CHAPTER 4:

Binary Boolean algebra

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4.1. Introduction
A processor is made up of transistors used to perform functions on digital signals. These
transistors, assembled together, form components enabling very simple functions to be
carried out. From these components it is possible to create circuits carrying out more
complex operations. Boolean algebra (named after the English mathematician George
Boole 1915 - 1864) is a means of designing such a circuit. It is a mathematical theory
proposing to translate electrical signals (in two states) into mathematical expressions.

4.2. Definition and Axioms of Boolean Algebra

a. Definition
Boolean algebra is an algebra intended to translate signals into mathematical
expressions. To do this, each elementary signal is defined by logical variables and their
processing by logic functions. Methods (truth table) make it possible to define the
operations that we wish to carry out and to transcribe the result into an algebraic
expression. Using rules, these expressions can be simplified. This will make it possible to
represent a logical circuit using symbols without worrying about the implementation
using transistors (physical level).

In Boolean algebra, we manipulate the following concepts:

 State: logical states are represented by true = 1 and false = 0;

For example, a lamp can take two states:

 0 = lamp off.
 1= lamp on.
 Variable: it is a quantity represented by a symbol, which can take a state (true =1
or false =0);
 Function: it represents a group of variables linked by logical operators.
b. Axioms of Boolean algebra

For an algebra to be said to be Boolean, it must satisfy the axioms mentioned in the
following table (Table 4.1):

Commutativity a+b=b+a has . b = b. has

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 Associativity (a + b) + c = a+ (b + c) (ab)c = a(bc)

Distributivity a (b+c) = ab + ac a+ (bc) = (a+b) (a+c)

Neutral elements a+0=a a.1=a

Complementarity 𝑎̅+ a = 1 𝑎̅. a = 0

Table 4.1: Axioms of Boolean Algebra

4.3. Theorems and properties of Boolean algebra

A Boolean algebra must satisfy the following theorems and properties:
Independence a+a=a a.a=a

Absorption a + ab = a a(a+b) = a

De Morgan ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎 + 𝑏= 𝑎̅.𝑏̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎. 𝑏= 𝑎̅+𝑏̅

Absorbent element a+1=1 a.0=0

Generalized De
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + ⋯= 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅. 𝑐̅. … ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎. 𝑏. 𝑐. …= 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅+ 𝑐̅ +…
Morgan

4.4. Basic operators

Boolean algebra is based on three basic logical operators:

a. AND, OR, NOT

 The AND operator: it is a binary operator, and the symbol used is a dot “. ". We can
write (A AND B) or simply (A.B) and it is also called logical multiplication.
This operator is defined by the following truth table:

A B A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

That is to say that the operator gives the value true “1” if and only if the two variables A

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and B have the value true (A=1 and B=1)

 The OR operator (OR): it is a binary operator, and the symbol used is a plus “+”. We
can write (A OR B) or simply (A+B) and it is also called logical addition.
This operator is defined by the following truth table:

A B A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

That is to say, the operator gives the true value “1” if at least one variable has the true
value.

 The NOT operator: it is a unary operator, and the symbol used is a bar above the
variable ( 𝐴̅) or ( ⦢ A) and it is also called logical negation.
This operator is defined by the following truth table:

A 𝐴̅
0 1
1 0

That is, the operator gives the inverse state of the variable.

b. Schematic representations
 NOT logic gate

 AND logic gate

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  OR logic gate

4.5. Other logical operators

There are other operators which are based on the previously defined basic operators:
NAND, NOR, , XOR, XNOR.

a. NAND and NOR circuits

 NAND logic operator:
 This operator is the negation of the AND operator. It is a binary operator whose
̅̅̅̅̅
logical expression is as follows:𝐴. 𝐵
 This operator is characterized by the following truth table (table 4.2):
A B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴. 𝐵
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Table 4.2: The truth table of the NAND logical operator
Its characteristic diagram is as follows:

 NOR logical operator:

This operator is the negation of the AND operator. It is a binary operator whose logical

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expression is as follows: ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵

This operator is characterized by the following truth table (table 4.3):

A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 +𝐵
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Table 4.3: The truth table of the logical operator NOR
Its characteristic diagram is as follows:

b. Exclusive OR logical operator (XOR):

This operator is given by the following expression:

𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅. 𝐵
=𝐴⊕𝐵

It is defined by the following truth table (table 4.4):

A B 𝐴⊕𝐵

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Table 4.4: The truth table of the logical operator XOR

The operator evaluates to true if A is true or B is true, but not both.

The corresponding logical diagram is as follows:

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c. The Implication operator
This operator is given by the following expression: 𝐴 ⟹ 𝐵

The expression "A implies B" amounts to negating the antecedent and adding the
consequent. Proposition “A” is the antecedent, and proposition “B” is the consequent. So,
𝐴 ⟹ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝐴̅ + 𝐵

It is defined by the following truth table:

𝐴 ⟹𝐵

A B 𝑜𝑟

𝐴̅ + 𝐵

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 1

Table 4.5: The truth table of the logical operator XOR

We can say that the implication operator ( 𝐴 ⟹ 𝐵)evaluates to "false" only if " A " is
true and " B " is false.

This operator does not have any particular circuit. But we can construct the function
with classic logic gates. In particular: 𝑌 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵, which gives the following diagram:

d. The Equivalence Operator (XNOR)

This operator is given by the following expression:

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 𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴⊕𝐵

= 𝐵⊙𝐵

= 𝐴⊗𝐵

It is defined by the following truth table:

A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴⊕𝐵

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Table 4.6: The truth table of the logical operator XNOR

The operator evaluates to true if variables A and B are both true and false at the same
time.

The corresponding logical diagram is as follows:

Remark

Except for the NOT gate, all other logic gates can have multiple inputs and a single
output.

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4.6. Truth table
A truth table is a table representing the output Boolean values of a logical expression
based on their inputs. The table thus presents all the possible combinations of input
logic variables (generally 0/FALSE and 1/TRUE) and the result of the equation as
output.
The steps to follow to construct a truth table are as follows:

- Write on the first line the name of the input variables and the output variable;

- Divide the table into a number of columns equal to the total inputs and output. So
the truth table of a two-input logic function will have three columns (two for the
inputs and one for the output);

- Determine the number of possible combinations using the input variables. This
number is equal to two exponents the number of entries ( 2N lines, N = the number of
entries. ). For example, with three inputs, there will be 23 = 8 possible combinations;

- Draw horizontal lines whose number is equal to the number of possible

combinations. Each line then corresponds to a combination and only one of the input
variables;

- Complete each line with a possible combination of input variables. The best way to
list all the combinations without making a mistake is to count in binary;

- Enter the value of the function for each combination in the “output” column. The
following examples will help you better master this method.

Examples of Truth tables:

1) Truth table of a function with two input variables

Consider a logical function F of two Boolean variables a and b. The output is in logic state
1 when one and only one input variable is in logic state 1.

The following figure shows the truth table of this function.

A B F

0 0 0

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 0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Table 4.7: Truth table

 You notice that this truth table is made up of three columns (two for inputs and
one for output) and five rows.
 On the first line are written the names of the input variables A and B and the
output.
 The four possible combinations of entries A and B are written on the next four
lines. These combinations are listed in binary counting order, i.e. (00), (01), (10)
and (11).

The logical state of the output is written in the "output" column opposite each possible
combination. When A and B are both in logic state 0 or in logic state 1, the function is
equal to 0 while it is in logic state 1 when a = 0 and b = 1 or when a = 1 and b = 0.

Truth table of a function with three input variables

Consider a logical function F with three input variables a, b and c. The output of this logic
function is in logic state 1 if only two input variables are in logic state 1.

The truth table of this function is given in the following figure.

a b c F

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

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 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0

In this figure, you notice that with three input variables, there are 23 = 8 possible
combinations. These combinations are listed according to the way of counting in binary
with 3 bits. We obtain in order: (000), (001), (010), (011), (100), (101), (110) and (111).
The input variables are represented as trios where the highest weight corresponds to a
while c has the lowest weight. The output is at logic state 1 when only two inputs are at
logic state 1. It is at logic state 0 for all other possibilities.
Out of all the possible combinations, three possibilities give rise to cases where only
two variables are in logic state 1, these possibilities are as follows:

- b = 1 and c = 1 with a = 0, sequence (011),

- a = 1 and c = 1 with b = 0, sequence (101),

- a = 1 and b = 1 with c = 0, sequence (110).

Remark :

We can have more than one exit. For example, if we have N inputs and M outputs ⟹
(N+M) columns in the truth table.

4.7. Logical expressions and functions

a. Definition :
- A logical (Boolean) function of arity n is a function from n input Boolean
variables to an output variable. (n ≥0).
- A logical function is a combination of logical variables linked by the AND, OR
and NOT operators. It can be represented by an algebraic writing

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 (expression) or a truth table or a KARNAUGH table or a flowchart.

Generally, a function can be given as an expression or truth table as follows:

Expression :

A logical function can be represented in algebraic form. It is a representation in the form

of an expression. It can be expressed as an association of sums and logical products as
follows:

f(x,y) = xy + 𝑥̅ y

Truth table:

The most common representation of a logical function is the truth table. A function F of
N variables is entirely described by the statement of all the combinations of the input
variables and the value of the function corresponding to each combination. This
statement generally takes the form of a table with N+1 columns (N inputs + 1 output)
and 2N lines (on N bits, we can code 2N different values), The (N+1)th column contains the
values that the function takes for each combination of variables.
Simply, just give the output value for all possible combinations of values of its
arguments.

Example :

The truth table of the three-argument function f which is true if and only if exactly two of
its arguments are true:

x1 x2 x3 f( x1 , x2 , x3 )

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

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 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0

The function: f=1 or f=0 is called a constant function.

Note: Basic Boolean functions.
Q: How many distinct Boolean functions of arity n are there?
A: The truth table of an arity function n has 2n rows and each row of a truth table can
take the value 0 or the value 1.
𝑛
=> there are 22 distinct truth tables.

Example :
2
If n=2 => there therefore exist 22 = 16 Boolean functions of arity 2.

x y f 1 f 2 f 3 ……… f 6 ……….. f 16

0 0 000 0 1

0 1 000 1 1

1 0 001 1 1

1 1 010 0 1

4.8. Algebraic writing of a function in first and second normal form

Definition 1:
An expression is in its canonical form if all the symbols that represent the variables
appear in all the terms that constitute it. When an expression is written from its truth
table, it is in its canonical form.
There are two normal (canonical) forms for each Boolean function:
 First normal (canonical) form in Sum of Product (SOP) form or sum of
minterms.
 Second normal (canonical) form in the form of Sum Product (SOP) or

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 Maxtermes product.
Definition 2:

We call minterm (product term) of n variables, a logical product (AND, AND) of the
latter (complemented or not). With n variables, we construct 2n minterms, i.e. as many
possible combinations of n elements taking two states.

Example :

For two variables a and b, here are the four minterms: ab , 𝑎̅𝑏, 𝑎𝑏̅and 𝑎̅𝑏̅.
When a variable (e.g. A) is in logical state 1, it is replaced by its name (A) and when it
̅) .
is in logical state 0, it is replaced by its negation ( 𝑨
For example, the first line of the truth table of a function F of two independent variables
a and b is represented by the binary sequence (00) i.e. a = 0, b = 0. The minterm
associated with this line is then 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅, which means that for this line a = 0 AND b = 0.

The minterms of the truth table of a logical function are denoted by the letter "m"
and an index corresponding to the decimal value of the minterm sequence.
Consider a logical function “F” with two input variables a and b. The following table
(table 4.8) presents the possible combinations and the minterms associated with each
sequence when the variable ' a ' corresponds to the highest weight.

Variables
Binary Decimal
a b minterms
sequence value
0 0 00 0 𝑚0 = 𝑎̅. 𝑏̅
0 1 01 1 𝑚1 = 𝑎̅. 𝑏
1 0 10 2 𝑚2 = 𝑎. 𝑏̅
1 1 11 3 𝑚3 = 𝑎. 𝑏
Table 4.8: Possible combinations and minterms

The decimal equivalent of each binary sequence of each combination represents the

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index of the associated minterm. The Boolean value of the minterm is then equal to
the logical product of the Boolean variables .
Definition 3: We call Maxterm (sum term) of n variables, a logical sum (OR) of the latter
(complemented or not). With n variables, we construct 2 n Maxterms, i.e. as many
possible combinations of n elements taking two states.
Example :

For two variables a and b, here are the four Maxterms: a+b , 𝑎̅ + 𝑏, 𝑎 + 𝑏̅and 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅.

When a variable (e.g. A) is in logical state 0 , it is replaced by its name (A) and when it
̅) .
is in logical state 1 , it is replaced by its negation ( 𝑨

For example, the first line of the truth table of a function F of two independent variables
a and b is represented by the binary sequence (00) i.e. a = 0, b = 0. The Maxterms
associated with this line is then 𝑎 + 𝑏, which means that for this line a = 0 or b = 0.

The Maxterms of the truth table of a logical function are denoted by the letter “M”
and an index corresponding to the decimal value of the Maxterm sequence.
Consider a logical function “F” with two input variables a and b. The following table
presents the possible combinations and the Maxterms associated with each sequence
when the variable ' a ' corresponds to the highest weight.

Variables
Binary Decimal
a b Maxterms
sequence value
0 0 00 0 𝑀0 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
0 1 01 1 𝑀1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏̅
1 0 10 2 𝑀2 = 𝑎̅ + 𝑏
1 1 11 3 𝑀3 = 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅

Table 4.9: Possible combinations and Maxterms

The decimal equivalent of each binary sequence of each combination represents the
index of the associated Maxterm. The Boolean value of the Maxterm is then equal to
the logical sum of the Boolean variables.

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Remark :

The normal (canonical) form of a function can be obtained in two different ways. The
first is to directly extract the expression from the truth table. The second is to obtain it
from an expression which is not in normal form using the properties (axioms and
theorems) of Boolean algebra cited above.

4.8.1. The first normal form: Sum of Product (SOP)

In the 1st normal (canonical) form, the function is expressed as a sum of all combinations
of all logical variables for which the function is “1”, each term is called min-term or
fundamental product. For a given expression this form is unique.

Example :

F(A, B, C) = A𝐵̅ 𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅

4.8.1.1. From the truth table

To derive the normal form of a function from its truth table, we consider the true states
(1) of the function. Then extract the minterms corresponding to the true states (1) and
sum them.

Example :

Consider a function given by the following truth table:

A B VS F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 𝑚3 = 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 𝑚5 = 𝐴𝐵̅ 𝐶

1 1 0 1 𝑚6 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅

1 1 1 0

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Then, the expression of the function in the 1st normal form (Sum of Product) is as
̅𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵
follows: 𝐹(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝐴 ̅𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅

4.8.1.2. From an expression

a- Observe each element of the expression carefully
b- For each element that is missing a variable:
- Introduce the missing variable x by multiplying the element by ( x + 𝑥̅ ).
- Expand logical operations with elimination of duplicate elements.
c- Repeat the same operations until you obtain an expression whose terms
are complete (minterms).

Examples:

1- f(x,y,,z) = x + 𝑦̅z

= x(y+ 𝑦̅) + 𝑦̅z

= xy + x 𝑦̅+ 𝑦̅z

= xy(z+ 𝑧̅) + x 𝑦̅+ 𝑦̅z

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅+ 𝑦̅z

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅(z+ 𝑧̅) + 𝑦̅z

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅z + x 𝑦̅𝑧̅+ 𝑦̅z

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅z + x 𝑦̅𝑧̅+ 𝑦̅z(x+ 𝑥̅ )

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅z + x 𝑦̅𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅z + 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅z

= xyz + xy 𝑧̅+ x 𝑦̅z + x 𝑦̅𝑧̅+ 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅z

From this expression, we can deduce the truth table by following the reverse steps: each
minterm must be replaced by 1 in the corresponding box in the truth table. The
remaining boxes must be set to 0.

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 x y z f(x,y,z)

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

2- f(a,b,c) = a 𝑐̅+ 𝑎̅b + bc

= a 𝑐̅(b+ 𝑏̅)+ 𝑎̅b(c+ 𝑐̅) + bc(a+ 𝑎̅)

= ab 𝑐̅+ a 𝑏̅c + 𝑎̅bc + 𝑎̅b 𝑐̅+ abc + 𝑎̅bc

The sum 𝑎̅bc appears twice, we can eliminate one:

f(a,b,c)= ab 𝑐̅+ a 𝑏̅c + 𝑎̅bc + 𝑎̅b 𝑐̅+ abc

Remark :

The sum of all minterms of n variables is always 1 since there always exists a minterm
of n variables worth 1.

4.8.2. The second normal form: Sum Product (POS)

In the 2nd normal (canonical) form, the function is expressed in the form of a product of
sums, including all the variables, each term is called max-term or fundamental sum. For
a given expression this form is unique.

Example : F(A, B, C) = (A + 𝐵̅ + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶̅ )(𝐴̅ + 𝐵 + 𝐶̅ )

4.8.2.1. From the truth table

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To derive the normal form of a function from its truth table, we consider the false (0)
states of the function. Then extract the Maxterms corresponding to the false (0) states
and sum them.

Example :
Consider a function given by the following truth table:

A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0 𝑀0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
0 0 1 0 𝑀1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶̅
0 1 0 0 𝑀2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵̅ + 𝐶
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 𝑀4 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵 + 𝐶
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
𝑀7 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅ + 𝐶̅
1 1 1 0

Then, the expression of the function in the 2nd normal form (Product of Sums) is as
follows:

𝐹(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶̅ )(𝐴 + 𝐵 ̅ + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴

̅ + 𝐶)(𝐴 ̅+𝐵
̅ + 𝐶̅ )

4.8.2.2. From an expression

a- apply the distribution of addition on multiplication to eliminate the
addition operation between the terms of the expression.
b- For each incomplete term:
- Introduce the missing variable x by adding x 𝑥̅ to the incomplete term.
- Application of the distribution again with the elimination of the
repetition of terms.

Examples:

f(x,y,z) = x + yz

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 = (x + y)(x + z)

= (x + y + z 𝑧̅)(x + z)

= (x + y + z)(x + y + 𝑧̅)(x + z + y 𝑦̅)

= (x + y + z)(x + y + 𝑧̅)(x + z + y) (x + z + 𝑦̅)

= (x + y + z)(x + y + 𝑧̅)(x + 𝑦̅+ z)

From this expression, we can deduce the truth table by following the reverse steps: each
Maxterm must be replaced by 0 in the corresponding box in the truth table. The
remaining boxes must be set to 1.

x y z f(x,y,z)

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

4.8.3. Transition between the two normal forms

To exchange normal (canonical) form we perform a double complementation

(involution) of the expression followed by the application of one of De Morgan's
theorems.

Example: Let the function L be given by the following truth table:

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 A B C L

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

 L = 𝐴̅𝐵̅ C + 𝐴̅𝐵 𝐶̅ + A 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + ABC

 M = 𝐿̅= 𝐴̅𝐵̅ 𝐶̅+ 𝐴̅BC + 𝐴𝐵̅C + AB𝐶̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ = 𝐿̅=𝐴
 L=𝑀 ̅ 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅BC + 𝐴𝐵̅ C + AB𝐶̅

 L = ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴̅𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ ) ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴̅BC) ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
𝐴𝐵̅ C) ( AB𝐶
 L = (A + B + C)(A + 𝐵̅+ 𝐶̅ )( 𝐴̅+ B + 𝐶̅ )( 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅+ C )
4.8.4. Decimal canonical form:

So that the expression is not long enough, we replace each minterm or Maxterm by a
number representing its order.

Example :

F(x,y) = m 1 +m 2 = 1+2

= M 0 .M 3 =0×3 = 0 . 3

F = abcd + 𝑎̅bc 𝑑̅+ a 𝑏̅c 𝑑̅+ 𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐̅𝑑̅⟹ F(a,b,c,d) =∑(0,6,10,15)

L= ∑(1,2,4,7)=∏(0,3,5,6)

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 21

4.9. Expression of a logical function with NAND or NOR circuits
exclusively

The universality of NAND and NOR gates makes it possible to create all basic logic
functions.

NAND and NOR gates offer the possibility of being able to create any logic circuit using a
single type of component.

a. Expression of a logical function with NAND circuits

An expression of a logical function can be transformed into the NAND form of NANDs, by
application of Morgan's theorem. The 1st normal form (SOP) automatically transforms
into the NAND form of NANDs by replacing AND gates with NAND gates and OR gates
with NAND gates.

Knowing that the algebraic expression of the NAND logic gate is: ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥. 𝑦

Example :

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧̅

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥𝑦̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧̅

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅
𝑥𝑦̅̅̅ . ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅
𝑥̅ 𝑧. 𝑦𝑧̅

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥𝑦.
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥. 𝑥 . ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦. ̅̅̅̅̅𝑧 𝑦𝑧.
̅̅̅̅𝑧

b. Expression of a logical function with NOR circuits

An expression of a logical function can be transformed into the NOR form of NORs, by
application of Morgan's theorem. The 2nd normal form (POS) automatically transforms
into the NOR form of NORs by replacing the OR gates and AND gates with NOR gates.

Knowing that the algebraic expression of the NOR logic gate is: ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥+𝑦

Example :

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 22

 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧̅

= ̅̅
𝑥𝑦̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅
𝑥̅ 𝑧 + ̅̅̅
𝑦𝑧̅

= 𝑥̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ 𝑦̅ + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥̅̅ + 𝑧̅ + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦̅ + 𝑧̅̅

= 𝑥̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ 𝑦 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑧̅ + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦̅ + 𝑧

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑧 + 𝑧 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦+𝑦+𝑧

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑥 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧 + 𝑧 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑧 + 𝑧 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦+𝑦+𝑧

4.10. Schema of a function

A function is represented as a box or a logic circuit.

1) Box

Relationship
F
Used between
variables Output
Inputs/Output

Inputs

2) A logic circuit

A logic circuit is a set of interconnected logic gates corresponding to a Boolean algebraic

expression.

Examples:

1- f = x + yz

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 23

To represent this function we used two gates: an 'AND' and an 'OR'.

2- f = (x + y + z)(x + y + 𝑧̅)(x + 𝑦̅+ z)

To represent this function we used six doors:

 Two 'NOT' gates

 Three 'OR' gates
 An 'AND' gate

Remark :

The expression in ‘Example 1’ and that in ‘Example 2’ are two different writings of the
same function.
The representation of the function by the simplified expression leads to:
 Reduction in production cost
 Fast processing (time saving)
 And also reduction in energy consumption
 This means that simplification of logic functions is essential.

4.11. Simplifying a logical function

There are several methods of simplifying logical functions:

a. Algebraic method

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 24

To algebraically simplify a Boolean function, we use the properties of Boolean algebra:
idempotence, absorption, distributivity, factoring, etc.

Examples:

1) f = xy + 𝑥̅ z + yz

= xy + 𝑥̅ z + yz(x + 𝑥̅ )

= xy + 𝑥̅ z + yzx + yz𝑥̅

= xy(1+z) + 𝑥̅ z(1+y)

= xy + 𝑥̅ z

2) f = a 𝑐̅+ 𝑎̅b + bc

= a 𝑐̅(b + 𝑏̅) + 𝑎̅b(c + 𝑐̅) + bc(a + 𝑎̅)

= a 𝑐̅b + a 𝑐̅𝑏̅+ 𝑎̅bc + 𝑎̅b 𝑐̅+ abc + 𝑎̅bc

= a 𝑐̅b + a 𝑐̅𝑏̅+ 𝑎̅bc + 𝑎̅b 𝑐̅+ abc

= ab(c + 𝑐̅) + 𝑎̅b (c + 𝑐̅) + a𝑏̅ 𝑐̅

= ab + 𝑎̅b + a𝑏̅𝑐̅

= b(a + 𝑎̅) + a𝑏̅𝑐̅

= b + a 𝑏̅𝑐̅⟹ there is a simplification

= b(1 + a 𝑐̅)+ a𝑏̅𝑐̅

= b + ab 𝑐̅+ a𝑏̅𝑐̅

= b + a 𝑐̅(b + 𝑏̅)

= b + a 𝑐̅⟹ there is one more simplification

Remark:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 25

 The disadvantage of this method is that we are not sure that we have obtained the
most simplified form.

The rules and properties of Boolean algebra make it possible to simplify functions
but remain a relatively cumbersome method. It never allows us to know whether or
not we arrive at a minimal expression of the function.

b. Karnaugh Table (Map)

The Karnaugh method allows you to visualize a function and intuitively derive a
simplified function. The basic element of this method is the Karnaugh table which
represents, in tabular form, all possible combinations of states for a given number of
variables. Since each dimension of the array can visually represent two variables,
functions with four variables can easily be simplified using a two-dimensional array.
The Karnaugh table is based on the concept of adjacency. Two binary words are said to
be adjacent if they differ only by the complementarity of one, and only one, variable. If
two adjacent words are summed, they can be merged and the variable that differs is
eliminated.
Example :

ABC and AB 𝐶̅ are adjacent ⟹ ABC + AB 𝐶̅ = AB

This can be demonstrated as follows:

ABC + AB 𝐶̅ = AB (C + 𝐶̅ ) = AB

The Karnaugh table was constructed to visually highlight logical adjacency.

The numbering of rows and columns is done according to the Gray code, we go from
one row to the next by changing a single bit and from one column to the next by also
changing a single bit.

If a function depends on n variables, there are 2n possible products (minterms). Each of

these minterms is represented by a box in the Karnaugh table. The following figures give
the structure of Karnaugh tables for 2, 3 and 4 variables. Observe how the rows and
columns are numbered: from one box to its neighbor, only one variable changes state.

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 26

For 2 variables: (x, y), here is the corresponding Karnaugh table:

x 0 1

0 m0 m1

1 m2 m3

For 3 variables: (x, y, z), here is the corresponding Karnaugh table:

yz

x 00 01 11 10

0 m0 m1 m3 m2

1 m4 m5 m7 m6

For 4 variables: ( x, y, z, w ), here is the corresponding Karnaugh table:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 27

 zw

xy 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6

11 m 12 m 13 m 15 m 14

10 m8 m9 m 11 m 10

Each box in a Karnaugh table corresponds to the single minterm taking the value 1 for
the combination identified by the row and the column. For example, the dark box in the
following table corresponds to the minterm m 1 representing ( x,y,z,w )=(0,0,0,1) which
gives 𝑚 1 = 𝑥 ̅. 𝑦 ̅. 𝑧 ̅. w.

zw

xy 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6

11 m 12 m 13 m 15 m 14

10 m8 m9 m 11 m 10

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 28

Simplification method

The transition from the truth table to the Karnaugh table consists of filling each box (of
the Karnaugh table) with the value of the function for the corresponding (minterm)
product. This table is a two-dimensional representation of the truth table.

The simplification will consist of firstly representing the logical function by a Karnaugh
table, then proceeding to group together all the “1s” found in symmetrical or adjacent
boxes.

The rules for simplification using the Karnaugh table are as follows:

 The “1s” appearing in neighboring or symmetrical boxes can be grouped.

 The grouping of two adjacent or symmetrical boxes reduces the initial min-
terms by one variable.
 The grouping of 2 P adjacent or symmetrical boxes reduces the initial min-
terms by variable p.
 The grouping must relate to a number to the power of 2 boxes. We must
always try to group as many boxes as possible.
 All “1s” must be contained in at least one grouping.
 The same box can be used for different groupings.
 Each grouping obtained represents a prime implicant. To get it, simply
expand the grouping by eliminating the variables that change state.

A prime implicant which contains at least 1 which cannot be included in any other prime
implicant is said to be essential prime implicant .
To obtain the minimal form, we first choose the essential prime implicants. Then, we
choose among the remaining prime implicants those which are necessary to completely
cover the original function.
If the minimal form contains only essential prime implicants, then it is unique.

Examples:

1) Let the function f (x,y,z) be defined by the following truth table:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 29

 x y z f

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0

To simplify it using the Karnaugh table, we follow the following steps:

 Setting the Karnaugh table:

yz

x 00 01 11 10

0 m0 m1 m3 m2

1 m4 m5 m7 m6

 Filling the Karnaugh table from the truth table:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 30

 yz

x 00 01 11 10

0 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0

 Simplification:

Construction of groups: The minterms involved are m1, m3 and m5. The minterms
m1 and m3 are adjacent, we can therefore form a group g1 . The minterms m1 and
m5 are adjacent, we can therefore form a group g2 .

yz

x 00 01 11 10
g1=𝑥̅ . 𝑧
0 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0

g2=𝑦̅. 𝑧

 Establishment of the equations for each group:

 For the determination of g1 , we see that y changes value, it will therefore be
eliminated, on the other hand x is at 0 and z at 1, that is to say that g1 =𝑥̅ . 𝑧
 For the determination of g2 , we see that x changes value, it will therefore be
eliminated, on the other hand y is at 0 and z is at 1, that is to say that g2 =𝑦̅. 𝑧
 The simplified function is the logical sum of all the terms of each group, that is to
say:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 31

 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥̅ . 𝑧 + 𝑦̅. 𝑧

2) Consider the function f (x,y,z,w) with 4 variables defined by the following

expression:

f(x,y,z,w) = m3 + m7 + m11

= 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅𝑧𝑤 + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧𝑤 + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧𝑤

= 0011 + 0111 + 1011

To simplify it using the Karnaugh table, we follow the following steps:

 Setting the Karnaugh table:

zw

xy 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6

11 m12 m13 m 15 m14

10 m8 m9 m11 m10

 Filling the Karnaugh table from the truth table:

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 32

 zw

xy 00 01 11 10

00 0 0 1 0

01 0 0 1 0

11 0 0 0 0

10 0 0 1 0

 Simplification:

Construction of groups: The minterms involved are m3, m7 and m11. The
minterms m3 and m7 are adjacent; we can therefore form a group g1. The
minterms m3 and m11 are adjacent, we can therefore form a group g2 .

zw

xy 00 01 11 10

00 0 0 1 0

g1=𝑥̅ . 𝑧𝑤
01 0 0 1 0

11 0 0 0 0

10 0 0 1 0 g2=𝑦̅. 𝑧𝑤

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 33

  Establishment of the equations of each group:
 For the determination of g1 , we see that y changes value, it will therefore be
eliminated, on the other hand x is at 0, z at 1 and w at 1, that is to say that g1
=𝑥̅ . 𝑧. 𝑤

 For the determination of g2 , we see that x changes value, it will therefore be

eliminated, on the other hand y is at 0, z at 1 and w at 1 , that is to say that g2
=𝑦̅. 𝑧. 𝑤

 The simplified function is the logical sum of all the terms of each group, that is to
say:

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤) = 𝑥̅ . 𝑧. 𝑤 + 𝑦̅. 𝑧. 𝑤

Remark :

The Karnaugh method requires that we minimize the number of groups and maximize
the number of 1s in a group. The 1s in a group must be in adjacent boxes, but the
number of 1s in a group must also be a power of 2. For example, if you have three 1s in
three boxes adjacent to each other, you will not be able to form just one group but two.

 Special case of simplification

 Incompletely defined functions

An “incompletely defined function” is a function for which certain values of the

input variables do not require a value ('0' or '1'). We denote this state by the
letter ф or

Karnaugh table:

The method remains the same as that explained previously, however taking into account
the fact that the state (ф, X) can be considered as a '0' or a '1', depending on which is
advantageous.

Noticed :

When the state (ф, X) has been set to ‘0’ or ‘1’, it is no longer possible to change its state

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 34

to use it in another block.
Example :
Seven-segment displays are well known. They are used to display a number from 0 to 9.
This number is represented on four bits which allow numbers from 0 to 15 to be
represented. Input combinations from 10 to 15 are optional conditions since they should
never be present.

 Redundant implicants:

An implicant is redundant if all the windows it covers in a Karnaugh table are already
covered by other implicants. This term can be removed from the equation without
changing the truth table. Under certain conditions, this term can stabilize the circuit by
removing momentary operating errors (gliches).

Remark :

The Karnaugh diagram method is effective for Boolean expressions with at most 4
entries (variables). Beyond that, the graphic representation becomes complex, it is
difficult to highlight the symmetries, and the method becomes unusable.

c. Quine−McCluskey method

With the previous methods, the simplifications were obtained purely intuitively; nothing
assures us that the function obtained is really the simplest that can be obtained.
Furthermore, in the absence of a well-defined algorithm, these methods cannot be
effectively implemented in software.

The Quine/McCluskey method, consisting of a well-defined procedure. Guarantees

maximum simplification of the function obtained, in the form of a sum of products.
There is no other equivalent function containing fewer terms. The Quine/McCluskey
method uses an algorithm to highlight the adjacency between terms.

The procedure to follow is as follows:

1. Put the function in canonical form.

2. Transform terms into binary numbers.
3. Group these numbers according to their weight (number of 1).

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 35

 4. Place the numbers in ascending order within each group.
5. Compare each term of a group with each term of the following group: two terms
having only one bit that does not match generate a new term where the
difference bit is replaced by an “X”; the new terms generated form a list of new
binary numbers grouped by weight.
6. Repeat step 5 from the new list obtained until no other new list is generated.
7. Identify the implicants, that is to say the elements which were not used to
generate an element of the new list.
8. Identify the essential implicants, that is to say those whose representation is
unique for certain solutions.
9. Check if all the essential implications represent all the solutions. If yes, the
minimal solution is found. If not, we must add one or more other implicants in
order to represent all the solutions. There is no precise way to choose the other
implicants.

Example 1:

We want to simplify the following function:

𝑆 = 𝐴̅𝐵̅ 𝐶𝐷
̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ 𝐷 + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ 𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ 𝐷

Step 1: the function is already in canonical form.

Step 2: transformation into binary numbers.

S = 0010 + 0100 + 0101 + 0110 + 0111 + 1001 + 1101

Step 3 and 4: Classification

Weight 1 0010

0100

0101

Weight 2 0110

1001

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 36

 Weight 3 0111

1101

Steps 5 and 6: Comparisons.

1 0010 a 0X10(1-4) 01XX (bf and cd)

2 0100 b 010X (2-3)

------- c 01X0 (2-4)

3 0101 --------------

4 0110 d 01x1 (3-6)

5 1001 e X101 (3-7)

------- f 011X (4-6)

6 0111 g 1X01 (5-7)

7 1101

Step 7: identification of implcants

Terms that have never spawned new terms are marked with an “*”

0010 0X10* 01XX*

0100 010X

------- 01X0

0101 -------

0110 01X1

1001 X101*

------ 011X

0111 1X01*

1101

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 37

 Step 8 and 9: identification of essential implicants

0010 0100 0101 0110 0111 1001 1101

0X10 [√] (√)

X101 √ √

1X01 [√] (√)

01XX [√] (√) (√) [√]

√ indicates that the implicant covers the term.

[√] indicates that the implicant is essential to this term.

(√) indicates a term covered by an essential implicant.

The essential implicants are: 0X10, 1X01 and 01XX. Since they are sufficient to represent
all solutions, the simplified function is:

Example 2:

We want to simplify the following function:

𝑆 = 𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶𝐷
̅

Step 1: Put the function in canonical form

𝑆 = 𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐷(𝐶 + 𝐶̅ ) + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶𝐷
̅

𝑆 = 𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐶̅ 𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅ 𝐶𝐷
̅

Step 2: Transformation into binary numbers

𝑆 = 0111 + 0101 + 1111 + 1011 + 1110 + 1010

Steps 3 and 4: Classification

Weight 2 0101
1010

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 38

 Weight 3 0111
1011
1110
Weight 4 1111

Steps 5, 6 and 7: Comparisons and identification of implicants

0101 √ 01X1 1X1X

1010 √ 101X √
1X10 √
0111 √
1011 √ X111
1110 √ 1X11 √
111X √
1111 √

Step 8 and 9: Identification of essential implicants

0101 1010 0111 1011 1110 1111

01X1 [√] (√)

X111 √ √

1X1X [√] [√] [√] (√)

The essential implicants are: 01X1 and 1X1X. Since they are sufficient to represent all
solutions, the simplified function is:

S = A̅ BD + AC

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 39

Example 3: We want to simplify the following function. Note the optional conditions.

𝐹 = ∑(2,4,7,12,10,15) + ∅ ∑(6,9,11,14)

Step 1: The function is in canonical form.

Step 2: Transformation into binary numbers.

𝐹 = 0010 + 0100 + 0111 + 1100 + 1010 + 1111 + ∅(0110+1001+1011+1110)

Steps 3 and 4: Classification

From this step on, optional conditions are treated like other terms.

Weight 1 0010
0100
Weight 2 0110
1001
1010
1100
Weight 3 0111
1011
1110
Weight 4 1111

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 40

Steps 5, 6 and 7: Comparisons and identification of participants
0011 √ 0X10 √ XX10
0100 √ X010 √ X1X0
1X10 √
0110 √ X100 √ X11X
1001 √ 1X1X
1010 √ 011X √
1100 √ X110 √
101X √
0111 √ 1X10 √

1011 √ 10X1 √
1110 √ 11X0 √

1111 √ X111 √
1X11 √
111X √

Step 8 and 9: Identification of essential implicants

Note that only essential terms are listed. The usefulness of optional conditions is over
since it is limited to allowing greater simplification.

0010 0100 0111 1100 1010 1111

10X1

XX10 [√] (√)

X1X0 [√] [√]

X11X [√] (√)

1X1X √ √

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 41

The essential implicants are: XX10, X1X0 and X11X. Since they are sufficient to represent
all solutions, the simplified function is:

S = BA̅ + C𝐴̅ + 𝐶𝐵

Remark:

The choice of a simplification method depends on the function to be simplified.

Generally, we will use:

 The algebraic method for functions with two variables or functions with more
than two variables but containing few terms in canonical form.
 Karnaugh's method for functions of three, four, five or six variables.
 The Quine/McCluskey method for functions with five or more variables.

Teacher : Taouche Chérif 42