALPOLITIK and, more specifically, in describing the belief that economic activities
should serve the overall interests of STATE POWER and military capacity.

Black Monday (1987) A day - 19 October 1987- on which the world stock
market suffered a dramatic fall, evoking fears of a repeat of 1929. In New York, for
instance, the Dow Jones index fell by 23 per cent. The fears of a major global slump
did not materialize.

Black Monday/Black Tuesday This refers to the collapse of the stock mar-
ket on Wall Street on 28 and 29 September 1929. On the first day the crash reached
full-blown proportions and on the Tuesday the bottom fell out of the market. These
two days have become the symbol of the slump that affected the international market
between 1929 and 1940.

Black September The name of an Arab terrorist organization formed after the
Jordanian Civil War, which had begun in September 1970. Because the fighting
resulted in the defeat and expulsion of Palestinians, it was given this name. Its most
spectacular act was the killing of eleven Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics in
September 1972. Following criticism that it was harming the Palestinian cause, it was
disbanded in 1974.

Black Wednesday (1992) A term referring to 16 September 1992 when currency

speculation and international financial turbulence forced Britain out of the Exchange
Rate Mechanism (ERM) of the EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM (EMS). This debacle was
a major contributor to Conservative electoral defeat in 1997.

Blitzkrieg German for 'lightning war'. This term describes the war doctrine put
into effect by the Third Reich in the early stages of the Second World War, involving
massed and unexpected air and armoured strikes. This brought speedy victories
against Poland in 1939 and in Western Europe in 1940, but failed in conditions where
there was no surprise and superior forces, as later against the USSR. It was based on
the principle that the backbone of the army was armour, supported by air power.

Bloc In international relations, a political and/or economic grouping of STATES,

which are often, but not necessarily bound together by TREATIES or ALLIANCES.
 Blockade

Blockade A form of limited warfare in which ports are blocked physically or by

decree, such as during the Napoleonic Wars, so that vessels may be captured or
destroyed. During the First World War Britain extended the notion of blockade by
requiring ships from neutral ports to submit to search at designated ports. One rea-
son for the development of submarines was as a means of circumventing blockade.
Under INTERNATIONAL LAW blockades are acts of WAR. As such they must be declared
and notification must be made to neutral countries. When, during the CUBAN MISSILE
CRISIS (1962) the USA intercepted Soviet vessels travelling to Cuba, they described
this action as a QUARANTINE rather than a blockade.

Blood and Soil (Blut und Boden) The Nazi German concept that the
German race were bound by blood ties and rooted in their own territory. It was used
in the racialist campaign against Jews and other nationalities, as was that of LEBEN-
SRAUM ('living space').

Blue berets/helmets The term for armed forces of the UNITED NATIONS (UN),
who, regardless of their national uniforms, all use blue berets or helmets as headgear.

Blue Streak An abortive project for a UK land-based INTER-CONTINENTAL BALLIS-

TIC MISSILE (ICBM) with a range of 2,800 nautical miles. Its cost proved prohibitive for
the UK and it never reached the stage of test-firing. Its cancellation (in 1960) was sig-
nificant because it ended the attempt to have a STRATEGIC NUCLEAR WEAPON entirely
independent of the USA. As a consequence the UK acquired POLARIS MISSILES follow-
ing the NASSAU AGREEMENT of December 1962.

Blue Water Navy This term has been used since the late nineteenth century and
means a navy capable of patrolling and fighting anywhere across the globe. This dis-
tinguishes it from the coastal protection fleets that many countries maintain instead
of investing in long-range capability. A main focus of naval interest in the 1960s was
the development of just such a fleet by the USSR.

Bluewater policy A term used to describe the traditional imperial British

maritime STRATEGY of concentrating effort on the navy, colonial conquest and
overseas trade. While Britain might also subsidize continental allies to carry on
warfare, it meant the avoidance wherever possible of British continental military
commitments.

BMD Ballistic Missile Defence.

Boat people A term coined in the 1980s for the Vietnamese REFUGEES fleeing by
boat to Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong. They were the subject
of a special conference held in Bangkok and organized by the ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH
EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) in July 1988.

Boycott In international trade the refusal to buy products from a particular coun-
try or group of countries. It may be government sponsored or initiated by private
groups or campaigns. As an instrument of trade, it may be motivated by economic,
political and ideological interests or considerations of national SECURITY.
 Brezhnev Doctrine

Brandt Reports (1980-3) The first report was entitled 'North-South: A

Programme for Survival'. On the state of the world economy, it was produced by an
international commission convened by the UNITED NATIONS (UN) between 1977 and
1979 under the chairmanship of Willy Brandt (1913-92), previously Chancellor of
the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). It recommended urgent improvement in
trade relations between the developed countries of the northern hemisphere and the
poor countries of the southern in the interests of both. The commission reconvened
to produce a second report, 'Common Crisis: North-South Cooperation for World
Recovery' (1983), which perceived 'far greater dangers than three years ago' and pre-
dicted 'conflict and catastrophe' unless the imbalances in global international finance
could be addressed. A central recommendation was that the developed countries
should annually give AID to the poorer countries equal to 0.7 per cent of Gross
Domestic Product by 1985, rising to 1 per cent by the year 2000. With a few excep-
tions, the transfer of aid fell far short of these targets in following years.

Brest-Litovsk (1918) On 15 December 1917 an ARMISTICE was concluded at

Brest-Litovsk between Germany and revolutionary Russia, where peace negotiations
began a week later. They continued for several months without concrete results and
with Trotsky (1879-1940), Commissar for External Affairs, holding out in the hope
that revolution would spread to Germany and Austria. On 9 February 1918 the CEN-
TRAL POWERS concluded a separate PEACE treaty with the Ukraine and on 18 February
they resumed their military advance, persuading the Russian leader Lenin (1870-1924)
to capitulate. On 3 March the Russians were forced to accept a dictated peace, by which
the Baltic countries, Finland, the Caucasus and the Ukraine were separated from the
former Russian Empire. The areas lost included 75 per cent of Russian heavy industry.
In addition to this there were 6 billion gold marks to pay in REPARATIONS. The negoti-
ations were continued in Bucharest. The Romanians were likewise humiliated. Besides
the CESSION of the southern Dobrudja, the Central Powers claimed the Romanian oil
and grain resources. The Treaty of Bucharest was signed on 7 May 1918.

Bretton Woods Conference (1944) Attended byforty-fiveSTATES between

1 and 22 July 1944 in New Hampshire, the USA, this was the first United Nations
Monetary and Financial Conference and resulted in the setting-up of the INTER-
NATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF) and the INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION
AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD) (World Bank). This was with a view to post-war recon-
struction, stabilization and the expansion of world trade. It created a pool of common
currencies, set rules for exchange-rate behaviour and made the IMF the world's
'lender of last resort'. It established an international monetary regime that lasted until
1971 and in which other countries fixed their currency parity against the US dollar.
The term 'Bretton Woods' was used as shorthand to describe this system. A major rea-
son for the ending of this system was the weakening of the American economy as a
consequence of US involvement in the VIETNAM WAR.

Brezhnev Doctrine Named after the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev

(1906-82), and also called the 'doctrine of limited sovereignty', the term that came to
be applied in the West to the Soviet justification for the WARSAW PACT occupation of
Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In a speech in that year he had said that a threat to
COMMUNISM in any of the countries of the Soviet BLOC 'must engage the attention of
 Brinkmanship

all the Socialist States'. The doctrine arrogated to the USSR the right to prevent defec-
tion from the bloc and/or the overthrow of Communism in any of these states. Soviet
acceptance under Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931) of the dismantling of the Soviet bloc
in 1990-1 meant repudiation of the doctrine.

Brinkmanship A diplomatic catchword of the 1950s, described by the US SEC-

RETARY OF STATE John Foster Dulles (1888-1959) as 'the ability to get to the verge
without getting into war'. With this the USA would be willing to go to the brink in a
nuclear age so that an adversary should clearly understand the consequences of not
capitulating or seeking a compromise. This was linked to the contemporary doctrine
of MASSIVE RETALIATION. Perhaps the most dramatic example of brinkmanship was
the CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962). Evidently the term, though coined at the height of
the COLD WAR, can apply to other situations - for example, to Hitler's repeated defi-
ance of the democratic powers over Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland in the 1930s.
The risks of nuclear war have posed the question as to whether an absolutely uncom-
promising adherence to the conception of NATIONAL INTEREST, such as brinkmanship
suggests, is any longer a feasible policy.

British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) This was the title of the British army
of occupation in Germany after 1945. Subsequently it has been the major commit-
ment of British land forces to the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO).
During the COLD WAR its responsibility was to defend the northern section of the CEN-
TRAL FRONT in any engagement with the WARSAW PACT. In the Paris Agreements of
October 1954, which led to the rearmament of Germany, Britain promised to keep
four divisions of troops on the Continent for fifty years. With the ending of the cold
war a significant reduction in the size of the BAOR was agreed.

Brussels Because of the large number of institutions associated with the EUROPEAN
UNION (EU), the word is commonly used to refer to the Union and its management.

Brussels Treaty (1948) A fifty-year defensive pact, signed on 17 March 1948 by

Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, similar in form to the
INTER-AMERICAN TREATY OF RECIPROCAL ASSISTANCE (1947) (the Rio Treaty). The pact
was proposed by the US SECRETARY OF STATE George Marshall (1880-1959) and
proved the willingness of Western Europe to contribute to its own defence in the COLD
WAR. Soon after the signing, discussions were held with a view to including Italy,
Norway, Denmark, Ireland and Portugal together with the USA and Canada. In June
the VANDENBERG RESOLUTION was passed by 64-4 votes by the US Senate paving the
way for the transatlantic NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY, signed in April 1949.

Buffer state A weak STATE located between, or on the borders of, stronger states
that serve the security interests of the latter. Buffer states often exist only because their
more powerful neighbours want a zone between themselves and their neighbours.
Serving as they do the strategic and economic interests of their dominant neighbours,
buffer states, historically, have contributed to the maintenance of the local and general
BALANCE OF POWER, by reducing the chances of direct confrontation and conflict. As
an example, for many years Afghanistan, Persia and Tibet served British imperial
interests as buffers between Russia and the British Raj in India.
 Camp David Accords

Buffer zone A delimited area controlled by a peacekeeping force, from which

belligerents have been excluded. Such zones are created to prevent or reduce the pos-
sibility of future conflict. In some operations the UNITED NATIONS (UN) has referred to
them as 'areas or zones of separation'.

Bundeswehr The German Federal Armed Forces. This was created following the
Paris Agreements (1954). It is the largest NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION
(NATO) land army in Europe and also contains a formidable air force and a small navy,
which operates in the Baltic and North Sea. Following German reunification the
Bundeswehr has undertaken the merging of professional soldiers from what was for-
merly East Germany with the Bundeswehr. An agreement made with the USSR in
1990 specified that this force would have a ceiling of 370,000 troops.

Burden Sharing The issue of the respective expenditure on DEFENCE in the

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) by the USA and the other NATO
members. With the revival of West European prosperity, particularly that of the EURO-
PEAN COMMUNITY/UNION (EC/EU), there have been recurrent demands in the USA for
European states to pay a higher proportion. At times some critics of NATO budget
arrangements in the USA have been prepared to start withdrawing US troops from
Europe in order to force European governments to increase their proportion of
national expenditure on defence.

C3I Command, control, communications and intelligence.

Cairo Conference (1943) Second World War meeting between the US Presi-
dent Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
(1874-1965) and the Chinese leader Chiang Kai-Shek (1887-1975) between 22 and 26
November 1943. The resulting Cairo Declaration, issued on 1 December, gave specific
detail to the principle of UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER as relating to the Far East, and
stated that 'Japan shall be stripped of all the islands in the Pacific which she has seized
and occupied since 1914, and that all the territories Japan has stolen from the
Chinese... shall be restored to the Republic of China. Japan will also be expelled from
all other territories she has taken by violence and greed.' It added, 'in due course Korea
shall become free and independent'. Korea had been annexed to Japan after the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-5.

Calvo Doctrine Named after Carlos Calvo (1822-1906), an Argentinian jurist

who in 1868 challenged the legitimacy of one STATE'S INTERVENTION in the internal
affairs of another to protect the rights of ALIENS. It was subsequently embodied in
Article I of the Second Hague Convention at the HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE (1907). It
is a common feature of public contracts between Latin American governments and
foreigners. Potentially raising conflicts between the idea of national SOVEREIGNTY and
the standards of INTERNATIONAL LAW, it has been controversial.

Camp David Accords (1978) These were reached between the Israeli Prime
Minister Menachem Begin (1913-92) and the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat
 Camp David Summit

(1918-81) at the US presidential retreat on 17 September 1978, during the presidency

of Jimmy Carter (b. 1924) and were intended to advance the peace process in the
Middle East. The first concerned the status of the WEST BANK and the GAZA STRIP
which Israel had occupied since the SIX DAY WAR of June 1967. It specified a transi-
tional period of no more than five years in which Egypt, Israel and Jordan and 'repre-
sentatives of the Palestinian people' would determine the final status of the territories
based on the 'full autonomy' and 'self-governing authority', for the inhabitants of the
two areas. The second arranged for a PEACE TREATY between Egypt and Israel. Phased
withdrawal of Israeli forces from Sinai over three years and the dismantling of their
settlements there was reciprocated by Egyptian willingness to open diplomatic and
commercial relations with Israel.

Camp David Summit (1959) This was the first summit conference solely
between the USA and the USSR. It was on the initiative of US President Eisenhower
(1890-1969) and followed months of tension over the BERLIN CRISIS. It was held on
20-27 September. Eisenhower and the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)
agreed that a full summit should be held in 1960. Eisenhower hoped that Khrushchev
would drop his threat to Berlin and that it might be possible to reduce the inter-
national tension of the COLD WAR. On substantive issues, however, such as Germany
and DISARMAMENT, the two powers continued to differ.

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) This movement was

formed in 1958 in the UK 'to work for the abandonment of nuclear weapons and a
substantial reduction in British defence spending'. It attracted wide attention in the
1960s through its annual marches from Aldermaston, the leading British nuclear arms
centre, to London and its impact on the British Labour Party, whose party conference
initially supported UNILATERALISM, but whose governments from 1964 onwards
rejected it. A splinter group called the Committee of One Hundred was set up in 1962
under CND's president, the philosopher Lord Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), and
engaged in civil disobedience. CND revived again with the EUROMISSILE controversy
in the early 1980s. As the party of opposition, the Labour Party again embraced uni-
lateralism as official policy in 1983, though its influence failed to dissuade the gov-
ernment from the deployment of CRUISE MISSILES.

Cantonization The division of a STATE into smaller units, as, for example, in
Yugoslavia during the 1990s. The Swiss Confederation is constituted from cantons.

Capability A term used in the analysis of POWER in international relations, not

least in military strength. In assessing a STATE'S capability, for instance, of waging war
successfully against another state, an analyst will be likely to consider not only actual
military strength but the underlying economic resources for sustaining a WAR and
other questions such as ideological conviction, nationalist sentiment, popular morale
and the attitude of the people concerned towards its own government.

Capability analysis In international relations, this is the assessment that a

STATE, ALLIANCE or other organization makes about its ability to achieve its objectives.
Commonly, this will involve a range of considerations, military, political, diplomatic
and economic, some significantly more tangible than others. Before taking a decision,
 Capitulations

for instance, to launch an invasion or intervene in a CIVIL WAR, a government will want
to have appraised a range of options and to have calculated consequences. 'Capability'
in this context is always relative, in relation to the abilities, strengths and weaknesses
of the other ACTOR(s).

Cape to Cairo A slogan of British IMPERIALISM at the end of the nineteenth cen-
tury at the time of the SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA among the European powers. Cecil
Rhodes (1853-1902) advocated the (unfulfilled) idea of a railway line from South
Africa to the Mediterranean, the Cape-Cairo route with Britain controlling the terri-
tory the whole length of East Africa.

Capitalism The economic system based on private enterprise and private owner-
ship, under which a major proportion at least of economic activity is carried out by
profit-seeking organizations and individuals. It involves the use of markets and self-
regulation rather than centralized planning to allocate resources, with the regulation
of supply and demand through the price mechanism in a free market. As a theory, it
assumes the free movement of capital, labour and trade and is to be contrasted with
COMMUNISM, under which major economic decisions have to be taken collectively,
with rigid state control over the economy and trade - the command economy.
Capitalism has undergone many modifications, not least with the development of
major international corporations, with the expanding role of the STATE and the
increasing sophistication of financial systems and speed of transaction. Marxists and
others have argued that Capitalism has been the dominant motive behind IMPERIAL-
ISM, leading to international rivalry and WAR, the thesis advanced by Lenin
(1870-1924) in Imperialism the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). The theory is that
the declining rate of profit at home has forced major capitalist countries and their
entrepreneurs and investors to expand overseas, and that this has outlasted DECOL-
ONIZATION, with the LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (LDCS) in a dependency relationship
on the industrialized world. Karl Marx (1818-83) in his critique envisaged capitalism
as a specific stage in global economic development. However, the demise of the USSR
and Communist regimes in EASTERN EUROPE, the opening of the economy of
Communist China to market forces and GLOBALIZATION have affirmed not only the
longevity of capitalism, but also its claim to be a WORLD SYSTEM.

Capitalist encirclement The idea advanced principally by the USSR that it

was surrounded by hostile capitalist STATES committed to its destruction and that of
the Communist system. It was lent credibility by the Allied intervention against the
new revolutionary government between 1918 and 1921 and it became a dominant
theme in Soviet foreign policy under Stalin (1879-1953), who used it as justification
for ruthless suppression within Russia. After the Second World War, with the establish-
ment of COMMUNISM in China and EASTERN EUROPE, the Soviet leader announced that
capitalist encirclement had now been succeeded by a new reality of the 'two camps'.
The two-camps doctrine posited the existence of a rough BALANCE OF POWER between
the Communist and capitalist worlds, but with no abating of their antagonism.

Capitulations This term can be used in two senses: (1) in INTERNATIONAL LAW,
conventions between armed forces that lay down specific surrender terms; (2) the
grants of extraterritorial privileges by one STATE to the subjects of another, exempting
 Captive Nations Resolution

them, for instance, from the jurisdictions of the courts in the countries in which they
are residing. These, which were common in the nineteenth century, have disappeared
with DECOLONIZATION and IRREDENTISM.

Captive Nations Resolution This was proposed in 1950 by the US

Congress and required the President to denounce Soviet control of EASTERN EUROPE,
calling on Americans to 'recommit themselves to the support of the just aspirations of
these captive nations'. It was repeated through most of the COLD WAR, serving as a
political concession to those who wanted the ROLLBACK of COMMUNISM. For their
part, the EASTERN BLOC described it as illegitimate interference and incitement.

Cardenas Doctrine The statement by Lazaro Cardenas (1895-1970), who was

President of Mexico between 1934 and 1940, who in 1938 nationalized the largely
US-owned oil refineries in his country, that a STATE could not act to protect its nation-
als in the territory of another state.

Caribbean Community (CARICOM) A British COMMONWEALTH regional

body, which was established, as the Caribbean COMMON MARKET, by the Chaguaramas
Treaty in Trinidad on 4 July 1973. It was originally seen as an extension of the
CARIBBEAN FREE TRADE AREA (CARIFTA) and as a means of dealing with representatives
of the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC) in the negotiation leading to the LOME
CONVENTION of 1975. Six non-Commonwealth countries have observer status at
CARICOM meetings, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Surinam
and Venezuela. Its objectives of coordinating foreign policy and harmonization of
economic and other policies have been only very modestly realized.

Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) This was established by the

countries of the British COMMONWEALTH in the Caribbean in 1968 to remove customs
duties between member STATES. It was, though economically of negligible conse-
quence, an important step towards the establishment of the CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY
(CARICOM).

CARICOM See CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY.

CARIFTA See CARIBBEAN FREE TRADE AREA.

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace A US non-

governmental institution devoted to the study of world affairs, founded by the indus-
trialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie (1836—1919). It has encouraged the
strengthening of INTERNATIONAL LAW, founding the Academy of International Law in
the Hague, promoted conciliation and financed reconstruction projects. The endow-
ment is used for a range of subjects, such as European SECURITY, global migration,
study of economic problems, democratization and CONFLICT RESOLUTION. Its head-
quarters are in Washington DC and its Centre for Russian and Eurasian Programmes
in Moscow, which was opened in 1993.

Cartel An agreement among countries or business organizations to restrict com-

petition, based on a contractual understanding typically involving prices, production
 Catalytic war

and the division of the market. During the GREAT DEPRESSION in the 1930s up to half
of world trade was subject to cartel control. A post-Second World War example is the
ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC), established in 1961.

Carter Doctrine This policy was announced by US President Jimmy Carter

(b. 1924) in his State of the Union address to Congress on 23 January 1980. This was
shortly after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and during the Iranian hostage CRISIS.
He stated that 'an attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf
region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of
America, and such force will be repelled by any means necessary, including military
force'. This was followed, among other initiatives, by the creation of the RAPID DEPLOY-
MENT FORCE.

Cash-and-carry A US term first used in relation to the NEUTRALITY ACT of 1935,

concerning arms embargo, trade quotas and a ban on loans. Cash-and-carry required
that belligerents trading with the USA transport their goods in foreign vessels and pay
for them in cash before they left American ports. It was adopted as part of the
Neutrality Acts of 1937 and 1939, although a month after the outbreak of the Second
World War it was limited to the North Atlantic area. It combined the objectives of
keeping out of European entanglements, but at the same time helping Britain and
France if war came, which it did in September 1939. By the new Act of 4 November
1939 Britain and France were permitted to purchase arms on a cash-and-carry basis.

Cassis de Dijon Case This resulted in a key judgment of the EUROPEAN

COURT OF JUSTICE (ECJ). The case of Rewe-Zentrale AG v. Bundesmonopolverwaltung
fur Brantwein (1979) involved a German attempt to prevent the importation of this
alcoholic drink from France on grounds of its low alcoholic content. The essence of
this ruling was that any product lawfully produced and marketed in one member
STATE must in principle be admitted to free circulation in the territory of another
member state, subject to very limited exceptions. This precedent was used for the
establishment of the SINGLE MARKET and abolition of NON-TARIFF BARRIERS (NBTs).

Casus belli A Latin term for a cause alleged by a STATE to justify it in declaring
and making WAR on another state. For instance, the violation of Belgian NEUTRALITY
by Germany in 1914 was provided as the casus belli for the British declaration of war.
According to the UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, warlike measures are permissible, other
than any authorized by the UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL or the UNITED
NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY, only if made necessary by reason of individual or COL-
LECTIVE SELF-DEFENCE against armed attack.

Casus foederis A Latin term for an event or situation that calls for an ALLIANCE
obligation to be invoked. For instance, if one STATE agrees to come to the defence of
another in the event of it being attacked by a THIRD PARTY and it is so attacked, a casus
foederis has arisen.

Catalytic war A COLD WAR term for a small nuclear war, or the use of NUCLEAR
WEAPONS by a lesser POWER that might lead to a conflict between the SUPERPOWERS.
During the early years of the development of nuclear weapons there was considerable
 CBMs

concern that a major nuclear conflict might occur by accident, through miscalcula-
tion, faulty detection and ESCALATION that could not be controlled.

CBMs See CONFIDENCE-BUILDING MEASURES.

CBW Chemical and biological warfare.

Ceasefire An agreement between hostile forces while efforts are made to negoti-
ate a peace settlement. It does not mean that a peace settlement will necessarily follow.
In some cases a ceasefire will remain in force for many years without formal conclu-
sion of a WAR. In other cases, as in Yugoslavia in the 1990s, we see a succession of
short-lived ceasefires before an agreement is reached or imposed.

CEES Central and East European States.

CENTO Central Treaty Organization. See BAGHDAD PACT (1955).

Central Europe See MITTELEUROPA. The term 'Central Europe' has been used
flexibly and it is important to establish in which context and for which purpose it
is being used. As an illustration of this point, the Disarmament Conference in Vienna
in November 1973 defined Central Europe as Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the two
Germanys, Holland, Luxembourg and Poland.

Central Front This term was used during the COLD WAR for the line of con-
frontation between the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) and the WAR-
SAW TREATY ORGANIZATION (WTO), the border between the two German STATES. It
was anticipated that war would break out here if rivalry between the USA and the
USSR led to outright conflict and it was the focus of a great deal of strategic discus-
sion. With the reunification of Germany in 1990, the disbanding of the WTO and the
withdrawal of Russian troops from the territory of the old German Democratic
Republic (GDR), the Central Front ceased to exist.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Formed in 1947, along with the US

NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL (NSC), by which it is supervised, and the Department of
Defene as part of the National Security Act of that year. It superseded the individual
service branch intelligence agencies and is responsible for foreign INTELLIGENCE gather-
ing. Through the creation of a modern intelligence service the USA hoped to avoid
another military debacle such as that which happened at PEARL HARBOR in 1941. The
Central Intelligence Agency Act (1941) exempted the organization from all statutes
concerning disclosure of its activities and gave its Director power to spend money
without public accountability. This allowed COVERT ACTION on a large scale during the
COLD WAR, and subsequently. These included the support of resistance movements to
COMMUNISM, propaganda and involvements included the BAY OF PIGS INVASION
(1961), help for the Contras in Nicaragua in the 1980s and counter-terrorism.

Central Powers The collective expression for Germany, Austria-Hungary,

Bulgaria and Turkey during the First World War. The Central Powers, which were
united by the monarchical principle, were linked by BILATERAL TREATIES. Though
 Charter 77

Germany played a predominant part among them, it did not succeed in pressing its
WAR claims upon its allies and they could never agree a common foreign policy. Their
only coordinated appearance in public DIPLOMACY was the peace offer of 12 December
1916, which was rebuffed by the Allies and the negotiations for the BREST-LITOVSK
TREATY of 1918.

Central war A term from the COLD WAR, it meant a direct major confrontation
between the nuclear SUPERPOWERS. It assumed the probability that NUCLEAR WEAPONS
would be used, but the term also covered head-on conventional armed confrontation.
Another phrase, with nuclear connotation, is 'central strategic warfare'.

Centre A term used in DEPENDENCY THEORY to refer to the FIRST WORLD or the
major industrialized countries in the global political economy.

Century Group This was named after the Century Association, a club in New
York. It was founded in the Second World War in July 1940, after the fall of France and
amid fears that Britain would also soon be defeated by Nazi Germany. It lobbied
against ISOLATIONISM, calling for a prompt US declaration of war against Germany
before US SECURITY was endangered.

Cession Cession is usually a formal procedure and is based on a TREATY. It is the

handing over of territory and the SOVEREIGNTY over that territory, rather than forcible
ANNEXATION without any formalities or attention to legalities. It may be effected by
purchase (as, for instance, in the case of the US purchase of Alaska from Russia in
1867) exchange, gift or a voluntary merger. At the same time, cession can be as a con-
sequence of the threat of FORCE, for example, the cession of the SUDETENLAND to Nazi
Germany in 1938.

CFE See CONVENTIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE.

CFI Court of First Instance.

CFSP See COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY.

Chapultepec Conference See INTER-AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON PROBLEMS

OF WAR AND PEACE (1945).

Charge d'affaires Sometimes also referred to as 'Charge d'affaires en titre', to

distinguish the individual from being 'Charge d'affaires ad interim', acting provision-
ally as head of a diplomatic mission. normally, they are assistants to AMBASSADORS
and envoys. If the regular head of mission is recalled, the Charge d'affaires heads the
mission. This commonly reflects a downgrading or chilling of relations between the
STATES concerned. A Charge d'affaires is accredited from one foreign ministry to
another, whereas an Ambassador is accredited from one head of state to another.

Charter 77 A movement in defence of HUMAN RIGHTS in Communist

Czechoslovakia inspired by the HELSINKI ACCORDS (1975) of the CONFERENCE ON
SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE (CSCE). Signed in 1977, it appealed to the
Another random document with
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 102. Instead of και δικης, I read και μετα δικης.

103. i. e. Should be perfectly impartial.

104. Instead of διπλοτατοις μοναδος as in the original, which is nonsense, it is

necessary to read, as in the above translation, απλοτητι της μοναδος.

105. For 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20; and 1 + 3 + 6 + 7 = 16; and 20 + 16 = 36.

106. The cock was sacred to Apollo, and therefore its heart was believed to be
the instrument of divination in sacrifices. The chemic Olympiodorus says, “that the
cock obscurely signifies the essence of the sun and moon.” See, in the additional
notes, what is said by Proclus concerning the cock, in his treatise On Magic.

107. It is well observed by Ficinus, in lib. i. Eunead. ii. Plotin. “that the fire
which is enkindled by us is more similar to the heavens than other terrestrial
substances. Hence it participates of light, which is something incorporeal, is the
most powerful of all things, is as it were vital, is perpetually moved, divides all
things, without being itself divided, absorbs all things in itself, and avoids any
foreign mixture: and lastly, when the fuel of it is consumed, it suddenly flies back
again to the celestial fire, which is every where latent.”

108. For this vehicle is luciform, and consists of pure, immaterial, unburning,
and vivific fire. See the fifth book of my translation of Proclus on the Timæus.

109. Proclus in Tim. lib. v. observes concerning the telestic art, or the art
which operates through mystic ceremonies, “that, as the oracles teach, it
obliterates through divine fire all the stains produced by generation.” Η τελεστικη
δια του θειου πυρος αφανιζει τας εκ της γενεσεως απασας κηλιδας, ως τα λογια
διδασκει. Hence another Chaldean oracle says, τῳ πυρι γαρ βροτος εμπελασας
θεοθεν φαος εξει. i. e. “The mortal who approaches to fire will have a light from
divinity.” Hercules, as we also learn from Proclus, was an example of this telestic
purification. For he says, Ηρακλης δια τελεστικης καθῃραμενος, και των αχραντων
καρπων μετασχων, τελειας ετυχε εις τους θεους αποκαταστασεως, in Plat. Polit. p.
382. i. e. “Hercules being purified through the telestic art, and participating of
undefiled fruits, obtained a perfect restoration to the Gods.”

110. In the original, λεγω δε της θειας ψυχης τε και φυσεως, αλλ’ ουχι της
περικοσμιου τε και γενεσιουργου. But it appears to me that we should here read,
conformably to the above translation, λεγω δε της θειας, ψυχης τε και ψυσεως,
αλλ’ ουχι μονου της περικοσμιου τε και γενεσιουργου.

111. These media consist of the order of Gods denominated αρχαι, or rulers,
and of those called απολυτοι, or liberated; the former of which also are
denominated supermundane, and the latter supercelestial, in consequence of
existing immediately above the celestial Gods. See, concerning these media, the
sixth book of my translation of Proclus on the Theology of Plato.

112. Proclus on the First Alcibiades observes, “that about every God there is an
innumerable multitude of dæmons, who have the same appellations with their
leaders. And that these are delighted when they are called by the names of Apollo
or Jupiter, because they express in themselves the characteristic peculiarity of their
leading Gods.” In the same admirable commentary, also, he says, “that in the most
holy of the mysteries [i. e. in the Eleusinian mysteries], prior to the appearance of
divinity, the incursions of certain terrestrial dæmons present themselves to the
view, alluring the souls of the spectators from undefiled good to matter.”

113. It is beautifully observed by Simplicius on Epictetus, “that as if you take

away letters from a sentence, or change them, the form of the sentence no longer
remains, thus also in divine works or words, if any thing is deficient, or is changed,
or is confused, divine illumination does not take place, but the indolence of him
who does this dissolves the power of what is effected.” Ωσπερ γαρ εαν στοιχεια του
λογου αφελῃς, ἢ υπαλλαξης, ουκ επιγινεται το του λογου ειδος, ουτω και των θειων
εργων ἢ λογων ει ελλειπει τι, ἢ υπηλλακται, ἢ συγκεχυται, ουκ επιγινεται η του
θειου ελλαμψις, αλλα και εξυδαροι την των γινομενων δυναμιν η του ποιουντος
ραθυμια.

114. Conformably to this, Servius, in his Annotations on the words

Diique, deæque omnes—

in the sixth book of the Æneid observes, “more pontificum, per quos ritu veteri
in omnibus sacris post speciales Deos, quos ad ipsum sacrum, quod fiebat necesse
erat invocari, generaliter omnia numina invocabantur.” i. e. “This is spoken after
the manner of the pontiffs, by whom, according to ancient rites, in all sacrifices,
after the appropriate Gods whom it was necessary to invoke to the sacrifice, all the
divinities were invoked in general.” And in his Annotations on the seventh of the
Æneid he informs us, “that king Œneus offered a sacrifice of first fruits to all the
divinities but Diana, who being enraged sent a boar [as a punishment for the
neglect].” With respect to this anger, however, of Diana, it is necessary to observe
with Proclus, “that the anger of the Gods does not refer any passion to them, but
indicates our inaptitude to participate of them.” Ο γαρ των θεων χολος, ουκ εις
εκεινας αναπεμπει τι παθος, αλλα την ημων δεικνυσι ανεπιτηδειοτητα της εκεινων
μεθεξεως.

115. Plotinus was a man of this description, to whom, most probably,

Iamblichus alludes in what he now says.

116. In the original θυμον τινος: but it is doubtless requisite to read with Gale,
θεσμον τινος. This I have translated a certain divine legislation, because we are
informed by Proclus, in Platon. Theol. lib. iv. p. 206, “that θεσμος is connected
with deity, and pertains more to intelligibles; but that νομος, which unfolds
intellectual distribution, is adapted to the intellectual fathers.” Ο γαρ θεσμος
συμπλεκεται τῳ θεῳ, και προσηκει μαλλον τοις νοητοις ο δε νομος την νοεραν
εμφαινων διανομην, οικειος εσι τοις νοεροις πατρασι.

117. “Perhaps,” says Proclus, in MS. Comment, in Parmenid. “it is necessary

that, as in souls, natures, and bodies, fabrication does not begin from the
imperfect; so likewise in matter, prior to that which is formless, and which has an
evanescent being, there is that which is in a certain respect form, and which is
beheld in one boundary and permanency.” This, therefore, will be the pure and
divine matter of which Iamblichus is now speaking. Damascius also says, that
matter is from the same order whence form is derived.

118. This particular respecting the apples of gold is added from the version of
Scutellius, who appears to have translated this work from a more perfect
manuscript than that which was used by Gale.

119. The conjecture of Gale, that for ἢ το εν Αβυδῳ in this place, we should
read ἢ το εν αδυτῳ, is, I have no doubt, right. For the highest order of intelligibles
is denominated by Orpheus the adytum, as we are informed by Proclus in Tim. By
the arcanum in the adytum, therefore, is meant the deity who subsists at the
extremity of the intelligible order (i. e. Phanes); and of whom it is said in the
Chaldean Oracles, “that he remains in the paternal profundity, and in the adytum,
near to the god-nourished silence.”

120. For εις το φαινομενον και ορφμενον σωμα, I read εις το φερομενον κ. τ.
λ.

121. Here too for Αβυδῳ I read αδυτῳ.

122. Conformably to this, Martianus Capella also, in lib. ii. De Nuptiis Philol.
&c. speaking of the sun, says, “Ibi quandam navim, totius naturæ cursus diversa
cupiditate moderantem, cunctaque flammarum congestione plenissimam, et beatis
circumactam mercibus conspicatur. Cui nautæ septem, germani tamen, suique
similes præsidebant in prora. Præsidebat in prora felis forma depicta, leonis in
arbore, crocodili in extimo.” For these animals, the cat, the lion, and the crocodile
were peculiarly sacred to the sun. Martianus adds, “In eadem vero rate, fons
quidem lucis æthereæ, arcanisque fluoribus manans, in totius mundi lumina
fundebatur.” i. e. “In the same ship there was a fountain of etherial light flowing
with arcane streams, which were poured into all the luminaries of the world.”
Porphyry, likewise, in his treatise De Antro Nymph. says, “that the Egyptians
placed the sun and all dæmons not connected with any thing solid or stable, but
raised on a sailing vessel.”
 123. In the original παν ζωδιον, which Gale erroneously translates animalia
omnia.

124. Of this kind are the following names in Alexand. Trallian. lib. ii. Μευ,
Θρευ, Μορ, Φορ, Τευξ, Ζα, Ζων, Θε, Λου, Χρι, Γε, Ζε, Ων, i.e. Meu, Threu, Mor,
Phor, Teux, Za, Zōn, The, Lou, Chri, Ge, Ze, Ōn. By these names Alexander
Trallianus says, the sun becomes fixed in the heavens. He adds, “Again behold the
great name Ιαξ, (lege Ιαω), Αζυφ, Ζυων, Θρευξ, Βαϊν, Χωωκ, i. e. Iaō, Azuph, Zuōn,
Threux, Baïn, Chōōk.” Among the Latins, also, Cato, Varro, and Marcellus de
Medicamentis Empiricis, there are examples of these names; the power and
efficacy of which, as Gale observes, are testified by history, though it is not easy to
explain the reason of their operation.

125. Proclus, in commenting on the following words of Plato in the Timæus,

(see vol. i. p. 228, of my translation of his Commentary), viz. “Let, therefore, this
universe be denominated by us all heaven, or the world, or whatever other
appellation it may be especially adapted to receive,” beautifully thus observes
concerning the divine name of the world. “As of statues established by the telestic
art, some things pertaining to them are manifest, but others are inwardly
concealed, being symbolical of the presence of the Gods, and which are only known
to the mystic artists themselves; after the same manner, the world being a statue of
the intelligible, and perfected by the father, has indeed some things which are
visible indications of its divinity; but others, which are the invisible impressions of
the participation of being received by it from the father, who gave it perfection, in
order that through these it may be eternally rooted in real being. Heaven, indeed,
and the world are names significant of the powers in the universe; the latter, so far
as it proceeds from the intelligible; but the former, so far as it is converted to it. It
is, however, necessary to know that the divine name of its abiding power, and
which is a symbol of the impression of the Demiurgus, according to which it does
not proceed out of being, is ineffable and arcane, and known only to the Gods
themselves. For there are names adapted to every order of things; those, indeed,
that are adapted to divine natures being divine, to the objects of dianoia being
dianoetic, and to the objects of opinion doxastic. This also Plato says in the
Cratylus, where he embraces what is asserted by Homer on this subject, who
admits that names of the same things are with the Gods different from those that
subsist in the opinions of men,

Xanthus by God, by men Scamander call’d

Iliad xx. v. 74.

And,

Which the Gods Chalcis, men Cymindis call.

Iliad xiv. v. 291.
 And in a similar manner in many other names. For as the knowledge of the
Gods is different from that of partial souls, thus also the names of the one are
different from those of the other; since divine names unfold the whole essence of
the things named, but those of men only partially come into contact with them.
Plato, therefore, knowing that this preexisted in the world, omits the divine and
ineffable name itself, which is different from the apparent name, and with the
greatest caution introduces it as a symbol of the divine impression which the world
contains. For the words, “or whatever other appellation” and “it may receive” are
a latent hymn of the mundane name, as ineffable, and as allotted a divine essence,
in order that it may be coordinate to what is signified by it. Hence, also, divine
mundane names are delivered by Theurgists; some of which are called by them
ineffable, but others effable; and some being significant of the invisible powers in
the world, but others of the visible elements from which it derives its completion.
Through these causes, therefore, as hypotheses, the mundane form, the demiurgic
cause and paradigm, and the apparent and unapparent name of the world are
delivered. And the former name, indeed, is dyadic, but the latter monadic. For the
words “whatever other” are significant of oneness. You may also consider the
ineffable name of the universe as significant of its abiding in the father; but the
name world, as indicative of its progression; and heaven of its conversion. But
through the three, you have the final cause, on account of which it is full of good;
abiding ineffably, proceeding perfectly, and converting itself to the good as the
antecedent object of desire.”

126. See the additional notes at the end of vol. v. of my translation of Plato,
where many of these names are beautifully unfolded from the MS. Scholia of
Proclus on the Cratylus.

127. See the additional notes at the end of vol. v. of my translation of Plato,
and also the notes to my translation of Aristotle de Interpretatione, in which the
reader will find a treasury of recondite information concerning names, from
Proclus and Ammonius.

128. Most historians give the palm of antiquity to the Egyptians. And Lucian,
in lib. De Syria Dea, says, “that the Egyptians are said to be the first among men
that had a conception of the Gods, and a knowledge of sacred concerns.——They
were also the first that had a knowledge of sacred names.” Αιγυπτιοι πρωτοι
ανθρωπων λεγονται θεων τε εννοιην λαβειν και ιρα εισασθαι——πρωτοι δε και
ονοματα ιρα εγνωσαν. Conformably to this, also, an oracle of Apollo, quoted by
Eusebius, says that the Egyptians were the first that disclosed by infinite actions
the path that leads to the Gods. This oracle is as follows:

Αιπεινη γαρ οδος, μακαρων, τρηχειατε πολλον,

Χαλκοδετοις τα πρωτα διοιγομενη πυλεωσιν.
Ατραπιτοι δε εασσιν αθεσφατοι εγγεγαυιαι
Ας πρωτοι μεροπων επ’ απειρονα πρηξιν εφηναν,
 Οι το καλον πινοντες υδωρ Νειλωτιδος αιης·
Πολλας και Φοινικες οδους μακαρων εδαησαν,
Ασσυριοι, Λυδοιτε, και Εβραιων (lege Χαλδαιων) γενος ανδρων.

i.e. “The path by which to deity we climb,

Is arduous, rough, ineffable, sublime;
And the strong massy gates, through which we pass
In our first course, are bound with chains of brass.
Those men the first who of Egyptian birth
Drank the fair water of Nilotic earth,
Disclosed by actions infinite this road,
And many paths to God Phœnicians show’d.
This road th’ Assyrians pointed out to view,
And this the Lydians and Chaldeans knew.”

For Εβραιων in this oracle I read Χαλδαιων, because I have no doubt that
either Aristobulus the Jew, well known for interpolating the writings of the
Heathens, or the wicked Eusebius as he is called by the Emperor Julian, have
fraudulently substituted the former word for the latter.

129. Prayers of this kind are such as those of which Proclus speaks in Tim. p.
65, when he says, “The cathartic prayer is that which is offered for the purpose of
averting diseases originating from pestilence, and other contagious distempers,
such as we have written in our temples.” Καθαρτικαι δε (ευχαἰ, επι αποτροπαις
λοιμικων νοσημοτων, ἢ παντοιων μολυσμων’ οιας δε και εν τοις ιεροις εχομεν
αναγεγραμμενας.

130. Porphyry, in lib. ii. De Abstinentia, mentions Seleucus the theologist, and
Suidas says that Seleucus the Alexandrian wrote 100 books concerning the Gods.

131. These books (βιβλοι) were most probably nothing more than short
discourses, such as the treatises now are which are circulated as written by
Hermes, and which, as Iamblichus informs us, contain Hermaic doctrines.

132. A great priest, a scribe of the Adyta in Egypt, by birth a Sebanite, and an
inhabitant of Heliopolis, as he relates of himself.

133. In the original, πρωτος και του πρωτου θεου και βασιλεως, which Gale
translates, prior etiam primo Deo, et rege [sole]. But the addition of sole in his
translation is obviously most unappropriate and false: for Iamblichus is evidently
speaking of a deity much superior to the sun.

134. For Ημηφ here, Gale conjectures that we should read Κνηφ Kneph: for
Plutarch says that the unbegotten Kneph was celebrated with an extraordinary
degree of veneration by the Egyptian Thebans.
 135. Hence the moon is said by Proclus to be αυτοπτον της φυσεως αγαλμα,
the self-visible statue or image of nature.

136. Proclus in Tim. p. 117, cites what is here said as the doctrine of the
Egyptians, and also cites for it the authority of Iamblichus. But his words are, και
μην και η των Αιγυπτιων παραδοσις τα αυτα περι αυτης (της υλης) φησιν. ο γε τοι
θειος Ιαμβλιχος ιστορησεν οτι και Ερμης εκ της ουσιοτητος την υλοτητα
παραγεσθαι βουλεται., i. e. “Moreover the doctrine of the Egyptians asserts the
same things concerning matter. For the divine Iamblichus relates that Hermes also
produces matter from essentiality.”

137. This is most probably the Chæremon who is said by Porphyry, in lib. iv.
De Abstinentia, “to be a lover of truth, an accurate writer, and very conversant with
the Stoic philosophy.” Τοιαυτα μεν τα κατ’ Αιγυπτιους υπ’ ανδρος φιλαληθους τε
και ακριβους, εντε τοις Στωϊκοις πραγματικωτατα φιλοσοφησαντος
μεμαρτυρημενα.

138. This was the ninth king in the twenty-sixth dynasty of the Saitan kings.

139. This city is mentioned by Plato in the Timæus, who represents Critias as
saying “that there is a certain region of Egypt, called Delta, about the summit of
which the streams of the Nile are divided, and in which there is a province called
Saitical.” He adds, “of this province the greatest city is Saïs, from which also King
Amasis derived his origin. The city has a presiding divinity, whose name is, in the
Egyptian tongue, Neith, but in the Greek Athena, or Minerva.” It is singular that
Gale, who is not deficient in philology, though but a smatterer in philosophy,
should have omitted to remark in his notes this passage of Plato.

140. Proclus, in MS. Comment, in Alcibiad. cites one of the Chaldean oracles,
which says,

——πορθμιον ουνομα το δ’ εν απειροις

Κοσμοις ενθρωσκον.

i. e. “There is a transmitting name which leaps into the infinite worlds.” And in
his MS. Scholia in Cratyl. he quotes another of these oracles, viz.

Αλλα εστιν ουνομα σεμνον ακοιμητῳ στροφαλιγγι,

Κοσμοις ενθρωσκον, κραιπνην δια πατρος ενιπην.

i. e. “There is a venerable name with a sleepless revolution, leaping into the

worlds through the rapid reproofs of the father.”

141. For εχεται in this place, I read περιεχεται.

 142. Gale, in his translation of this part, has entirely mistaken the meaning of
Iamblichus, which he frequently does in other places. For the words of Iamblichus
are, οταν γαρ δη τα βελτιονα των εν ημιν ενεργῃ, και προς τα κρειττονα αναγεται
αυτης η ψυχη; and the version of Gale is “quando enim pars nostri melior operari
incipiat, et ad sui portionem meliorem recolligatur anima.” For τα κρειττονα is not
the better part of the soul; but when the better parts of the soul energize, the soul is
then intimately converted to itself, and through this conversion is elevated to
superior natures.

143. Viz. The science of calculating nativities.

144. i. e. The joint risings and settings.

145. i. e. Through a period of 300,000 years; and Procl. in Tim. lib. iv. p. 277,
informs us that the Chaldeans had observations of the stars which embraced whole
mundane periods. What Proclus likewise asserts of the Chaldeans is confirmed by
Cicero in his first book on Divination, who says that they had records of the stars
for the space of 370,000 years; and by Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. lib. xi. p. 118, who
says that their observations comprehended the space of 473,000 years.

146. “We say,” says Hephestion, “that a star is the lord of the geniture, which
has five conditions of the lord of the nativity in the horoscope; viz. if that star
receives the luminaries in their proper boundaries, in their proper house, in their
proper altitude, and in the proper triangle.” He also adds, “and if besides it has
contact, effluxion, and configuration.” See likewise Porphyry in Ptolemæum, p. 191.

147. According to the Egyptians every one received his proper dæmon at the
hour of his birth; nor did they ascend any higher, in order to obtain a knowledge of
it. For they alone considered the horoscope. See Porphyry apud Stobæum, p. 201,
and Hermes in Revolut. cap. iv.

148. In the original ενταυθα δε ουν και η της αληθειας παρεστι θεα, και η της
νοερας επιστημης. But instead of η της νοερας απιστημης, which appears to me to
be defective, I read η κτησις της νοερας επιστημης.

149. For θεωτος here, I read θεωτερος.

150. In the original, by a strange mistake, των θνητων is inserted here instead
of των νοητων, which is obviously the true reading. The version of Gale also has
intelligibilium.

151. i. e. Man, considered as a rational soul, connected with the irrational life;
for this man has dominion in the realms of generation.

152. See the second edition of this work in Nos. XV. and XVI. of the
Pamphleteer.
 153. i. e. Of natures which are not connected with body.

154. For in these, all are in each, but not all in all.

155. By an unaccountable mistake here του σωματος is inserted instead of της

ψυχης; but the mistake is not noticed by the German editor of these Scholia.

156. And in consequence of this mistake, for αυτο in this place, we must read
αυτα.

157. Odyss. xi. 612.

158. Iliad xv. 605.

159. For μουσικης here, it is necessary to read μαντικης.

160. And for μαντικην read μαντικη.

161. For υπο here, it is necessary to read υπερ.

162. The German editor of these Scholia, instead of πρακτικῃ which is the true
reading in this place, and which he found in the manuscript, absurdly substitutes
for it πυκτικῃ, as if Hercules was a pugilist. See my translation of the Dissertation
at Maximus Tyrius, on the Practic and Theoretic Life.

163. Vid. Olympiodor. in Aristot. Meteor.

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