SUMMARY OF THEORY

Derivation using streamline coordinates

Euler's equation for steady flow along a streamline is

1𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑣
− −𝑔 =𝑉 (3.1)
𝜌𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠
If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,
𝛿𝑝
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑝 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒) (3.2)
𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝑧
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑧 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (3.3)
𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝑉
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑉 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) (3.4)
𝛿𝑠
Thus, after multiplying Equation 3.1 by ds,
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
− 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝑉𝑑𝑉 𝑜𝑟 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 (3.5)
𝜌 𝜌
Integration of this equation gives:
𝑑𝑝 𝑉^2
∫ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3.6)
𝜌 2
The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For the special case of
incompressible flow, p = constant, and Equation 3.6 becomes the Bernoulli's Equation.
𝑝 𝑉^2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3.7)
𝜌 2

Restrictions

1. Steady flow

2. Incompressible flow

3. Frictionless flow

4. Flow along a streamline

Bernoulli's Law

Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe
opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter
it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the following equation:

𝑝 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧 = ℎ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3.8)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where,

𝑝 = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

𝜌 = Density of the flowing fluid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum

h* = Total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity head
(hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total head (h*).
According to the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section
is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties,
the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.

In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same
horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the 'z' values are zeros so that
the above equation reduces to:

𝑝 𝑣2
+ = ℎ∗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3.9)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
This represents the total head at a cross section.

For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi, and the total head as h*i, where i represents
the cross sections at different tapping points.
Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a
converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The function of the
converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure
difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the
rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area
and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1 V1, = A2 V2, in Equation (3.5) becomes

(𝑝1 −𝑝2 ) 𝑣22 𝐴 2

+ 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = [1 − ( 2) ] (3.9)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝐴1

Ideally,
1 1
−
𝐴 2 2 𝑝 −𝑝 2
𝑄1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴2 [1 − ( 2 ) ] [2𝑔 ( 1 2 ) + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ] (3.10)
𝐴1 𝛾

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by
Equation 3.10 because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat.
Therefore,
1
− 1
𝐴2 2 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴2 × [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔 ( ) + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ] (3.11)
𝐴1 𝛾

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined

discharge coefficient, Ca that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the
discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 = (3.12)
𝑄𝑖
Discharge coefficient, Ca usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.
 GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES

General startup procedures

The Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration Apparatus supplied ready for use and only requires connection
to the Hydraulic Bench as follows:

1. Ensure that the clear acrylic test section is installed with the converging section upstream. Also
check that the unions are tighten (hand tight only). If necessary to dismantle the test section
then the total pressure probe must be withdrawn fully (but not pulled out of its guide in the
downstream coupling) before releasing the couplings.
2. Locate the apparatus on the flat top of the bench.
3. Attach a spirit level to baseboard and level the unit on top of the bench by adjusting the feet.
4. Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately 90% full.
5. Connect the flexible inlet tube using the quick release coupling in the bed of the channel.
6. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the channel.
7. Partially open the outlet flow control valve at the Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration Apparatus.
8. Fully close the bench flow control valve, V, then switch on the pump.
9. Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been expelled from the
system.
10. Also check for "Trapped Bubbles" in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. You would need to
remove them from the system for better accuracy.

Note: To remove air bubbles, you will have to bleed the air out as follow:

i. Get a screw driver to rotate the air bleed valve at the top right side of manometer board.
ii. Give sufficient time to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out. (Take care or you will wet
yourself or the premise). Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape.
iii. Close the air bleed valve, and stop the hydraulic bench.
iv. Open the air bleed vale and observe that the water level in the column starts to go
downward.
v. When it reaches the reading of 20 mm then close the manometer, then this is your datum.
11. At this point, you will see water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the collection tank of
hydraulic bench.
12. Proceed to increase the water flow rate. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no
trapped bubble, start to close the discharge valve to reduce the flow to the maximum
measurable flow rate.
13. You will see that water level in the manometer tubes will begin to display different level of water
heights. If the water level in the manometer board is too low where it is out of visible point,
open V1 to increase the static pressure. If the water level is too high, open the outlet control
valve to lower the static pressure.

Note: The water level can be adjusted facilitate by the air bleed valve.

14. Adjust V1 and outlet control valve to obtain a flow through the test section and observe that the
static pressure profile along the converging and diverging sections is indicated on its respective
manometers. The total head pressure along the venture tube can be measured by traversing the
hypodermic tube.

Note: The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow control valve is
used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for flow through test section.

15. The actual flow of water can be measured using the volumetric tank with a stop watch.

General shutdown procedures

1. Switch off the water supply pump.

2. Close water supply valve and venturi discharge valve.
3. Turn off the water supply pump.
4. Drain off water from the unit when not in use.