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COURSE MATERIAL

Analog Communication Systems

SUBJECT
(19A04403T)

UNIT 1

COURSE B.TECH

DEPARTMENT 22

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

SEMESTER
ENGINEERING

M SWARNA LAKSHMI
PREPARED BY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
(Faculty Name/s)

VERSION 1.0

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 20-03-2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 1

SNO CONTENTS PAGE
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1
2 PREREQUISITES 1
3 SYLLABUS 1
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 2
6 LESSON PLAN 2
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 3
8 LECTURE NOTES 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 4
1.2 MODULATION, MODULATION METHODS 4
1.3 NEED FOR MODULATION 5
1.4 TYPES OF MODULATION 6
1.5 FREQUENCY MIXER, EM SPECTRUM AND ITS APPLICATIONS 6
1.6 AMPLITUDE MODULATION & DEMODULATION 7
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS, SIDEBAND AND CARRIER
1.7 8
POWER OF AM
DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC)
1.8 9
MODULATION & ITS DEMODULATION
GENERATION OF DSBSC WAVES: BALANCED MODULATOR
1.9 10
(PRODUCT MODULATOR)

1.10 GENERATION OF DSBSC WAVES: RING MODULATOR 11

1.11 DETECTION OF DSB-SC WAVES: COHERENT DETECTION 12
DETECTION OF DSB-SC WAVES: COSTAS RECEIVER (COSTAS
1.12 14
LOOP)
1.13 RADIO TRANSMITTERS 15
1.14 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) TRANSMISSION 20
GENERATION OF SSB WAVE: FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATION
1.15 22
METHOD
1.16 HILBERT TRANSFORM & ITS PROPERTIES 24
1.17 PHASE DISCRIMINATION METHOD FOR GENERATING SSB
29
WAVE
1.18 DEMODULATION OF SSB WAVES 30
1.19 INTRODUCTION TO VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND MODULATION 31

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1.20 COMPARISON OF AM TECHNIQUES 35
1.21 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT AM SYSTEMS 35
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 36
10 ASSIGNMENTS 37
11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 37
12 PART B QUESTIONS 38
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 38
14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 38
15 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 38
16 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 38
17 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 39

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1. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this course is to
1. To introduce various modulation and demodulation techniques of
analog communication system.
2. To analyze different parameters of analog communication
techniques.
3. Know Noise Figure in AM & FM receiver systems.
4. Understand Function of various stages of AM, FM transmitters and
Know Characteristics of AM & FM receivers.
5. Understand the concepts of information theory.

2. PREREQUISITES
Students should have knowledge on
1. Electronic Devices & Circuits.
2. Signals & Systems

3. SYLLABUS
UNIT I: Introduction
Introduction: Elements of communication systems, Information,
Messages and Signals, Modulation, Modulation Methods, Modulation
Benefits and Applications. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation:
Baseband and carrier communication, Amplitude Modulation (AM),
Rectifier detector, Envelope detector, Double sideband suppressed
carrier (DSB-SC) modulation & its demodulation, Switching
modulators, Ring modulator, Balanced modulator, Frequency mixer,
sideband and carrier power of AM, Generation of AM signals, Single
sideband (SSB) transmission, Time domain representation of SSB signals
& their demodulation schemes (with carrier, and suppressed carrier),
Generation of SSB signals, Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulator &
demodulator, Frequency division multiplexing (FDM), Illustrative
Problems.

4. COURSE OUTCOMES
1. Understand the concepts of various Amplitude, Angle and Pulse
Modulation schemes. Understand the concepts of information
theory with random processes. (L1).
2. Apply the concepts to solve problems in analog and pulse
modulation schemes. (L2).
3. Analysis of analog communication system in the presence of noise.
(L3).

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4. Compare and contrast design issues, advantages, disadvantages
and limitations of various modulation schemes in analog
communication systems.(L4)
5. Solve basic communication problems & calculate information rate
and channel capacity of a discrete communication channel (L5).

5. CO-PO / PSO Mapping

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CO4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

6. LESSON PLAN

LECTURE WEEK TOPICS TO BE COVERED REFERENCES

1. Introduction to subject T1,T2,R1,R2
2. Brief review on signals and systems T1,T2,R1,R2
1 Elements of communication systems, Information,
3. T1,T2,R1,R2
Messages and Signals
Modulation Methods, Modulation Benefits and
4. T1,T2,R1,R2
Applications
5. Amplitude Modulation (AM) T1,T2,R1,R2
6. AM: Generation Methods T1,T2,R1,R2
2
7. AM: Generation Methods T1,T2,R1,R2
AM Demodulation Methods: Rectifier detector, Envelope
8. T1,T2,R1,R2
detector
9. Sideband and Carrier Power of AM T1,T2,R1,R2
10. Drawbacks of AM, Introduction to DSB-SC T1,T2,R1,R2
3
11. Switching modulators, Ring modulator, T1,T2,R1,R2
Balanced modulator, Frequency Mixer, Drawbacks of
12. T1,T2,R1,R2
DSB-SC
Single sideband (SSB) transmission, Time domain
13. T1,T2,R1,R2
representation of SSB signals
14. SSB Generation schemes T1,T2,R1,R2
4
15. SSB Generation schemes T1,T2,R1,R2
16. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) T1,T2,R1,R2

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LECTURE WEEK TOPICS TO BE COVERED REFERENCES

17. Single sideband (SSB) transmission T1,T2,R1,R2
18. Time domain representation of SSB signals T1,T2,R1,R2
19. 5 Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulator & demodulator T1,T2,R1,R2
20. Comparison of Modulation Methods T1,T2,R1,R2
21. Illustrative Problems T1,T2,R1,R2

7. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Street Light Circuit.
2. Battery Charger Circuit Using SCR.
3. Water Level Alarm Circuit.
4. Low Cost Fire Alarm Circuit.
5. Single Chip FM Radio Circuit.
6. Digital Stop Watch Circuit.
7. High and Low Voltage Cut-off With Delay and Alarm.

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8. LECTURE NOTES

1.1 INTRODUCTION: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged
between individuals through a medium. Communication can also be
defined as the transfer of information from one point in space and
time to another point.
The basic block diagram of a communication system is as follows.

Fig 1.1 Block diagram of Communication System

• Transmitter: Couples the message into the channel using high
frequency signals.
• Channel: The medium used for transmission of signals
• Modulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum
of a signal to a frequency range in which more efficient
transmission can be achieved.
• Receiver: Restores the signal to its original form.
• Demodulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency
spectrum back to the original baseband frequency range and
reconstructing the original form
1.2 MODULATION, MODULATION METHODS
Modulation is a process that causes a shift in the range of frequencies
in a signal.
• Signals that occupy the same range of frequencies can be
separated.

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• Modulation helps in noise immunity, attenuation - depends on the
physical medium. The below figure shows the different kinds of
analog modulation schemes that are available
Modulation is operation performed at the transmitter to achieve
efficient and reliable information transmission.
For analog modulation, it is frequency translation method caused by
changing the appropriate quantity in a carrier signal.
It involves two waveforms:
• A modulating signal/baseband signal – represents the
message.
• A carrier signal – depends on type of modulation.
Once this information is received, the low frequency information must
be removed from the high frequency carrier. •This process is known
as “Demodulation”.

Fig 1.2 Modulation Methods

1.3 NEED FOR MODULATION
Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the
medium so, modulation is used to convey (baseband) signals from
one place to another.
• Allows frequency translation
• Frequency Multiplexing
• Reduce the antenna height
• Avoids mixing of signals
• Narrow banding
• Efficient transmission
• Reduced noise and interference

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1.4 TYPES OF MODULATION

Three main types of modulations
• ANALOG MODULATION
o Amplitude modulation :Example: Double sideband
with carrier (DSB-WC), Double- sideband suppressed
carrier (DSB-SC), Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-
SC), vestigial sideband (VSB)
o Angle modulation (frequency modulation& phase
modulation): Example: Narrow band frequency
modulation (NBFM), Wideband  frequency modulation
(WBFM), Narrowband phase modulation (NBPM),
Wideband phase modulation (NBPM)
• PULSE MODULATION
o Carrier is a train of pulses: Example: Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM), Pulse width modulation (PWM) , Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM)
• DIGITAL MODULATION
o Modulating signal is analog: Example: Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation (DM), Adaptive
Delta Modulation (ADM), Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (DPCM), Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (ADPCM) etc.
o Modulating signal is digital (binary modulation) :
Example: Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency Shift
Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK) etc

1.5 FREQUENCY MIXER, EM SPECTRUM AND ITS APPLICATIONS.

• In electronics, a mixer, or frequency mixer, is a nonlinear
electrical circuit that creates new frequencies from two signals
applied to it. In its most common application, two signals are
applied to a mixer, and it produces new signals at the sum and
difference of the original frequencies. Other frequency

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components may also be produced in a practical frequency
mixer.
• Mixers are widely used to shift signals from one frequency range
to another, a process known as heterodyning, for convenience
in transmission or further signal processing. For example, a key
component of a superheterodyne receiver is a mixer used to
move received signals to a common intermediate frequency.
Frequency mixers are also used to modulate a carrier signal in
radio transmitters.

Fig 1.3 Mixer

1.6 AMPLITUDE MODULATION & DEMODULATION
Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude
of a relatively high frequency carrier signal in accordance with the
amplitude of the modulating signal (Information).
The carrier amplitude varied linearly by the modulating signal which
usually consists of a range of audio frequencies. The frequency of the
carrier is not affected.

Various forms of Amplitude Modulation

• Conventional Amplitude Modulation (Alternatively known as
Full AM or Double Sideband Large carrier modulation
(DSBLC) /Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)
• Double Sideband Suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulation
• Single Sideband (SSB) modulation
• Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation

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1.7 GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS, SIDEBAND AND CARRIER POWER OF AM

Two basic amplitude modulation principles are discussed. They are

square law modulation and switching modulator.
• SQUARE LAW MODULATOR: When the output of a device is not
directly proportional to input throughout the operation, the
device is said to be non-linear. The Input-Output relation of a
non-linear device can be expressed as

When the input is very small, the higher power terms can be
neglected. Hence the output is approximately given as below

Fig 1.4: Square Law Modulator

Consider a non-linear device to which a carrier c(t)=Accos(2πfct) and

an information signal m(t) are fed simultaneously as shown in figure
1.4. The total input to the device at any instant is

As the level of input is very small , the output can be considered up to

square of the input i.e.

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Taking Fourier transform on both sides we get

Therefore the square law device output 0 V consists of the dc

component at f = 0. The information signal ranging from 0 to W Hz
and its second harmonics are signal at fc and 2fc.

1.8 DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC) MODULATION & ITS

DEMODULATION
DSBSC modulators make use of the multiplying action in which the
modulating signal multiplies the carrier wave. In this system, the carrier

component is eliminated and both upper and lower side bands are
transmitted. As the carrier component is suppressed, the power
required for transmission is less than that of AM. If m(t) is message
signal and c(t)= Accos(2πfct) is the carrier signal then the DSBSC
modulated wave s(t) is given as
Consequently, the modulated signal s(t) under goes a phase reversal
, whenever the message signal m(t) crosses zero as shown below.

Fig 1.5(a) DSB-SC waveforms

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Fig 1.5(b) DSB-SC Frequency Spectrum

The envelope of a DSBSC modulated signal is therefore different from

the message signal and the Fourier transform of s(t) is given by

For the case when base band signal met) is limited to the interval -
W<J<W as shown in figure below, we find that the spectrum S(j) of
the DSBSC wave set is as illustrated below. Except for a change in
scaling factor, the modulation process simply translates the
spectrum of the base band signal by fe. The transmission
bandwidth required by DSBSC modulation is the same as that for AM.

Fig 1.6(a)Message Signal Fig 1.6(b) DSB-SC Frequency Spectrum

1.9 GENERATION OF DSBSC WAVES: BALANCED MODULATOR (PRODUCT

MODULATOR)
A balanced modulator consists of two standard amplitude
modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress
the carrier wave as shown in the following block diagram. It is
assumed that the AM modulators are identical, except for the sign
reversal of the modulating wave applied to the input of one of them.
Thus, the output of the two modulators may be expressed as

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Fig 1.7 Balanced Modulator

Subtracting S2(t) from S1(t),

Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka, the balanced modulator
output is equal to the product of the modulating wave and the
carrier.

1.10 GENERATION OF DSBSC WAVES: RING MODULATOR

Ring modulator is the most widely used product modulator for

generating DSBSC wave and is shown below.

Fig 1.8 Ring Modulator

The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same
direction. The diodes are controlled by square wave carrier c(t) of
frequency fc, which is applied longitudinally by means of two center-
tapped transformers. Assuming the diodes are ideal, when the carrier
is positive, the outer diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased where as
the inner diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased, so that the modulator
multiplies the base band signal m(t) by c(t). When the carrier is
negative, the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and D3 and D4

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are forward, and the modulator multiplies the base band signal –m(t)
by c(t).
Thus the ring modulator in its ideal form is a product modulator for
square wave carrier and the base band signal m(t). The square wave
carrier can be expanded using Fourier series as

Therefore the ring modulator output is given as

s(t)=m(t)c(t).

From the above equation it is clear that output from the modulator
consists entirely of modulation products. If the message signal m(t) is
band limited to the frequency band − w < f < w, the output spectrum
consists of side bands centered at fc.

1.11 DETECTION OF DSB-SC WAVES: COHERENT DETECTION

The message signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSBSC

wave s(t) by first multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal
wave and then low pass filtering the product as shown.

Fig 1.9 Coherent Detector

It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave
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c(t) used in the product modulator to generate s(t). This method of
demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous
detection.
Let be the local oscillator signal, and
be the DSBSC wave. Then the product modulator output v(t) is given
by

The first term in the above expression represents a DSBSC modulated

signal with a carrier frequency 2fc and the second term represents the
scaled version of message signal. Assuming that the message signal is
band limited to the interval –w<f<w, the spectrum v(t) is plotted as
shown below.

Fig 1.10 Spectrum of output of the product modulator.

From the spectrum, it is clear that the unwanted component (first

term in the expression) can be removed by the low-pass filter,
provided that the cut-off frequency of the filter is greater than W but
less than 2fc-W. The filter output is given by

The demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when

the phase error ϕ is constant.

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1.12 DETECTION OF DSB-SC WAVES: COSTAS RECEIVER (COSTAS LOOP)

Costas receiver is a synchronous receiver system, suitable for
demodulating DSBSC waves. It consists of two coherent detectors
supplied with the same input signal,
that is the incoming DSBSC wave
but with an individual local oscillator signals that are in the phase
quadrature with respect to each other as shown in the fig 1.11

Fig 1.11 Costas Receiver

The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same
as the carrier frequency fc. The detector in the upper path is
referred to as the in-phase coherent detector or I-channel, and that
in the lower path is referred to as the quadrature-phase coherent
detector or Q-channel.
These two detector are coupled together to form a negative
feedback system designed in such a way as to maintain the local
oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave. Suppose the local
oscillator signal is of the same phase as the carrier c(t) = Accos(2πfct)
wave used to generate the incoming DSBSC wave. Then we find that
the I-channel output contains the desired demodulated signal m(t),
where as the Q-channel output is zero due to quadrature null effect

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of the Q-channel. Suppose that the local oscillator phase drifts from
its proper value by a small angle ϕ radians. The I-channel output
remain essentially unchanged, but there will be some signal
appearing at the Q-channel output which is proportional to Sin()~ for
small ϕ.
This Q-channel output will have same polarity as the I-channel
output for one direction of local oscillator phase drift and opposite
polarity for the opposite direction of local oscillator phase drift. Thus
by combining the I-channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase
discriminator (which consists of a multiplier followed by a LPF), a dc
control signal is obtained that automatically corrects for the local
phase errors in the voltage-controlled oscillator.

1.13 RADIO TRANSMITTERS

There are two approaches in generating an AM signal. These are

known as low and high level modulation. They're easy to identify: A
low level AM transmitter performs the process of modulation near
the beginning of the transmitter. A high level transmitter performs
the modulation step last, at the last or "final" amplifier stage in the
transmitter. Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and
both are in common use.
Low-Level AM Transmitter:

Fig 1.12 Block Diagram of Low Level AM Transmitter

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There are two signal paths in the transmitter, audio frequency
(AF) and radio frequency (RF). The RF signal is created in the RF
carrier oscillator. At test point A the oscillator's output signal is present.
The output of the carrier oscillator is a fairly small AC voltage, perhaps
200 to 400 mV RMS. The oscillator is a critical stage in any transmitter.
It must produce an accurate and steady frequency. Every radio
station is assigned a different carrier frequency. The dial (or display) of
a receiver displays the carrier frequency. If the oscillator drifts off
frequency, the receiver will be unable to receive the transmitted
signal without being readjusted. Worse yet, if the oscillator drifts onto
the frequency being used by another radio station, interference will
occur. Two circuit techniques are commonly used to stabilize the
oscillator, buffering and voltage regulation. The buffer amplifier has
something to do with buffering or protecting the oscillator. An
oscillator is a little like an engine (with the speed of the engine being
similar to the oscillator's frequency). If the load on the engine is
increased (the engine is asked to do more work), the engine will
respond by slowing down. An oscillator acts in a very similar fashion. If
the current drawn from the oscillator's output is increased or
decreased, the oscillator may speed up or slow down slightly.
Buffer amplifier is a relatively low-gain amplifier that follows the
oscillator. It has a constant input impedance (resistance). Therefore, it
always draws the same amount of current from the oscillator. This
helps to prevent "pulling" of the oscillator frequency. The buffer
amplifier is needed because of what's happening "downstream" of
the oscillator. Right after this stage is the modulator. Because the
modulator is a nonlinear amplifier, it may not have a constant input
resistance -- especially when information is passing into it. But since
there is a buffer amplifier between the oscillator and modulator, the
oscillator sees a steady load resistance, regardless of what the
modulator stage is doing.
Voltage Regulation: An oscillator can also be pulled off frequency if
its power supply voltage isn't held constant. In most transmitters, the
supply voltage to the oscillator is regulated at a constant value. The
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regulated voltage value is often between 5 and 9 volts; zener diodes
and three-terminal regulator ICs are commonly used voltage
regulators. Voltage regulation is especially important when a
transmitter is being powered by batteries or an automobile's
electrical system. As a battery discharges, its terminal voltage falls.
The DC supply voltage in a car can be anywhere between 12 and 16
volts, depending on engine RPM and other electrical load conditions
within the vehicle.
Modulator: The stabilized RF carrier signal feeds one input of the
modulator stage. The modulator is a variable-gain (nonlinear)
amplifier. To work, it must have an RF carrier signal and an AF
information signal. In a low-level transmitter, the power levels are low
in the oscillator, buffer, and modulator stages; typically, the
modulator output is around 10 mW (700 mV RMS into 50 ohms) or less.
AF Voltage Amplifier: In order for the modulator to function, it
needs an information signal. A microphone is one way of developing
the intelligence signal, however, it only produces a few millivolts of
signal. This simply isn't enough to operate the modulator, so a voltage
amplifier is used to boost the microphone's signal. The signal level at
the output of the AF voltage amplifier is usually at least 1 volt RMS; it is
highly dependent upon the transmitter's design. Notice that the AF
amplifier in the transmitter is only providing a voltage gain, and not
necessarily a current gain for the microphone's signal. The power
levels are quite small at the output of this amplifier; a few mW at best.
RF Power Amplifier: At test point D the modulator has created an AM
signal by impressing the information signal from test point C onto the
stabilized carrier signal from test point B at the buffer amplifier output.
This signal (test point D) is a complete AM signal, but has only a few
milliwatts of power. The RF power amplifier is normally built with
several stages. These stages increase both the voltage and current of
the AM signal. We say that power amplification occurs when a circuit
provides a current gain. In order to accurately amplify the tiny AM
signal from the modulator, the RF power amplifier stages must be
linear. You might recall that amplifiers are divided up into "classes,"
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according to the conduction angle of the active device within. Class
A and class B amplifiers are considered to be linear amplifiers, so the
RF power amplifier stages will normally be constructed using one or
both of these type of amplifiers. Therefore, the signal at test point E
looks just like that of test point D; it's just much bigger in voltage and
current.
Antenna Coupler: The antenna coupler is usually part of the last or
final RF power amplifier, and as such, is not really a separate active
stage. It performs no amplification, and has no active devices. It
performs two important jobs: Impedance matching and filtering. For
an RF power amplifier to function correctly, it must be supplied with a
load resistance equal to that for which it was designed. The antenna
coupler also acts as a low-pass filter. This filtering reduces the
amplitude of harmonic energies that may be present in the power
amplifier's output. (All amplifiers generate harmonic distortion, even
"linear" ones.) For example, the transmitter may be tuned to operate
on 1000 kHz. Because of small nonlinearities in the amplifiers of the
transmitter, the transmitter will also produce harmonic energies on
2000 kHz (2nd harmonic), 3000 kHz (3rd harmonic), and so on.
Because a low-pass filter passes the fundamental frequency (1000
kHz) and rejects the harmonics, we say that harmonic attenuation
has taken place
High-Level AM Transmitter:

Fig 1.13 Block Diagram of High Level AM Transmitter

The high-level transmitter of Figure 1.13 is very similar to the low-level
unit. The RF section begins just like the low-level transmitter; there is an
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oscillator and buffer amplifier. The difference in the high level
transmitter is where the modulation takes place. Instead of adding
modulation immediately after buffering, this type of transmitter
amplifies the unmodulated RF carrier signal first. Thus, the signals at
points A, B, and D in Figure 9 all look like unmodulated RF carrier
waves. The only difference is that they become bigger in voltage and
current as they approach test point D.
The modulation process in a high-level transmitter takes place in the
last or final power amplifier. Because of this, an additional audio
amplifier section is needed. In order to modulate an amplifier that is
running at power levels of several watts (or more), comparable
power levels of information are required. Thus, an audio power
amplifier is required. The final power amplifier does double-duty in a
high-level transmitter. First, it provides power gain for the RF carrier
signal, just like the RF power amplifier did in the low-level
transmitter. In addition to providing power gain, the final PA also
performs the task of modulation. The final power amplifier in a high-
level transmitter usually operates in class C, which is a highly non-
linear amplifier class.
Comparison
Low Level Transmitters
• Can produce any kind of modulation; AM, FM, or PM.
• Require linear RF power amplifiers, which reduce DC efficiency
and increases production costs.
High Level Transmitters
• Have better DC efficiency than low-level transmitters, and are
very well suited for battery operation.
• Are restricted to generating AM modulation only.

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1.14 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) TRANSMISSION
Time domain representation of SSB signals & their demodulation schemes (with
carrier, and suppressed carrier)
It is the process where, the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to that
of the message signal.
Let m (t) be the base-band signal, m (t) ←→ M (ω) and c (t) be the carrier, c(t)
= Ac cos(ωct). fc is chosen such that fc >> W, where W is the maximum
frequency component of m(t). The amplitude modulated signal is given by
s(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)] cos(ωct)
Fourier transform on both sides of above equation

Ka is constant called amplitude sensitivity.

Kam(t) < 1 and it indicates percentage modulation
The ratio of total side band power to the total power in the modulated wave is
given by

Fig 1.14 Amplitude modulation in time and frequency domain

Standard AM and DSBSC require transmission bandwidth equal to twice the
message bandwidth. In both the cases spectrum contains two side bands of
width W Hz, each. But the upper and lower sides are uniquely related to each
other by the virtue of their symmetry about the carrier frequency. That is, given
the amplitude and phase spectra of either side band, the other can be

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uniquely determined. Thus if only one side band is transmitted, and if both the
carrier and the other side band are suppressed at the transmitter, no
information is lost. This kind of modulation is called SSBSC and spectral
comparison between DSBSC and SSBSC is shown in the figures 1.15 a and b.

Fig 1.15 (a) Spectrum of the DSBSC wave

Fig 1.15 (b) Spectrum of the SSBSC wave

Frequency Domain Description

Consider a message signal m(t) with a spectrum M(f) band limited to the
interval –w<f<w as shown in fig 1.16 (a) , the DSBSC wave obtained by
demultiplexing m(t) by the carrier wave c(t)=Accos(2πfct) and is also shown in
fig 1.16 (b). the upper side band is represented in duplicate by the frequencies
above fc and those below –fc and when only upper side band is transmitted;
the resulting SSB modulated wave has the spectrum shown in fig 1.16(c).
Similarly, the lower side band is represented in duplicate by the frequencies
below fc and those above -fc and when only the lower side band is
transmitted, the spectrum of the corresponding SSB modulated wave shown in
figure 1.16 (d) .Thus the essential function of the SSB modulation is to translate
the spectrum of the modulating wave, either with or without inversion, to a new
location in the frequency domain. The advantage of SSB modulation is reduced
bandwidth and the elimination of high power carrier wave. The main
disadvantage is the cost and complexity of its implementation.

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Fig 1.16 (a) Spectrum of message wave

Fig 1.16 (b) Spectrum of DSB-SC wave

Fig 1.16 (c) Spectrum of SSBSC-LSB wave

Fig 1.16 (d) Spectrum of SSBSC-USB wave

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1.15 GENERATION OF SSB WAVE: FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATION METHOD
Consider the generation of SSB modulated signal containing the upper side
band only. From a practical point of view, the most severe requirement of SSB
generation arises from the unwanted sideband, the nearest component of
which is separated from the desired side band by twice the lowest frequency
component of the message signal. It implies that, for the generation of an SSB
wave to be possible, the message spectrum must have an energy gap
centered at the origin as shown in figure 1.17 (a) . This requirement is naturally
satisfied by voice signals, whose energy gap is about 600Hz wide.

Fig 1.17 (a) Message Spectrum with energy gap at the origin
The frequency discrimination or filter method of SSB generation consists of a
product modulator, which produces DSBSC signal and a band-pass filter to
extract the desired side band and reject the other and is shown in the figure
1.17 (b) .

Fig 1.17 (b) Frequency discriminator to generate SSBSC wave

Application of this method requires that the message signal satisfies two
conditions:
1. The message signal m(t) has no low-frequency content. Example: speech,
audio, music.
2. The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much less
than the carrier frequency fc.

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Then, under these conditions, the desired side band will appear in a non-
overlapping interval in the spectrum in such a way that it may be selected by
an appropriate filter.
In designing the band pass filter, the following requirements should be
satisfied:
1. The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the
spectrum of the desired SSB modulated wave.
2. The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass band from the
stop band, where the unwanted sideband of the filter input lies, is twice the
lowest frequency component of the message signal.

When it is necessary to generate an SSB modulated wave occupying a

frequency band that is much higher than that of the message signal, it
becomes very difficult to design an appropriate filter that will pass the desired
side band and reject the other. In such a situation it is necessary to resort to a
multiple-modulation process so as to ease the filtering requirement. This
approach is illustrated in the following figure 1.18 involving two stages of
modulation

Fig 1.18 Two stage frequency discriminator

The SSB modulated wave at the first filter output is used as the modulating wave
for the second product modulator, which produces a DSBSC modulated wave
with a spectrum that is symmetrically spaced about the second carrier
frequency f2. The frequency separation between the side bands of this DSBSC
modulated wave is effectively twice the first carrier frequency f1, thereby
permitting the second filter to remove the unwanted side band.

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1.16 HILBERT TRANSFORM & ITS PROPERTIES
The Fourier transform is useful for evaluating the frequency content of an energy
signal, or in a limiting case that of a power signal. It provides mathematical
basis for analyzing and designing the frequency selective filters for the
separation of signals on the basis of their frequency content.Another method of
separating the signals is based on phase selectivity, which uses phase shifts
between the appropriate signals (components) to achieve the desired
separation.
In case of a sinusoidal signal, the simplest phase shift of 180o is obtained
by “Ideal transformer” (polarity reversal). When the phase angles of all the
components of a given signal are shifted by 90o, the resulting function of time is
called the “Hilbert transform” of the signal.
Consider an LTI system with transfer function defined by equation 1

and the signum function is given by

the function H(f) can be expressed using signum function given as equation 2

2
we know that and
therefore

thus the magnitude of H(f) is 1 for all values of f, and the angle is

The device which possesses such a property is called Hilbert transformer.

Whenever a signal is applied to the Hilbert transformer, the amplitudes of all
frequency components of the input signal remain unaffected. It produces a

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phase shift of -900 for all positive frequencies, while a phase shifts of 900 for all
negative frequencies of the signal.

If x(t) is an input signal, then its Hilbert transformer is denoted by xˆ(t ) and
shown in the following diagram.

Fig 1.19 Hilbert Transformer.

To find impulse response h(t) of Hilbert transformer with transfer function H(j).
Consider the relation between Signum function and the unit step function.

Differentiating both sides with respect to t

Apply Fourier transforms on both sides

Applying the duality property of Fourier transform

we have

Now consider any input x(t) to the Hilbert transformer, which is an LTI system. Let
the impulse response of the Hilbert transformer is obtained by convolving the
input x(t) and impulse response h(t) of the system.

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The above equation give the Hilbert transform of x(t)

The inverse fourier transform of x(t) is given by

We have

The Fourier transform of is given as

Time Domain Description:

The time domain description of an SSB wave s(t) in the canonical form is given
by the equation 1.

1
where SI(t) is the in-phase component of the SSB wave and SQ(t) is its
quadrature component. The in-phase component SI(t) except for a scaling
factor, may be derived from S(t) by first multiplying S(t) by cos(2πfct) and then
passing the product through a low pass filter. Similarly, the quadrature
component SQ(t), except for a scaling factor, may be derived from s(t) by first
multiplying s(t) by sin (2πfct) and then passing the product through an identical
filter. The Fourier transformation of SI(t) and SQ(t) are related to that of SSB
wave as follows respectively.

Were –w<f<w defines the frequency band occupied by the message signal
m(t).

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Consider the SSB wave that is obtained by transmitting only the upper side
band, shown in figure 1.20(a).

Fig 1.20 (a) Spectrum of SSBSC-USB

Two frequency shifted spectra δ(f- fc) and δ (f+ fc) are shown in figure 1.20(
b) and figure 1.20(c) respectively.

Fig 1.20 (b) Spectrum of SSBSC-USB shifted right by fc

Fig 1.20 (c) Spectrum of SSBSC-USB shifted left by fc

Therefore, from equations 2 and 3 ,it Follows that the corresponding
spectra of the in- phase component Sr(t) and the quadrature
component SQ(t) are as shown in figure 1.21 (a) and 1.21 (b) respectively.

Fig 1.21 (a) Spectrum of in-phase component of SSBSC-USB

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Fig 1.21 (b) Spectrum of quadrature component of SSBSC-USB

From the figure it was found that

Where M(f) is the Fourier transform of the message signal m(t). Accordingly in-
phase component SI(t) is defined by below equation

From fig 1.21 (b) it was found that

Where sgn(j) is the Signum function.

But from the discussions on Hilbert transforms, it is shown

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Therefore the quadrature component SQ(t) is defined by the equation as below

Therefore substituting equation 4 and 8 in equation 1, we find the canonical

representation of an SSB wave s(t) obtained by transmitting only the upper side
band is given by equation 9 as below

Following the same procedure, we can find the canonical representation for an
SSB wave
s(t) obtained by transmitting only the lower side band is given by

10

1.17 PHASE DISCRIMINATION METHOD FOR GENERATING SSB WAVE

Time domain description of SSB modulation leads to another method of SSB

generation using the equations 9 or 10. The block diagram of phase
discriminator is as shown in figure 1.22

Fig 1.22 Block diagram of phase discriminator

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The phase discriminator consists of two product modulators I and Q, supplied
with carrier waves in-phase quadrature to each other. The incoming base band
signal m(t) is applied to product modulator I, producing a DSBSC modulated
wave that contains reference phase sidebands symmetrically spaced about
carrier frequency fc.
The Hilbert transform mˆ (t) of m (t) is applied to product modulator Q,
producing a DSBSC modulated that contains side bands having identical
amplitude spectra to those of modulator I, but with phase spectra such that
vector addition or subtraction of the two modulator outputs results in
cancellation of one set of side bands and reinforcement of the other set.
The use of a plus sign at the summing junction yields an SSB wave with only the
lower side band, whereas the use of a minus sign yields an SSB wave with only
the upper side band. This modulator circuit is called Hartley modulator.

1.18 DEMODULATION OF SSB WAVES

Demodulation of SSBSC wave using coherent detection as shown in fig 1.23.

Fig 1.23 Block diagram of coherent dectector for SSBSC

SSB wave s(t) together with a locally generated carrier c(t) =AC1cos(2πfct+φ) is
applied to a product modulator and then low pass filtering of the modulator
ouptput yields the message signal. The product modulator output v(t)is given by

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The first term in the above equation 1 is desired message signal. The other term
represents an SSB wave with a carrier frequency of 2fc as such it is an unwanted
component, which is removed by low-pass filter.

1.19 INTRODUCTION TO VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND MODULATION

Vestigial sideband is a type of Amplitude modulation in which one side band is

completely passed along with trace or tail or vestige of the other side band.
VSB is a compromise between SSB and DSBSC modulation. In SSB, we send only
one side band, the Bandwidth required to send SSB wave is w. SSB is not
appropriate way of modulation when the message signal contains significant
components at extremely low frequencies. To overcome this VSB is used.
Frequency Domain Description
The following Fig illustrates the spectrum of VSB modulated wave s (t) with
respect to the message m (t) (band limited)

Fig 1.24 (a) Spectrum of message Signal

Fig 1.24 (b) Spectrum of VSB wave containing vestige of the lower side band.

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Assume that the Lower side band is modified into the vestigial side band. The
vestige of the lower sideband compensates for the amount removed from the
upper sideband. The bandwidth required to send VSB wave is
B=w+fv Where fv is the width of the vestigial side band.
Similarly, if the upper side band is modified into the vestigial side band then

Fig 1.24 (c) Spectrum of VSB wave containing vestige of the upper side band.
The vestige of the Upper sideband compensates for the amount removed from
the Lower sideband. The bandwidth required to send VSB wave is B = w+fv,
where fv is the width of the vestigial side band.
Therefore, VSB has the virtue of conserving bandwidth almost as efficiently as
SSB modulation, while retaining the excellent low-frequency base band
characteristics of DSBSC and it is standard for the transmission of TV signals.
Generation of VSB Modulated Wave
VSB modulated wave is obtained by passing DSBSC through a sideband
shaping filter as shown in fig 1.25 below

Fig 1.25 Block diagramof VSB Modulator

The exact design of this filter depends on the spectrum of the VSB waves. The
relation between filter transfer function H (f) and the spectrum of VSB waves is
given by

Where M(f) is the spectrum of Message Signal. Now, we have to determine the
specification for the filter transfer function H(f) It can be obtained by passing s(t)
to a coherent detector and determining the necessary condition for

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undistorted version of the message signal m(t). Thus, s (t) is multiplied by a

locally generated sinusoidal wave cos (2πfct) which is synchronous with the
carrier wave Accos(2πfct) in both frequency and phase, as in fig below,

Fig 1.26 Block diagramof VSB Demodulator

The spectrum of V(f) as shown below

Fig 1.27 Spectrum of product modulator output v(f)

Pass v(t) to a low pass filter to eliminate VSB wave corresponding to 2fc

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The spectrum of VO(f) as shown below
Fig 1.28 Spectrum of product demodulator output vo(f)

For a distortion less reproductionof the original signal m(t), Vo(f) to be scaled
version of M(f). therefore, the transfer function H(f) must satisfy the condition

Where H(fc) is constant

Since m(t) is a band limited signal, we need to satisfy equation 6 in the interval –
w≤f≤w. the requirement of equation 6 is satisfied by using filter whose transfer
function is shown below.

Fig 1.29 Frequency response of sideband shaping filter

Similarly, the transfer function H (f) of the filter for sending Lower sideband along
with the vestige of the Upper sideband is shown in fig below,

Fig 1.30 Frequency response of sideband shaping filter

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1.20 COMPARISON OF AM TECHNIQUES

Fig 1.31 Comparison of AM Techniques

1.21 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT AM SYSTEMS

• Amplitude Modulation: AM Radio, Short wave Raido Broadcast
• DSB-SC: Data Modems, Color TV’s color signals.
• SSB: Telephone
• VSB: TV Picture signals

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9. Practice Quiz
1. The process of varying the parameters of high frequency signal according to
low-frequency signal is Modulation
2. The Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation is ___
a) ωm
b) ωm/2
c) ωm/4
d)2 ωm
3. The costas receiver is used for
a) FM signal
b) DSB-SC signal
c) PCM signal
d) DM signal
4. By suppressing carrier component from AM wave, we have
a) SSB
b) VSB
c) DSB-SC
d) None
5. The most useful detection method for the Detection of Modulating signal
from AM is Envelope Detection
6. AM is compared with following FM technique
a) NBFM
b) WBFM
c) Both
d) None
7. The condition for AM is_______
a) µ greater than 1
b) µ less than 1
c) µ equal to 1
d) µ less than or equal to 1
8. The modulation need for
a) Frequency translation
b) reduced the antenna size
c) For efficient transmission
d) all
9. The recovering of Modulating signal from Modulated signal is called as
Demodulation
10. AM is used for ___
a) Short – radio wave Propagation
b) Medium-radio wave Propagation
c) Long – radio wave Propagation
d) a&b

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10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO
Draw the block diagram of communication system. Explain the
1 2 CO1
function of each block of communication system.
Explain radio frequency spectrum & its application used in
2 2 CO1
communication system with a neat Sketch.
3 Explain the concept of frequency mixing. 2 CO1
What is meant by modulation and explain the benefits of CO1,
4 2
modulation. CO2
Explain generation of DSB-SC signal with the help of balanced CO1,
5 2
modulator using diodes. CO2

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.No Question& Answers BL CO

1 Define modulation?
Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of high frequency
1 CO1
carrier Signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal.
2 What are the types of analog modulation?
(i)Amplitude modulation. (ii)Angle
CO1,
Modulation 1
CO2
1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation.
3 What are the degrees of modulation?
a) Under modulation (m < 1)
b) Critical modulation (m=1) 1 CO1
c) Over modulation(m>1)

4 What is the need for modulation?

Needs for modulation:
a. Ease of transmission
b. Multiplexing CO1,
1
c. Reduced noise CO2
d. Narrow bandwidth
e. Frequency assignment
f. Reduce the equipments limitations.
5 What is the difference between high level and low level modulation?

In high level modulation, the modulator amplifier operates at high power

CO1,
levels and delivers power directly to the antenna. In low level 1
CO2
modulation, the modulator amplifier performs modulation at relatively
low power levels. The modulated signal is then amplified to high power
level by class B power amplifier. The amplifier feeds power to antenna.

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12. Part B- Questions

S.No Question BL CO
1 Draw the frequency spectrum of DSB-SC modulation with CO1,
2
necessary mathematical expressions. CO2
2 Draw the neat circuits and equivalent circuits (for different
CO1,
modes) of ring modulator using diodes for generating DSB-SC 2
CO2
signal.
3 Derive an expression for SSB-SC wave using the concept of pre- CO1,
4
envelope. CO2
4 Draw the block diagram of communication system. Explain the
2 CO1
function of each block of communication system.
5 What is meant by modulation and explain the benefits of CO1,
2
modulation. CO2

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. Analog Communication By Prof. Gowtam Das, conducted by IIT Kharagpur –
12 weeks.

14. Real Time Applications

S.No Application CO
1 Image Processing CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4,CO5
2 Digital Signal Processing CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4,CO5
3 Communications CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4,CO5

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. Basic Examples for small projects
Basic examples will help in designing the project easily.

16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

Text Book
1. B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,” 3rd Edition,
Oxford Univ. press, 2006.
2. John Wiley & Sons Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems,”,3rd Edition, 2010.
3. Sham Shanmugam, “Digital and Analog Communication Systems”, Wiley-India
edition, 2006.(edition)

References:

1. Bruce Carlson, & Paul B. Crilly, “Communication Systems – An Introduction to

Signals & Noise in Electrical Communication”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill
International Edition, 2010.
2. Herbert Taub & Donald L Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, 3rd
Edition, Tata McGraw- Hill, 2009.
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3. R.E. Ziemer & W.H. Tranter, “Principles of Communication-Systems Modulation &
Noise”, 5thedition, Jaico Publishing House2001.
4. George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, “Electronics & Communication System”,
TMH,2004.(edition)

17. Mini Project Suggestion

• Street Light Circuit.
• Battery Charger Circuit Using SCR.
• Water Level Alarm Circuit.
• Low Cost Fire Alarm Circuit.
• Single Chip FM Radio Circuit.
• Digital Stop Watch Circuit.
• High and Low Voltage Cut-off With Delay and Alarm.

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