UNIT 2 - Sensation, Attention & Perception

Sensation- Sensory Thresholds

It refers to our awareness about various stimuli which we encounter in different modalities such as vision, hearing,
touch and taste.
Or
The initial contact between organisms and their physical environment constructing knowledge out of raw materials
is known as sensation.

The definition of sensation has the following components:

1. involvement of sense organs of the organism.
2. presence of stimulus in the physical environment
3. constructing knowledge out of raw material and
4. initial contact i.e. contact without meaning

Sensory Acuity: the actual physical ability of the sensory organs to receive input.

Stimulus reaches the Organism ------> Sensation ------> Response

Physical energy, such as light, sound waves, heat; emanating from objects becomes stimuli and is received by
concerned sense organs like eyes, ears, and elsewhere through specialized receptor cells. The energy is next
converted into electrical impulses and this process is known as transduction.

A threshold is the minimum magnitude or intensity of anything to create a difference (like awareness/reaction).
Sensory threshold is the weakest stimulus that an organism can sense.
The sensory thresholds of the 5 senses which we have are
● Vision - A candle flame 30 miles away.
● Hearing - A watch ticking 20 feet away.
● Smell - A drop of perfume in a 6-room house.
● Taste - A teaspoon of sugar in a gallon of water.
● Touch - A wing of a fly on your cheek, dropped from 1 cm height.

Characteristics of Sensation
1. Quality of Stimulus: Sensation of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, heat and cold; differ from one another in
quality. There is a generic difference among them.
2. Intensity: Sensations of the same quality may differ in intensity. A light may be dim or bright, a sound faint
or loud, a smell mild or strong, a taste weak or strong, a pressure light or heavy.
3. Duration: A sensation may last for a shorter or longer duration. The sensation which lasts five seconds
feels differently when it ceases from a sound which lasts twenty seconds. This is a difference in duration.
Duration is also called protensive magnitude.
4. Extensity: Visual and tactual sensation have extensity. It refers to the volume of a stimulus. Example, Put a
coin on your skin, then put another coin beside it. The second tactual/tactile sensation will have more
extensity. But, if you put the second coin on the first coin, that sensation will gain in intensity and not
extensity.
5. Local Sign/Local Coloring: If a person touches your cheek, forehead, and nose successively with the same
pencil point with the same degree of pressure, your tactual sensations will differ from one another in local
signs. They will not differ in quality or intensity.
6. After Sensation: Sensation is the process of sensing a stimulus which is present, but in certain cases when
the duration of sensation has been long enough, the sensation will continue even though the stimulus is
removed/not present anymore. In a manner, it can be called a sustained sensation. For example, when we
see the sun and then look away from it, you may still perceive a spot of light although the stimulus (the sun)
has been removed.
Types of Sensations
*Note: Do study the document on the types of senses in the above link
1. Vision
2. hearing (audition)
3. Smell (olfaction)
4. Taste (gustation)
5. Touch (tactile)
6. Body position and movement (proprioception and kinesthesia)
7. Pain (nociception)
8. Temperature (thermoception)

Measurement of Sensation
Absolute Threshold
A stimulus reaching a physiological threshold when it is strong enough to excite sensory receptors and send nerve
impulses to the brain is called an absolute threshold.
It refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of
the time.
A stimulus that is falling below that threshold is said to be subliminal, that is we receive it/ sense it, but we are not
consciously aware of it.

Terminal Threshold
The threshold limit beyond which a stimulus may no longer be recognized or perceivable.
A stimulus that is going above this threshold can also be subliminal, that is we receive it/ sense it, but we are not
consciously aware of it.

Signal Detection
Signal detection theory is a method of differentiating a person's ability to discriminate the presence and absence of
a stimulus (or different stimulus intensities)
The detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of
the individual.

If a sensory signal is present, and the person responds to it, it is a hit.

If a sensory signal is absent, and the person responds, it is a false alarm.
If a sensory signal is present, and the person does not respond to it, it is a miss.
If a sensory signal is absent, and the person does not respond to it, it is a correct rejection.

Difference Threshold
The amount of difference in a stimulus intensity which is required to detect a difference between them. This is
known as the just noticeable difference (jnd) or difference threshold or recognition threshold. The difference
threshold changes depending on the stimulus intensity. For example, in a very dark movie theater if someone's cell
phone screen lights up, it is easy to notice the change in illumination in the theater. But, if the same thing happened
in a brightly lit stadium, very few people would notice. The cell phone brightness does not change, but its ability to
be detected as a change in illumination/brightness varies dramatically between the two contexts.

Sensory Adaptation
Sensory adaptation refers to the way our senses adjust to different stimuli.
It is a reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it.
While sensory adaptation reduces our awareness of a stimulus, it helps free up our attention and resources to
attend to other stimuli in our environment.
This change can occur slowly or quickly. Fast adaptation happens very quickly, in the span of milliseconds. Slow
sensory adaptation can occur over minutes, hours, or even days.
For example:
1. Scent: Smokers are not bothered by the smell of tobacco smoke the way nonsmokers are, because
smokers are accustomed to the odor.
2. Sight: When you go into a dark room or outside at night, your eyes eventually adjust to the darkness
because your pupils enlarge to let in more light, and vice versa when you go into a brightly lit room.
3. Taste: With the first bite of a very flavorful dish, you'll notice the strong saltiness, sourness, or sweetness of
the food. But after a few mouthfuls, your taste buds will adapt, and the flavor will not be as pronounced.
4. Hearing: A classic example is city dwellers who can tune out traffic and other urban sounds. Their sleep
isn't disturbed by the sounds outside their windows, because they have adapted to the noise.
5. Touch: When you jump into a cold swimming pool or first get into a hot tub, the water may feel unpleasantly
cold or much too hot, but eventually, your body adjusts to the temperature, and it feels only mildly cool or
perfectly pleasant and even, eventually, too cold or too warm.
Attention- Definition, Nature & Concept
Attention is the cognitive process of actively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring/tuning
out other things.

Attention is a basic component of our biology, present even at birth. Our orienting reflexes help us determine which
events in our environment need to be attended to.

(Nature) Attention is affected by the following factors:

1. Nature of stimulus: By nature of stimulus we mean whether the stimulus is auditory or visual. Generally
compared to auditory stimulus a visual stimulus attracts attention more easily.
2. Change in stimulus: Any sudden change in the stimulus is bound to attract attention.
3. Novelty of stimulus: When a stimulus appears before us in a routine manner we stop paying attention to it as
we get accustomed to it and it loses its novelty. But when it renews itself, our attention is immediately drawn
to it.
4. Movement of a stimulus: Moving objects attract our attention more easily than stationary/static ones.
5. Duration of stimulus: We pay more attention to a stimulus that stays for a longer duration before us than the
one which is present for a short while.
6. Position of stimulus: Where the stimulus is present and the change in the position of stimulus also attracts
our attention.
7. Isolation of stimulus: When a stimulus stands isolated from other stimulus it is more likely to draw our
attention towards it.
8. Intensity of stimulus: Intensity of stimulus is another factor that determines our attention. Greater the
intensity of stimulus the more likely it is to attract our attention.
9. Habit: Every person has some characteristic habits, and those habits tend to push out attention to stimulus
related to that habit.
10. Need: Our biological needs keep moving our attention in directions to satisfy those needs.
11. Expectation: When we expect something to happen we keep paying attention to when it will happen and how it
will happen, in a way waiting for something keeps our attention on that particular sti.

Different Aspects of Attention

Attention Span
An attention span is a measure of the amount of time someone can stay focused on a particular task, thought, or
conversation without being distracted. It is a measure for how easily distracted a person is, and longer attention
spans usually make it easier for people to complete tasks and remain organized. A person’s attention span also
affects social interactions; some people struggle to remain focused on conversations without becoming distracted
or fidgeting.
A person’s attention span varies with context and the type of task. Some people are able to concentrate longer on
certain kinds of tasks, such as games, reading, or conversations, than they can focus on other types of tasks.
Distraction-filled environments can decrease a person’s attention span. People generally have shorter attention
spans in loud, chaotic environments or when they are stressed.

Span of Attention
The term “span of attention‟ refers to the number of objects which can be grasped in one short presentation. It can
be measured by showing a set of objects/items together in a single stimulus, which will only be shown for a
fraction of second, and noting how many items/objects the person managed to notice in that fraction of a second.
Dallerback in 1929 studied the span of attention for dots, words, figures and colors. Span of attention actually tells
us how many things can exist in the focus of consciousness at one time in an individual.

Division of Attention
Division of attention means to divide one’s attention among different stimuli which are all being presented at the
same instance of time. Divided attention refers to the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. It has
become commonplace in today's fast-paced world, where people are expected to juggle a multitude of
responsibilities simultaneously.
But divided attention can sometimes negatively impact an individual's productivity and efficiency when performing
more than one task at the same time. As it decreases our ability to perceive the world correctly, lowers our ability to
memorize and increases the chances of errors.

Attention Shifting
Moving the focus of attention from one object to another or from one stimulus to another is known as shifting of
attention. It is the ability of alternating an individual's attention back and forth between two distinct tasks that need
the use of different brain parts. Individuals always need sudden changes in their activities which need to shift their
attention. In some cases, attention shifts can be made intentionally or caused automatically by the sudden arrival
of a stimulus. Shifting attention is necessary as it permits an individual to redirect attention to aspects of the
environment they want to concentrate on and process in due course of time. Shifting of attention involves three
parts: attention must be disengaged, shifted to a new location, and re-engaged. For example, reading the recipe to
find out how much of an ingredient needs to be put in the dish, adding it and then tasting it.

Distraction
Distraction is defined as a stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws away
attention from the stimulus that we wish to pay attention to. In general there are two kinds of distractions:
1. Continuous Distraction: A distraction which keeps happening without a pause. For example, the constant sound
of music when trying to study.
2. Discontinuous Distraction: A distraction which keeps happening repeatedly with an interval of time gap
between each occurrence. For example, the irregular sounds of horns from traffic when writing an exam.

Distractions may be caused by a number of factors, including the loss of interest in the primary activity, greater
interest in something other than the object of attention, novelness or attractiveness of the source of distraction,
inability to pay attention due to various reasons, or intensity of the distractor.
Distractions may come from any kind of sources, external (physical stimulus through the five senses) or internal
(thought, daydreams, etc.).

Fluctuation of Attention
Fluctuation means changing irregularly and frequently. It means the same in the context of attention as well.
Fluctuation of attention refers to waxing and waning of attention, that is at one moment a stimulus comes within
an individual’s attention and in the next moment, the person’s attention is not on that stimulus anymore, i.e., it
disappears. It is closely related to shifting of attention, but the difference lies in how for shifting, attention on one
thing is moved to another stimulus in a more regulated manner as needed, but whereas for fluctuation, the focus
on the object is present in a moment and absent in another moment constantly with a little less control over that
change in attention.

Voluntary & Involuntary Attention

Voluntary attention is the attention that is deliberately applied and controlled by the individual. It is a conscious
effort to stay focussed on a stimulus or a task. For example, a student paying attention in a class because they
need to know what is being explained.
Involuntary attention is the attention that is spontaneously captured by a stimulus in the environment. It does not
involve any role of will; instead it is aroused either by instincts and hence called enforced attention or is produced
by our sentiments and therefore called spontaneous non-volitional attention. Examples of non-volitional attention
could be attention paid to the members of the opposite gender or a mother’s attention on noticing her crying child.
Perception
Perception refers to our sensory experience of the world. It is the process of using our senses to become aware of
objects, relationships. It is through this experience that we gain information about the environment around us.

Perception relies on the cognitive functions we use to process information, such as utilizing memory to recognize
the face of a friend or detect a familiar scent. Through the perception process, we are able to both identify and
respond to environmental stimuli.

Through perception, we become more aware of (and can respond to) our environment. We use perception in
communication to identify how our loved ones may feel. We use perception in behavior to decide what we think
about individuals and groups.

We are perceiving things continuously, even though we don't typically spend a great deal of time thinking about
them. For example, the light that falls on our eye's retinas transforms into a visual image unconsciously and
automatically. Subtle changes in pressure against our skin, allowing us to feel objects, also occur without a single
thought.

Difference between Sensation & Perception

Sensation is awareness about various stimuli i.e., the input about the physical world obtained by our sensory
receptors and sent to the brain through the nervous system. But perception is the process of sensing, attending
and interpreting what it means or creating meaningful patterns out of jumbled sensory impressions i.e., the
process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets the sensations.

Sensation Perception

1. Simplest initial mental process 1. Complex, developed mental activity

2. Begins with a stimulus 2. Begins with a fringe of meaning

3. Associated with external stimulus conditions 3. Associated with internal mental conditions

4. Passive mental process 4. Active mental process

5. The basis of sensation is mental analysis 5. The process is linked with actual life experience
Principles of Perceptual Organisation
The German word “Gestalt” roughly translates to “whole” or “form”.

Gestalt psychologists believed that “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”.

2 Types of processing information:

1. Top Down Processing: Perception is guided by a higher level of knowledge, experience, expectations and
motivations.
2. Bottom Up Processing: Recognising information and processing individual components of stimuli and
organizing them into a whole.

Gestalt Laws of Organisation

In order to interpret what we receive through our senses, we attempt to organize this information in certain
patterns.
1. Figure and Ground Relationship - Organization depends on what we see as a figure (object) and what we
perceive as a ground (context).
2. Principle of Grouping - The Tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
3. Principle of Proximity - Group objects that are close together as being part of the same group.
4. Principle of Similarity - Objects similar in appearance are perceived as being part of the same group.
5. Principle of Continuity - Objects that form a continuous form are perceived as the same group.
6. Principle of Closure - We fill gaps in any incomplete stimulus if we can recognize it.
7. Principle of Common Region - Objects are grouped based on the region in which they are present.

Perceptual Constancies
Our tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changing sensory information.
1. Size constancy - Perceiving an object as having a constant size, despite variations in its retinal image
2. Shape constancy - Perceiving familiar objects as having a constant shape even when their retinal image
changes with viewing angle
3. Color constancy - Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if their actual color is altered
by changing illumination

Depth Perception
Depth Perception is the ability to see objects in three dimensions and allows us to judge distance.

Human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.

A. Monocular Cues- How an individual eye takes in visual information that’s used to judge: distance, depth,
three-dimensional space.
1. Relative Size - Smaller image is more distant
2. Interposition - Closer object blocks distant object
3. Relative Clarity - Hazy objects are seen as more distant
4. Texture Gradient - A coarse textured object is perceived to be closer and fine textured object is perceived to
be farther
5. Relative Height - Higher objects seen as more distant
6. Relative Motion - Closer objects seem to move faster (Motion Parallax)
7. Linear Perspective - Parallel lines converge with distance. More they seem to converge, the farther they are.
8. Relative Brightness - Closer objects appear brighter
B. Binocular Cues- Depth cues available to both eyes at the same time which is used to judge: distance, depth,
three-dimensional space.
1. Retinal Disparity - It is the difference between the visual images that each eye perceives because of the
different angles in which each eye views the world.
2. Convergence - In order to perceive depth properly, your eyes must move slightly inward or converge. In
doing so, people are able to determine if objects are close to them or far away.
Movement Perception
Movement perception is defined as the cognitive capacity that an organism possesses that allows it to
immediately capture the change of place of an object or a body and, at the same time, apprehend some attributes
related to this change, such as speed and direction. The perception of movement is a much more primitive
mechanism of vision than depth perception or colors.
It involves the visual messages from both the eyes as an image moves across the retina as well as the kinesthetic
messages from the muscles around the eyes as they shift to follow a moving object.
Motion detection also involves:
1. The fine tracking of an object that moves in front of us.
2. The function of "common destiny", in which we perceive how the different elements move towards a specific
location/ reach the destination.
3. The possibility of identifying a specific object and evaluating its qualities by analyzing its movement (a large
bird moves the wings more slowly than a small bird, which would mean less risk as a predator).

Internal Factors Influencing Perceptual Experience

● Emotional State/Mood- An individual's state of mind is one of the strongest factors that influences perception.
If our emotional state is positive, then we are likely to perceive situations around us as positive as well. In case
an individual’s emotional state is negative, they are likely to perceive the faults in a very critical manner in
everything that is around.
● Needs & Desires- Based on an individual's personal needs and desire, he/she is likely to understand/interpret
information in the same tone. In other words, an individual’s interest in something will greatly influence how
that something is perceived. We perceive the target as favorable and good if we have an interest in it or if we
need/desire a positive relationship with them. For example, if we want to be in a relationship with a person, that
need will influence how we perceive any behavioral issues (likely ignoring or downplaying problematic
behaviors), but in case we do not have the desire to be in such a relationship, our perception of behavioral
issues will be more accurate.
● Experience & Learning- Our experience and learning also shape our perceptions. A particular child can view a
cartoon as the best thing to enjoy, but a youngster may or may not have any interest in it; he or she may like
rock music or books instead, and an old person may not have any interest in any of them. So years of
experience and learning shape and modulate our perception and thus, our preferences towards anything.
● Values & Attitudes- Our values and attitudes towards anything or anyone have a great impact on our
perception. And they are developed around our living background. Our childhood, our upbringing, and the nature
of the people around us form and nurture our values and attitudes. So our attitude towards a particular target
and personal belief and values influence the manner/regard which we have. For example, a person having
orthodox beliefs is likely to have a negative perception about concepts like divorce/ live-in relationships, while a
person who values personal freedom more than the rules and the ways of the society might have a positive
perception about the same.
● Motivation- The motive behind anything helps to shape and sometimes distort our perception. Suppose we go
for an interview and the motive behind the interview is to get an urgent job, we will perceive everything to be
decent and good, and if we already have many options and our motive is to choose anyone among them, then
we will start perceiving good aspects as well as bad aspects.
● Habits- Habits die hard and therefore individuals perceive objects, situations and conditions differently
according to their habits. When we are habituated to certain things, specific cues are linked to particular
actions and meanings. For example, a person used to physical violence has a startled reaction when someone
makes a quick move, because they perceive that movement as a danger/possible attack. Likewise, a retired
soldier may throw himself on the ground when he hears a sudden burst of car tyres, since he’s habituated to
listening to such a sound in the situation of a bomb blast.
● Expectations- Our expectations of anyone or anything affect our perception. For example, when we expect a
person to be cruel, we tend to ignore any kind gestures and perceive the tiniest of mistakes as a serious
misbehavior and try to confirm the expectations that we have set for that person.
External Factors Influencing Perceptual Experience
● Size- The principle of size says that the larger the object ,the more is the probability that it is perceived, since
the size attracts the attention of the individual . A full page spread advertisement attracts more attention than a
few lines in a classified section .
● Intensity- The intensity principle of attention states that the more intense the stimuli , the more likely it is to be
perceived. As an example , a loud noise or strong odor will be noticed more than a soft sound and weak odor.
Following the intensity principle , the superiors may yell at their subordinates to gain attention instead of calling
to them softly, thus increasing the chance of being perceived in a more serious manner.
● Frequency/Repetition- The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more attention
gaining than a single one. It is for this reason that advertisers go for repetitive advertising to gain the
customers attention to their product, so that when they actually see the product they perceive it with a sense of
familiarity.
● Contrast- As per contrast principle , the external stimuli which stands out against the background will receive
more attention. For example, planting safety signs with black lettering on a yellow background or with white
lettering on a red background are more attention grabbing and are more likely to be perceived.
● Status- Status held by an individual also influences his/her perception about things or events. Research
suggests that people with high status often exert more influence on the perception of an individual as
compared to those holding low status.
● Movement- The movement principle says that people pay more attention to a moving object than the stationary
ones . People will be attracted more by a running train than one standing on the platform.

Distortions in Perception
The perceptual distortions are the wrong/incorrect perceptions of perceptual experiences.
1. Illusion is the misperception or misinterpretation of a stimulus that comes from a real object. E.g. the
perception of a coil of a rope in darkness as a snake. It occurs because of confusion, eye movement, emotion,
contrast perception, habits, defects of the sense organs, and a tendency towards the whole. Sometimes the
brain’s effort to organize sensations into coherent and accurate perception fails. This is the cause of perceptual
illusions in which normal perceptual processes produce perceptual misinterpretations or a false perception. It
is due to misinterpretations or misperceptions of stimuli that do not correspond to the sensations received by
the eye or other senses. For example, the grass looks greener on the other side of the fence. Because when we
look directly at the grass of our own yard, we see both green grass and brown soil. When we look at grass
across the fence, we are not looking straight down, so we do not see the soil. These colors blend. Hence, the
grass on the other side of the fence is perceived as greener and more luscious than on our side.
Some of the illusions are Muller Lyer Illusions, where between the two lines of the same lengths, one appears
to be longer and the other appears to be shorter in comparison due to arrows placed at each end.
2. Hallucinations are the perception of a nonexistent object or event and sensory experiences that are not caused
by stimulation of the relevant sensory organs. In layman's terms, hallucinations involve hearing, seeing, feeling,
smelling, or even tasting things that are not real. Hallucinations occur frequently in people with psychiatric
conditions, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, however, it is not necessary to have a mental illness to
experience hallucinations.
There are five types of hallucinations which are:
a. Auditory hallucinations: Hearing voices or sounds that no one else can
b. Visual hallucinations: Seeing people, colors, shapes, or items that aren't real
c. Tactile hallucinations: Feeling sensations (like bugs crawling under the skin) or as if being touched when
no one is touching
d. Olfactory hallucinations: Smelling something that has no physical source
e. Gustatory hallucinations: Having a taste in your mouth that has no source
A hallucination is when your senses are perceiving something that isn't happening in reality, whereas an illusion
is misinterpreting something that is actually present.

Extra Sensory Perception