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COURSE MATERIAL

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
SUBJECT
(19A04403T)

UNIT 3

COURSE B.TECH

SEMESTER 22

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT
ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY Mr. D.Chaitanya,

(Faculty Name/s) Assistant Professor

VERSION 5.0

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 25-03-2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT III

SNO CONTENTS PAGE

1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1

2 PREREQUISITES 1

3 SYLLABUS 1

4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1

5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 2

6 LESSON PLAN 2

7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 2

8 LECTURE NOTES 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3

3.2 NARROW BAND NOISE 7

3.3 NARROW BAND NOISE REPRESENTATION 7

3.4 QUADRATURE REPRESENTATION OF NARROW BAND NOISE 8

3.5 FILTERED WHITE NOISE 9

3.6 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO 10

3.7 FIGURE OF MERIT 10

3.8 EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH 11

3.9 EFFECTIVE NOISE TEMPERATURE 11

3.10 NOISE FIGURE 12

3.11 BASE BAND SYSTEMS WITH CHANNEL NOISE 13

3.12 NOISE PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS MODULATION SCHEMES 15

3.13 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 22

9 PRACTICE QUIZ 23

10 ASSIGNMENTS 27

11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 28

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12 PART B QUESTIONS 29

13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 29

14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 30

15 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 31

16 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 31

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1. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this course is to
1. To introduce various modulation and demodulation techniques of analog
communication system.
2. To analyze different parameters of analog communication techniques.
3. Know Noise Figure in AM & FM receiver systems.
4. Understand Function of various stages of AM, FM transmitters and Know
Characteristics of AM & FM receivers.
5. Understand the concepts of information theory.

2. PREREQUISITES
Students should have knowledge on
1. Understand different types of noise and sources that effect the performance of
the communication system.
2. Analyse performance of analog communication system in the presence of noise.
3. Compare the performance of communication system by evaluating
figure of merit for different schemes of modulation.

3. SYLLABUS
UNIT III
Noise in Communication Systems: Thermal noise, Time domain representation
of narrowband noise, filtered white noise, Quadrature representation of
narrowband noise, Envelope of narrowband noise plus sine wave, Signal to
noise ratio & probability of error, Noise equivalent bandwidth, Effective noise
temperature, and Noise figure, Baseband systems with channel noise,
Performance analysis (i.e. finding SNR expression) of AM, DSB-SC, SSB-SC, FM,
PM in the presence of noise, Illustrative Problems.

4. COURSE OUTCOMES
1. Understand the concepts of various Amplitude, Angle and Pulse Modulation
schemes.
2. Understand the concepts of information theory with random processes.
3. Apply the concepts to solve problems in analog and pulse modulation schemes.
4. Analysis of analog communication system in the presence of noise.
5. Compare and contrast design issues, advantages, disadvantages and limitations
of various modulation schemes in analog communication systems.
6. Solve basic communication problems & calculate information rate and channel
capacity of a discrete communication channel.

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5. Co-PO / PSO Mapping
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2

CO1 3 3 2 2

CO2 3 3 2 2

CO3 3 3 2 2

CO4 3 3 2 2

6. LESSON PLAN
LECTURE WEEK TOPICS TO BE COVERED REFERENCES

Introduction to Noise & Effects of noise T1,T2,R1

1
Narrow Band Noise Representation T1,T2,R1
2
1
Quadrature Representation Of Narrow Band Noise T1,T2,R1
3
Filtered White Noise T1,T2,R1
4
Signal to noise Ratio T1,T2,R1
5
Figure of Merit T1,T2,R1
6
2
Noise equivalent Bandwidth T1,T2,R1
7
Noise equivalent temperature T1,T2,R1
8
Base Band systems with channel noise T1,T2,R1
9
Noise performance of various modulation schemes T1,T2,R1
10
3
SNR Calculation of AM & DSB_SC T1,T2,R1
11
SNR Calculation of FM & SSB_SC T1,T2,R1
12

7. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Analyzing signal constellation diagrams with angles
2. Brain storming on correlation receivers.

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8. LECTURE NOTES

3.1. INTRODUCTION
In any communication system, during the transmission of the signal, or while receiving
the signal, some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it
unpleasant for the receiver, questioning the quality of the communication. Such a
disturbance is called as Noise. Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original
message signal and corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the
communication process, leads to the message getting altered. It is most likely to be entered
at the channel or the receiver.

The noise signal can be understood by taking a look at the following example.

Fig.3.1. Noise Signal

Hence, it is understood that noise is some signal which has no pattern and no
constant frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures are
usually taken to reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.

Most common examples of noise are −

• Hiss sound in radio receivers
• Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
• Flicker in television receivers, etc.

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EFFECTS OF NOISE
Noise is an inconvenient feature which affects the system performance. Following are
the effects of noise.
Noise limits the operating range of the systems

Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise. A
system’s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest
signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers
Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified
quality output. Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually
affects the output.

TYPES OF NOISE
The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it
shows or the relation it has with the receiver, etc.
There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is through some external
source while the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver section.

EXTERNAL SOURCE
This noise is produced by the external sources which may occur in the medium or
channel of communication, usually. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The
best way is to avoid the noise from affecting the signal.
External noise may be classified into the following three types:
• Atmospheric noises
• Extraterrestrial noises
• Man-made noises or industrial noises.
Atmospheric noise or static is caused by lighting discharges in thunderstorms and
other natural electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. These electrical
impulses are random in nature. Hence the energy is spread over the complete
frequency spectrum used for radio communication. Atmospheric noise accordingly
consists of spurious radio signals with components spread over a wide frequency
range. These spurious radio waves constituting the noise get propagated over the
earth in the same fashion as the desired radio waves of the same frequency.
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Accordingly at a given receiving point, the receiving antenna picks up not only the
signal but also the static from all the thunderstorms, local or remote. Electrons and
"ions" strongly bound by molecular forces. The ions vibrate randomly about their
normal (average) positions, however, this vibration being a function of the
temperature. Continuous collisions between the electrons and the vibrating ions take
place. Thus there is a continuous transfer of energy between the ions and electrons.
This is the source of resistance in a conductor. The movement of free electrons
constitutes a current which is purely random in nature and over a long time averages
zero. There is a random motion of the electrons which give rise to noise voltage called
thermal noise. Thus noise generated in any resistance due to random motion of
electrons i5 called thermal noise or white or Johnson noise.

INTERNAL SOURCE
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The
components in the circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of
noise. This noise is quantifiable. A proper receiver design may lower the effect of this
internal noise.
Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are −
• Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise).
• Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes).
• Transit-time noise (during transition).
• Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise which includes flicker, resistance
effect and mixer generated noise, etc.

(a) THERMAL NOISE (JOHNSON NOISE)

The analysis of thermal noise is based on the Kinetic theory. It shows that the
temperature of particles is a way of expressing its internal kinetic energy. Thus
"Temperature" of a body can be said to be equivalent to the statistical rms value of
the velocity of motion of the particles in the body. At -273°C (or zero degree Kelvin)
the kinetic energy of the particles of a body becomes zero .Thus we can relate the
noise power generated by a resistor to be proportional to its absolute temperature.

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Noise power is also proportional to the bandwidth over which it is measured. From the
above discussion we can write down.
Pn ∝ TB
Pn = KTB ------ (1)
Where, Pn = Maximum noise power output of a resistor.
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x10-23 joules I Kelvin.
T = Absolute temperature.
B = Bandwidth over which noise is measured.

(b) Shot Noise

The most common type of noise is referred to as shot noise which is produced by the
random arrival of 'electrons or holes at the output element, at the plate in a tube, or
at the collector or drain in a transistor. Shot noise is also produced by the random
movement of electrons or holes across a PN junction. Even through current flow is
established by external bias voltages, there will still be some random movement of
electrons or holes due to discontinuities in the device. An example of such a
discontinuity is the contact between the copper lead and the semiconductor
materials. The interface between the two creates a discontinuity that causes random
movement of the current carriers.

(c) Transit Time Noise

Another kind of noise that occurs in transistors is called transit time noise. Transit time is
(he duration of time that it takes for a current carrier such as a hole or current to move
from the input to the output. The devices themselves are very tiny, so the distances
involved are minimal. Yet the time it takes for the current carriers to move even a short
distance is finite. At low frequencies this time is negligible. But when the frequency of
operation is high and the signal being processed is the magnitude as the transit time,
then problem can occur. The transit time shows up as a kind of random noise within
the device, and this is directly proportional to the frequency of operation.

(d) MISCELLANEOUS INTERNAL NOISES (Flicker Noise)

Flicker noise or modulation noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low
audio frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter current and junction

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temperature. However, this noise is inversely proportional to the frequency. Hence it
may be neglected at frequencies above about 500 Hz and it, Therefore, possess no
serious problem.

(e) Transistor Thermal Noise

Within the transistor, thermal noise is caused by the emitter, base and collector
internal resistances. Out of these three regions, the base region contributes maximum
thermal noise.
(f) Partition Noise
Partition noise occurs whenever current has to divide between two or more paths,
and results from the random fluctuations in the division. It would be expected,
therefore, that a diode would be less noisy than a transistor (all other factors being
equal) If the third electrode draws current (i.e.., the base current). It is for this reason
that the inputs of microwave receivers are often taken directly to diode mixers.

3.2. NARROWBAND NOISE

A random process X(t) is band pass or narrowband random process if its
power spectral density SX(f) is nonzero only in a small neighborhood of some high
frequency fc Deterministic signals: defined by its Fourier transform Random processes:
defined by its power spectral density.
Note:
1. Since X (t) is band pass, it has zero mean: E [(X (t)] = 0.
2. fc needs not be the center of the signal bandwidth or in the signal bandwidth at all.

3.3. NARROWBAND NOISE REPRESENTATION

In most communication systems, we are often dealing with band-pass filtering of
signals. Wideband noise will be shaped into band limited noise. If the bandwidth of
the band limited noise is relatively small compared to the carrier frequency, we refer
to this as narrowband noise. Figure.3.3. shows how to generate narrowband noise from
wideband noise.

Band pass filter

Wide band noise Narrow Band Noise

Fig.3.3. Generation of Narrow Band Noise

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We can derive the power spectral density Gn(f) and the auto-correlation function
Rnn(τ) of the narrowband noise and use them to analyze the performance of linear
systems. In practice, we often deal with mixing (multiplication), which is a non-linear
operation, and the system analysis becomes difficult. In such a case, it is useful to
express the narrowband noise as
n(t) = x(t) cos 2πfct - y(t) sin 2πfct
Where
fc is the carrier frequency within the band occupied by the noise.
x (t) and y(t) are known as the quadrature components of the noise n(t).
The Hilbert transform of n (t) is:
n^ (t) = H [n(t)] = x(t) sin 2πfct + y(t) cos 2πfct.
Proof.
The Fourier transform of n (t) is
N (f) = ½ X(f-fc) + ½ X(f+fc) +1/2 jY(f-fc) – ½ jY(f+fc)

Let N^ (f) be the Fourier transform of n^ ( t ). In the frequency domain, N^ (f)

= N (f)[-j sgn(f)]. We simply multiply all positive frequency components of N(f) by -j
and all negative frequency components of N(f) by j. Thus
n^ (t) = H [n(t)] = x(t) sin 2πfct + y(t) cos 2πfct.

3.4. QUADRATURE REPRESENTATION OF NARROW BAND NOISE

The quadrature components x(t) and y(t) can now be derived from equations
x(t) = n(t)cos 2 fct + n^(t)sin 2 fct
y(t) = n(t)cos 2 fct - n^(t)sin 2 fct

Fig.3.4. Generation of quadrature components of n(t).

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• Filters at the receiver have enough bandwidth to pass the desired signal but not
too big to pass excess noise.
• Narrowband (NB) fc center frequency is much bigger that the bandwidth.
• Noise at the output of such filters is called narrowband noise (NBN).
• NBN has spectral concentrated about some mid-band frequency fc
• The sample function of such NBN n(t) appears as a sine wave of frequency fc
which modulates slowly in amplitude and phase.

3.5. FILTERED WHITE NOISE

One of the very important random processes is the white noise process. Noises in
many practical situations are approximated by the white noise process. Most
importantly, the white noise plays an important role in modeling of WSS signals.
A white noise process (W (t)) is a random process that has constant power spectral
density at all frequencies. Thus

Where N0 is a real constant and called the intensity of the white noise.

The corresponding autocorrelation function is given by

The average power of white noise

The autocorrelation function and the PSD of a white noise process is shown in Figure

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Fig.3.4. Auto Correlation and PSD of white noise

3.6. SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power to noise power. The higher
the value of SNR, the greater will be the quality of the received output.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio at different points can be calculated using the following
formulas.
Input SNR = (SNR) I = Average power of modulating signal
Average power of noise at input

Output SNR = (SNR) O= Average power of demodulated signal

Average power of noise at output

Channel SNR = (SNR) c= Average power of modulated signal

Average power of noise in message bandwidth

3.7. FIGURE OF MERIT

The ratio of output SNR and input SNR can be termed as Figure of Merit. It is denoted
by F. It describes the performance of a device.
Figure of Merit (F) = (SNR)O
(SNR)I
Figure of merit of a receiver is F = (SNR)O
(SNR)c
It is so because for a receiver, the channel is the input.
Figure of merit of a receiver is F = (SNR)O
(SNR)c

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3.8. EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH
A filter’s equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW) is defined as the bandwidth of a perfect
rectangular filter that passes the same amount of power as the cumulative
bandwidth of the channel selective filters in the receiver. At this point we would like
to know the noise floor in our receiver, i.e. the noise power in the receiver
intermediate frequency (IF) filter bandwidth that comes from kTB. Since the units of
kTB are Watts/ Hz, calculate the noise floor in the channel bandwidth by multiplying
the noise power in a 1 Hz bandwidth by the overall equivalent noise bandwidth in Hz.
The noise bandwidth “BN” is defined as the bandwidth of an ideal (rectangular) filter
which passes the same noise power as does the real filter.

Fig.3.5.Noise Bandwidth of a filter

• Assume that a white noise is present at the input of a receiver (filter).

• Let the filter have a transfer function H (f) as shown in fig.
• This filter is being used to reduce the noise power actually passed on to the
receiver.
• Now consider the dotted plot (ideal filter)
• The centre frequency of this ideal filter is f0f0
• Let the bandwidth “BN”“BN” of the ideal filter be adjusted in such a way that the
noise output power of the ideal filter is exactly equal to the noise output power of a
real R-C filter. Then “BNBN” is called as the noise bandwidth of the real filter.

3.9. EFFECTIVE NOISE TEMPERATURE

The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the temperature at which
the noise resistor has to be maintained so that by connecting this resistor to the input

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of a noiseless version of the system, it will produce the same amount of noise power
at the system output as that produced by the actual system.
The noise at the input of the amplifier input is given by
Pna = (F−1)kTcBPna = (F−1)kTcB
This is the noise contributed by the amplifier. This noise power can be alternatively
represented by some fictitious temperature Teq such that
KTeqB = (F−1)kTcBKTeqB = (F−1)kTcB
Thus the equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier is given by
Teq=(F−1)TcTeq=(F−1)Tc
This equation shows that Teq is just an alternative measure for F.

3.10. NOISE FIGURE

Noise figure (NF) and noise factor (F) are measures of degradation of the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR), caused by components in a signal chain. It is a number by which
the performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver can be specified, with lower
values indicating better performance. The noise factor is defined as the ratio of the
output noise power of a device to the portion thereof attributable to thermal noise in
the input termination at standard noise temperature T0 (usually 290 K). The noise
factor is thus the ratio of actual output noise to that which would remain if the device
itself did not introduce noise, or the ratio of input SNR to output SNR. The noise figure is
simply the noise factor expressed in decibels (dB).
The noise figure is the difference in decibels (dB) between the noise output of the
actual receiver to the noise output of an “ideal” receiver with the same
overall gain and bandwidth when the receivers are connected to matched sources
at the standard noise temperature T0 (usually 290 K). The noise power from a
simple load is equal to kTB, where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute
temperature of the load (for example a resistor), and B is the measurement
bandwidth.
This makes the noise figure a useful figure of merit for terrestrial systems, where the
antenna effective temperature is usually near the standard 290 K. In this case, one
receiver with a noise figure, say 2 dB better than another, will have an output signal
to noise ratio that is about 2 dB better than the other. However, in the case of satellite
communications systems, where the receiver antenna is pointed out into cold space,
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the antenna effective temperature is often colder than 290 K.[2] In these cases a
2 dB improvement in receiver noise figure will result in more than a 2 dB improvement
in the output signal to noise ratio. For this reason, the related figure of effective noise
temperature is therefore often used instead of the noise figure for characterizing
satellite-communication receivers and low-noise amplifiers.
In heterodyne systems, output noise power includes spurious contributions from
image-frequency transformation, but the portion attributable to thermal noise in the
input termination at standard noise temperature includes only that which appears in
the output via the principal frequency transformation of the system and excludes
that which appears via the image frequency transformation.
The Noise factor F of a system is defined as
Noise factor = F = (SNR)i / (SNR)o
where SNRi and SNRo are the input and output signal to noise ratio respectively.
The SNR quantities are power ratios. The noise figure NF is defined as the noise factor
in dB:
NF = 10log10 (F) = 10log10 ((SNR)i/(SNR)o)
Where SNRi, dB and SNRo, dB are in decibels (dB). These formulae are only valid
when the input termination is at standard noise temperature T0 = 290 K, although in
practice small differences in temperature do not significantly affect the values.
The noise factor of a device is related to its noise temperature Te
F = 1+Te/To
Attenuators have a noise factor F equal to their attenuation ratio L when their
physical temperature equals T0. More generally, for an attenuator at a physical
temperature T, the noise temperature is Te = (L − 1)T, giving a noise factor
F = 1+ (L-1)T / To

3.11. BASE BAND SYSTEMS WITH CHANNEL NOISE

In base band systems, the signal is transmitted directly without any modulation. This
mode of communication is suitable over a pair of wires, optical fiber, or coaxial
cables. It is mainly used in short-haul links. The study of base band systems is
important because many of the basic concepts and parameters encountered in
baseband systems are carried over directly to modulated systems. Second, base
band systems serve as a basis against which other systems may be compared.
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For a base band system, the transmitter and the receiver are ideal base band
filters. The low-pass filter Hp (w) at the transmitter limits the input signal spectrum to a
given bandwidth. The low-pass filter Hd (w) at the receiver eliminates the out-of-
band noise and other channel interference. These filters can also serve an additional
purpose, that of pre-emphasis and de emphasis, which optimizes the signal to noise
ratio at the receiver (or minimizes the channel noise interference).
The base band signal m(t) is assumed to be a zero mean, wide-sense stationary
random process band-limited to B Hz. To begin with, we shall consider the case of
ideal low pass (or base band) filters with band width B at the transmitter and the
receiver. The channel is assumed to be distortion less. For this case,

Where Sn (w) is the PSD of the channel noise. For the case of a white noise,
Sn (w) = N/2,

We define a parameter Gamma(Y) as

From above two equations we have,

eq.1

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Fig.3.6. Base Band system with channel noise

The Parameter gamma(Y) is directly proportional to the Si and therefore directly

proportional to St. Hence; a given St implies a given gamma. Eq.1 is precisely the
result we are looking for. It gives the receiver output SNR for a given St.
The value of the SNR in eq.1 will serve as a standard against which the output SNR of
other systems will be measured.
The power or the mean square value of m (t) is m2, given by

In analog signals, the SNR is basic in specifying the signal quality. For voice signals, an
SNR of 5 to 10 db at the receiver implies a barely intelligible signal.

3.12. NOISE PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS MODULATION SCHEMES

The process of (electronic) communication becomes quite challenging because of
the unwanted electrical signals in a communications system. These undesirable
signals, usually termed as noise, are random in nature and interfere with the message
signals. The receiver input, in general, consists of (message) signal plus noise, possibly
with comparable power levels. The purpose of the receiver is to produce the desired
signal with a signal-to-noise ratio that is above a specified value.
In this, we will analyze the noise performance of the modulation schemes. The results
of our analysis will show that, under certain conditions, FM is superior to the linear
modulation schemes in combating noise and PCM can provide better signal-to-noise
ratio at the receiver output than FM. The trade-offs involved in achieving the superior
performance from FM and PCM will be discussed.
We shall begin our study with the noise performance of various CW modulations
schemes. In this context, it is the performance of the detector (demodulator) that
would be emphasized. We shall first develop a suitable receiver model in which the
role of the demodulator is the most important one.

(a) SNR CALCULATIONS IN AM SYSTEM

Consider the following receiver model of AM system to analyze noise.

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Fig.3.7. Receiver model of AM system

We know that the Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave is
s(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

s(t) = Accos(2πfct)+Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)

s(t) = Accos(2πfct)+Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)

Average power of AM wave is

Ps = (Ac/√2)2 + (Ac kam (t)/√2)2

Ps = (Ac/2)2 + Ac2ka2P/2

Ps =Ac2 (1+ka2P)/2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

Pnc = WN0
Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula
(SNR)C, AM = Average Power of AM Wave
Average Power of noise in message band width

(SNR)C, AM = Ac2 (1+ka2) P / 2WN0

Where,
P is the power of the message signal=Am2/2.
W is the message bandwidth
Assume the band pass noise is mixed with AM wave in the channel as shown in the
above figure. This combination is applied at the input of AM demodulator. Hence,
the input of AM demodulator is.
V (t) = s (t) +n (t)
v(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)+[n1(t)cos(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct)]
Where nI (t) and nQ (t) are in phase and quadrature phase components of noise.

The output of AM demodulator is nothing but the envelope of the above signal.

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D(t) = Ac+ Ac Kam(t) +n1(t).
Average power of the demodulated signal is
Pm = (Ackam (t)/√2)2

=Ac2ka2P/2.

Average power of noise at the output is

Pno = WN0

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

(SNR)O, AM = Average Power of demodulated signal (SNR)
Average Power of noise at Output

(SNR)O, AM = Ac2 ka2 P / 2WN0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of AM receiver formula.
F = (SNR) O, AM / (SNR) C, AM

F = (Ac2 ka2 P/2WN0) / (Ac2 (1+ka2) P/2WN0)

F = Ka2P / 1+Ka2P
Therefore, the Figure of merit of AM receiver is less than one.
Figure of merit in AM System = F = Ka2P / 1+Ka2P

(b) SNR CALCULATIONS IN DSBSC SYSTEM

Consider the following receiver model of DSBSC system to analyze noise.

Fig.3.8. Receiver model of DSBSC system

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave is
s(t) = Ac m(t)cos(2πfct)

Average power of DSBSC modulated wave is

Ps = (Ac m(t)/√2)2

= Ac2P/2.

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Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is
Pnc = WN0

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

(SNR)C, DSBSC = Average Power of DSBSC modulated wave
Average Power of noise in message bandwidth

(SNR)C, DSBSC = Ac2P / 2WN0

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with DSBSC modulated wave in the channel as
shown in the above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the
product modulator. Hence, the input of this product modulator is

v1 (t) = s (t) +n (t)

v1(t) = Acm(t)cos(2πfct)+[nI(t)cos(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct)]

v1(t) = [Acm(t)+nI(t)]cos(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct)

Local oscillator generates the carrier signal c(t)=cos(2πfct)c(t)=cos⁡(2πfct). This

signal is applied as another input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product
modulator produces an output, which is the product of v1 (t) and c (t)
v2(t)=v1(t)c(t)

Substitute, v1 (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

v2(t) = ([Acm(t)+nI(t)]cos(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct))cos(2πfct)
v2(t) = [Acm(t)+nI(t)]cos2(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct)cos(2πfct)
v2(t) = [Acm(t)+nI(t)](1+cos(4πfct)2)−nQ(t)sin(4πfct)2
When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output
of low pass filter as
d(t)=[Acm(t)+nI(t)] / 2

Average power of the demodulated signal is

Pm = (Ac m (t) / 2√2)2

= Ac2P / 8

Average power of noise at the output is

Pno = WN0 / 4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

(SNR)O, DSBSC = Average Power of demodulated signal
Average Power of noise at Output

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(SNR)O, DSBSC = (Ac2P / 8) / (WN0 / 4)

(SNR)O, DSBSC = Ac2P / 2WN0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver formula.
F = (SNR) O, DSBSC / (SNR) C, DSBSC

F = [Ac2P / 2WNo] / [Ac2P / 2WNo] = 1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver is 1.

(c) SNR CALCULATIONS IN SSBSC SYSTEM

Consider the following receiver model of SSBSC system to analyze noise.

Fig.3.9. Receiver model of SSBSC system

We know that the SSBSC modulated wave having lower sideband is
s(t) = AmAc / 2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

Average power of SSBSC modulated wave is

Ps = (Ac Am/2√2)2

= Ac2 Am2/8.

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

Pnc = WN0

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

(SNR)C, SSBSC = Average Power of SSBSC modulated wave
Average Power of noise in message bandwidth

(SNR)C, SSBSC = Ac2 Am2/ 8WN0

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with SSBSC modulated wave in the channel as
shown in the above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the
product modulator. Hence, the input of this product modulator is

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v1 (t) = s (t) +n (t)

v1(t) = Ac Am /2 cos(2π(fc – fm )t)+[nI (t)cos(2πfct)−nQ(t)sin(2πfct)]

The local oscillator generates the carrier signal c (t) = cos (2πfct). This signal is
applied as another input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product
modulator produces an output, which is the product of v1 (t) and c (t)
v2 (t) = v1(t)c(t)

Substitute, v1 (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

v2(t) = Ac Am/2 cos[2π (fc-fm)t]−nI(t)cos(2πfct) - nQ(t)sin(2πfct))cos(2πfct)
When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output
of low pass filter as
d(t)=AmAc /2cos(2πfmt)+nI(t)/2
Average power of the demodulated signal is
Pm = (Ac m (t) / 2√2)2

= Ac2 Am2 / 32

Average power of noise at the output is

Pno = WN0 / 4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

(SNR)O, SSBSC = Average Power of demodulated signal
Average Power of noise at Output

(SNR)O, SSBSC = (Ac2Am2 / 32) / (WN0 / 4)

(SNR)O, DSBSC = Ac2Am2 / 8WN0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver formula.
F = (SNR) O, DSBSC / (SNR) C, DSBSC

F = [Ac2Am2 / 8WN0] / [Ac2Am2 / 8WN0] = 1

F=1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver is 1.

(d) SNR CALCULATIONS IN FM SYSTEM

The frequency-modulated signal is given by
s (t) = Ac cos [ (2πfct) +2πKf ʃ m(Ꞇ) dꞆ

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Pre-detection SNR: The pre-detection SNR in this case is simply the carrier power
Ac2 /2 divided by the noise passed by the band pass filter No.BT, namely,
SNR = Ac2 / No.BT
A slope network or differentiator with a purely imaginary frequency response that
varies linearly with frequency. It produces a hybrid-modulated wave in which both
amplitude and frequency vary in accordance with the message signal.
An envelope detector that recovers the amplitude variation and reproduces the
message signal.

Fig.3.10. Receiver model of FM system

Post-detection SNR: The noisy FM signal after band-pass filtering may be represented
as
X(t) = s(t) + n(t)
N (t) = nI (t) cos (2πfct) – nQ (t) sin (2πfct)
We may equivalently express N (t) in terms of its envelope and phase as
N (t) = r (t) cos [(2πfct) +ø (t)]
SNR post = 3 Ac2 Kf2 P / 2 NoW3

Figure of Merit = F = 3 Ac2 Kf2 P / 2 NoW3

Ac2 / No.BT

F = 3 [ Kf2 P ]
W2
F = 3 D2
The figure of merit for an FM system is approximately given by
Figure of Merit = F = ¾ {BT/W} 2

Thus, when the carrier to noise level is high, unlike an amplitude modulation system an FM
system allows us to trade bandwidth for improved performance in accordance with square
law.

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(e) SNR CALCULATIONS IN PM SYSTEM
PM is a special case of FM. PM can be generated by differentiating the message
signal m(t) and then by using dm(t)/dt to frequency modulate the carrier.
At the receiver if we use the frequency demodulator, then we will recover the
differentiated signal dm(t)/dt. This signal is then passed through an integrator to
recover the original message signal.
Normalized average signal power is given by Si = Vc2 / 2.
Input noise power = 2 No.∆f.
Hence the signal to noise ratio at the PM receiver input is given by
SNR i = Vc2 / 2 No.∆f.
Output SNR:
Signal to noise ratio at the output is given by
SNR o = Vc2 Kf2 P / 2 No.fm
Hence, Figure of Merit (FOM) will be
Figure of Merit = F = Vc2 Kf2 P / 2 Nofm
Vc2 / 2No.∆f
F = 2Vc2 Kf2 P.∆f / fm.
The figure of merit for an FM system is approximately given by
Figure of Merit = F = 2Vc2 Kf2 P∆f / fm.

3.13. Illustrative Problems

1. In a receiver meant for the demodulation of SSB signals, H eq (f) has the
characteristic shown in Fig. Assuming that USB has been transmitted, let us find the
FOM of the system.

Fig. 3.12. H eq (f ) for the Example

Solution: For SSB with coherent demodulation,
Signal quantity at the output = Ac/4 m(t)

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Noise quantity at the output = Nc(t)/2
Output noise power = 5/16 No W
(SNR)r = Ac2 Pm / 4 W No
Figure of Merit = 4 /5 = 0.8.

2. In a laboratory experiment involving envelope detection, AM signal at the input to

ED, has the modulation index 0.5 with the carrier amplitude of 2 V. m(t) is a tone
signal of frequency 5 kHz and c f >> 5 kHz. If the (two-sided) noise PSD at the
detector input is 8 10− Watts/Hz, what is the expected SNR of this scheme? By how
many dB, this scheme is inferior to DSB-SC?

Fig.3.13. Spectrum of the AM signal of Example

Solution: (SNR) o = 10 4 / 4 = 36 db
(FOM) am = µ2 / 2 + µ2 = ¼ / 2 + ¼ = 1/9.
(FOM) DSB = 1
DSB-SC results in an increase in the (SNR) o by a factor of 9; that is by 9.54
dB.

9. Practice Quiz
1. Base band communication system output signal to noise ratio is
a) PR/2WNO
b) PR/WNO
c) PR/4WNO
d) PR/8WNO
2. The output SNR of DSB is
a) PR/2WNO
b) PR/WNO
c) PR/4WNO
d) PR/8WNO

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3. The output SNR of SSB is
a) PR/2WNO
b) PR/WNO
c) PR/4WNO
d) PR/8WNO
4. The output SNR of DSB compared with output SNR of SSB is
a) Greater
b) Smaller
c) Equal
d) None
5. The output SNR of AM with modulation index ‘m’ is
a) (m2/1+m2) (S/N) b
b) (M2/1-m2) (S/N) b
c) (m2/2+m2) (S/N) b
d) (M2/2-m2) (S/N) b.
6. The output of SNR of FM with modulation index β is
a) β 2(S/N)b
b) 3/2β 2(S/N) b
c) 1/2β 2(S/N) b
d) 3β 2(S/N) b
7. The output SNR of PM with modulation index β is
a) β 2(S/N)b
b) 3/2β 2(S/N) b
c) 1/2β 2(S/N) b
d) 3β 2(S/N) b
8. The received noise component after demodulation in DSB case is
a) in-phase component
b) Quadrature component
c) Both
d) None
9. The received noise component after demodulation in SSB case is
a) in-phase component
b) Quadrature component
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c) Both
d) None
10. The received noise component after demodulation in AM case is
a) in-phase component
b) Quadrature component
c) Both
d) None
11. The received noise component after demodulation in FM case is
a) in-phase component
b) Quadrature component
c) Both
d) None
12. The received noise component after demodulation in PM case is
a) in-phase component
b) Quadrature component
c) Both
d) None
13. The output noise power of DSB is
a) WNO
b) 2 WNO
c) 4 WNO
d) None
14. The output noise power of SSB is
a) 2WNO
b) 4 WNO
c) WNO
d) None
15. The output noise power of AM is
a) WNO
b) 2 WNO
c) 4 WNO
d) None
16. The output noise power of PM is
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a) WNO /AC2
b) WNO /2AC2
c) 2WNO /AC2
d) WNO /3AC2
17. Which one of the following noise becomes of great importance at high frequencies?
a) flicker noise
b) shot noise
c) impulse noise
d) Transit-time noise.
18. Which one of the following statement is false?
a) High Frequency mixers are generally noisier
b) Voltage of impulse noise is independent of bandwidth
c) Thermal noise is not dependent on frequency
d) Flicker noise occurs at low frequency
19. Which of broad classifications of noise are most difficult to treat?
a) Noise generated in the receiver.
b) Noise generated in the transmitter.
c) External noise.
d) Internal noise.
20. What points must be important to remember, when we deal with random noise
calculations?
a) All calculations are based on peak to peak values.
b) Calculations are based on quantized values.
c) Calculations are based on average values.
d) Calculations are based on RMS values.
21. Which of the following statement is true?
a) Random noise power is inversely proportional to bandwidth.
b) Flicker noise occurs at high frequency.
c) Noise mixers are caused by inadequate image frequency rejection.
d) A random voltage across a resistance cannot be calculated.
22. If the value of a resistor creating thermal noise is doubled. The noise power
generator is therefore
a) Unchanged.
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b) Doubled.
c) Quadrupled.
d) halved
23. Which one of the following is not a useful quantity for comparing the noise
performance of receivers?
a) Input noise voltage.
b) Signal To Noise Ration.
c) Noise Figure.
d) Figure of merit.
24. Which of the following is the most generally used term for comparing amplifier
noise characteristics?
a) Signal to noise ratio.
b) Equivalent noise.
c) Noise factor.
d) figure of merit
25. What is the probability density function of thermal noise?
a) Poisson.
b) Gaussian.
c) Binomial.
d) Bessel
26. What is the spectral density of white noise?
a) Varies with bandwidth.
b) Varies with frequency.
c) Constant.
d) infinite

10. Assignments
S.No Question BL CO

1 Explain the noise performance of FM systems. 2 2

Explain the noise performance of DSB-SC scheme with the help

2 2 2
of neat block diagram.

3 Explain how noise can be calculated in a communication 2 2

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system?

4 Explain about threshold effect in FM. 2 3

5 Explain about the sources of thermal noise. 2 2

6 Obtain the expression for output SNR of AMDSB-SC system. 3 2

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.No Question & Answers BL CO

1 Define noise.
Ans. Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which
1 1
tends to interfere with proper reception and reproduction
Of wanted signal.
2 Give the classification of noise?
Ans. Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are 1
1
(i) External noise.
(ii) Internal noise.
3 What are the types of External noise?
Ans. External noise can be classified into
1. Atmospheric noise 1 1
2. Extraterrestrial noises
3. Man –made noises or industrial noises
4 What are types of internal noise?
Ans. Internal noise can be classified into
1. Thermal noise 1
1
2. Shot noise
3. Transit time noise
4. Miscellaneous internal noise
5 What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?
Ans. The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and
cosmic noise Solar noise is the electrical noise emanating 1
1
from the sun. Cosmic noise is the noise received from the
center part of our galaxy, other distant galaxies and other
virtual point sources.
6 Define transit time of a transistor?
Ans. Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to 1 1
Travel from emitter to the collector.
7 Define flicker noise?
Ans. Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at 1 1
low audio frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the

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emitter current and junction temperature and inversely
proportional to the frequency.
8 State the reasons for higher noise in mixers?
Ans. 1. Conversion transconductance of mixers is much lower
than the transconductance of amplifiers. 2 1
2. If image frequency rejection is inadequate, the noise
associated with the image frequency also gets accepted.
9 Define signal to noise ratio.
Ans. Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise 1 1
Power at the same point in a system.
10 Define thermal noise. Give the expression for the thermal
Noise voltage across a resistor?
Ans. The electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of
energy. A small fluctuation in this energy produces small 1 1
noise voltages in the conductor. This random fluctuation
produced by thermal agitation of the electrons is called
thermal noise.

12. Part B- Questions

S.No Question BL CO

1 Explain the noise performance of FM systems. 2 2

2 Explain the noise performance of DSB-SC scheme with the 2 2

help of neat block diagram.

3 Explain about threshold effect in FM. 2 2

4 Explain about the sources of thermal noise. 2 3

5 Obtain the expression for output SNR of AM DSB-SC system. 2 2

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. Principles of Digital Communication By Prof.Abhishek Dixit, conducted by IIT
Delhi via NPTEL – 12 weeks
2. Modern Digital Communication Techniques By Prof. Suvra Sekhar Das,
conducted by IIT Kanpur – 12 weeks.

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14. Real Time Applications
S.No Application CO

1 Thermal Noise Analysis in ECG Applications 1

Thermal noise source of electrocardiogram (ECG) applications based on

the ADS1298 and ADS1298R family of multichannel, simultaneous
sampling, 24-bit, delta-sigma (ΔΣ) analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
This report offers several observations on identifying the major sources of
thermal noise in an ECG system, and recommends a method to improve
thermal noise performance.
2 Noise-Enhanced Detection of Sub threshold Signals for Communication 1
Systems
A signal detection system using noise statistical processing is proposed.
By approaching the problems of low voltage and high noise from
miniaturization of a device from a stochastic point of view, a faint-signal
receiving system that can effectively detect sub threshold and noise
level signals has been developed. In addition, an alternative to statistical
processing is proposed, and would be successfully implemented on a
circuit. For the proposed signal detection method, the detection
sensitivity was investigated using numerical simulation, and the detection
sensitivity was sufficiently high to detect even a signal with a signal-to-
inherent-noise ratio of −14 dB. Thus, it is anticipated that the application
of this system to an integrated circuit will have a significant impact on
signal processing.
3 Enhancement of noisy speech signals: Application to mobile radio 1
communications
The enhancement of noisy speech signals recorded in a car for mobile
radio applications. Our concern is the signal estimation when 1 or 2
observations are available; each one is composed of a speech signal, si,
and an additive noise ni(i = 1, 2). In the case of one microphone, we
consider new techniques that capitalize on the aspect of speech
perception by focusing on enhancing only the short-time spectral
amplitude. A “modified spectral subtraction” method is proposed; it uses

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a frequency-dependent over-estimate of the noise and can be
combined with segmentation of the observation. When two
microphones are available, in the case of uncorrelated (or slightly
correlated) noises, we introduce a new technique based on the
coherence function which is used to filter the observations or to
determine a speech/noise classification algorithm. Finally, listening tests
have been conducted to compare the simplest methods. In the case of
stationary noise, the modified spectral subtraction is very promising and
in the case of non-stationary and decor related noises, the method
based on the coherence is more attractive.

15. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

Text Books:
1. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems,” Wiley India Edition, 4th Edition, 2011.
2. B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,” 3rd Edition, Oxford
Univ. press, 2006.
3. Sham Shanmugam, “Digital and Analog Communication Systems”, Wiley-India edition,
2006.(edition).

Reference Books:
1. Bruce Carlson, & Paul B. Crilly, “Communication Systems – An Introduction to Signals &
Noise in Electrical Communication”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill International Edition,
2010.
2. Herbert Taub & Donald L Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, 3rd Edition,
Tata McGraw- Hill, 2009.
2. R.E. Ziemer & W.H. Tranter, “Principles of Communication-Systems Modulation &
Noise”, 5th edition, Jaico Publishing House 2001.
4. George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, “Electronics & Communication
System”, TMH, 2004. (Edition)

16. Mini Project Suggestion

1. Speech Background Noise Removal Using Different Linear Filtering Techniques
Among the human beings, speech is the simplest and reliable way of
communication. A speech signal transmits different information to the listener like
type of language being spoken and emotion, gender and identity of the speaker
[1]. The individual characteristic like pitch, fundamental frequency, formant
frequency can be distinguishing components of human speech. The three main
processes by which sound generates—are twisting of nerves, wire beating of
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membranes or blowing of air through holes but the mechanism of human voice is
different as it comes out in different languages and feelings by the control of brain
[2]. The range of frequency under which the speech signal falls is the 300–3400 Hz.
However, the audible frequency range for human beings are from 20 Hz to 20 KHz
[3]. Audio signal processing often suffers from noise trouble [4]. Speech background
noise is an undesired signal which mixed with speech signal at the time of
generation of speech signal or at the time of transmission [5]. The quality and the
intelligibility of the speech signal gets degraded because of the present
background noise. Therefore, it becomes important to reduce this background
noise from the speech. For removing or reducing the noise, different filtering
techniques are there like adaptive filter, Kalman filter, sub-band coding, wavelet
transform, etc. The various filters that have been designed and tested are
presented in this paper. First, the different kinds of adaptive filtering techniques
have been implemented on both the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) and
the practical noise then the results of both has been compared. After the adaptive
filters the optimum filter, i.e., Kalman filter is implemented for both types of the noise.
Finally, the results of adaptive filters and the Kalman filter have been analyzed.
2. Noise detector with automatic recording system using Ardunio with IOT
Noise pollution is a growing problem in modern cities, thanks to rapid population
growth, urbanisation and new technologies. Moreover, at times, a noisy neighbour
or co-worker can drive you crazy and affect your well-being. Talking loudly is an
annoying habit in an office environment. Having a loud co-worker can distract us
from our work and harm our productivity. To help solve this problem, we bring to
you today a noise detector with automatic recording system. This device notifies
users whenever it detects loud noise (when the sound crosses certain limits), as well
as it automatically records the sound and saves this recorded sound in a file. This
Noise Detector System can be used in library, office and classroom environments to
identify noisy people so that necessary action can be taken against them.
3. A Real-Time Noise Monitoring System Based on Internet of Things for Enhanced
Acoustic Comfort and Occupational Health
Environmental noise directly affects well-being and productivity. On the one hand,
high sound levels are related to a variety of health symptoms such as high blood
pressure and stress. On the other hand, acoustic comfort increases concentration,
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facilitates communication and promotes productivity. The main objective of this
research is to propose a modular and scalable solution for enhanced health and
wellbeing using Internet of Things and mobile computing technologies and also, to
present a real-time monitoring system for enhanced acoustic comfort with mobile
computing compatibility for data visualization, analysis and notification. The results
indicate the proposed system as an adequate sound supervision for enhanced
acoustic comfort and well-being. The system was tested in a laboratory for two
months using real-time continuous data collection. The average sound levels range
from 47.35 to 52.99 dBA and from 46.22 to 51.84 dBA grouped by the day of the
week and time of day, respectively. Continuous real-time monitoring is relevant for
enhanced living environments since the analysis of the noise pollution levels of the
ecosystem where the patients live may be related to their health symptoms.
Moreover, the proposed method presents advances in installation and
configuration due to the use of wireless communications technology.

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