BSEE29: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF meaningfully, and appropriately, emphasis is

GRAMMAR laid upon form, meaning, and use.

Lesson 1: Key terms and concepts in managing and FOCUS ON FORM

implementing standard-based grammar teaching 1. A distinction is often made between
language use and language form. In other
DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR words, there has been a continuous debate
➢ the whole system and structure of a language over whether to teach students the language
or of languages in general, usually taken as or teach them about the language.
consisting of syntax and morphology (including 2. For Larsen-Freeman, both language form
and language use are equally important.
inflections) and sometimes also phonology and
semantics.
Teach the student the language or teach them about the
Syntax (Sentence structure) undergo with morphology language itself. Focus on form and use are equally
(Word formation) important.

➢ is the study of words, how they are used in FOCUS ON MEANING

sentences, and how they change in different 1. Linking form with meaning can be carried out
by the use of different activities. In fact,
situations
meaning should call for some sort of
➢ The study of sentence structure. Rules and associative learning (cf. Ellis 1998).
examples show how the language should be 2. This activity gives students the opportunity to
used. associate the form with the meaning of a
particular target structure.
Grammar is a structure and mechanism. Filipino 3. Mimicry of the appropriate action is another
language is patterned in English language. English way of making the meaning of linguistic
language is the standard that everyone should follow. “signs” clearer.

GRAMMARING Focus on meaning – we link form with its meaning

➢ can be seen as a “fifth skill” according to
Larsen-Freeman, he proposed grammaring as “How can we give meaning to the form?” – Using
an important process in second language associative learning (associate the form into meaningful
acquisition actions) or using “realia” (pictures/object). It can also
by giving examples.
Grammaring is considered as part of the macro skills
(old version), we couldn’t master other skills if we FOCUS ON USE
cannot master the grammaring first. 1. The right form with the right meaning should
be selected for the right context to ensure
➢ “The ability to use grammar structures successful communication.
accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately “ 2. A practical way of going about sensitizing
students to the effect of context on language
➢ Grammaring emphasizes grammar as a
is through making use of role playing. The
dynamic process rather than a system of rules.
latter can be described, according to Larsen-
Freeman (2001).
Basic cite words (short sentences) – the child usually 3. Role playing can be considered one of the
sees in his/her environment. most effective activities for developing the
appropriateness of the linguistic behavior of
We acquire language because of the process of students due to its simulation of real-life
grammaring. "Grammaring" is the dynamic process of contexts.
actively using grammar as a tool for effective
How can you improve your English-speaking skills?
communication, rather than just learning static rules.
➢ Talk to yourself
Unlike traditional approaches that focus on
➢ Constant exposure to the English language
memorizing grammar rules, grammaring involves
➢ Proper use of words
understanding and applying grammatical structures to
➢ Pattern recognition
convey meaning in real-life contexts.
GRAMMATICALIZING
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR GRAMMARING ➢ also known as grammatization or
➢ The practical activities that are used in grammaticization.
“grammaring” fall into three categories as ➢ Simply put, grammaticalization is the process in
specified by Freeman’s definition of the term. which a lexical word or a word cluster loses
Given that language should be used accurately,
 some or all of its lexical meaning and starts to Main Aspects of The Approach and some Examples
fulfil a more grammatical function.
➢ Through this, nouns and verbs which carry Define what a “mistake” is. A mistake is a misuse of the
certain lexical meaning develop over time into rule/s that has ALREADY BEEN STUDIED AND
grammatical items such as auxiliaries, case EXERCISED. A mistake is NOT a wrong use of rule/s or
markers, inflections, and sentence connectives vocabulary that have not yet been studied in class
• For example, in "let us eat”, is reduced to Make sure the assignment contains only the material
let' s as in "let' s you and me fight that has been thoroughly studied and exercised in class.
Change the assignments’ instructions to include self-
In functions of the grammar, there are words/phrases check as its integral part.
that can function in another grammatical function. • Example: “Please compose 10 sentences
describing your day. Check your composition
ERROR CORRECTION VS FEEDBACK using the provided checklist.”

MISTAKE ERROR Provide a checklist of the typical mistakes. (Especially

slips which students can mistakes which students important for beginners).
correct themselves once cannot correct • Example: *Grammar *Capital Letters
the mistake has pointed themselves and which *Punctuation *The use of time expressions
out to them need explanation (usually, sometimes, often) *Spelling

This can be a typo, using something that your Provide any visual materials that can improve mistakes,
the wrong word, or a students don’t know correction, such as charts, tables, pictures, lists.
small grammatical because they haven’t Encourage using colorful markers and special editing
mistake. learned it yet or they’ve
signs.
forgotten it.
Refuse to grade papers that have not been self-checked
Feedback has a crucial role in learners’ awareness of Structure reference materials, such as grammar rules,
their errors and performance. vocabulary, etc. in a way that students can easily
access the necessary “help” page. It is suggested that
Error correction performed by the teacher followed by each student has a folder separated into sections, such
feedback is a usual part of most traditional and even as “Grammar,” “Reading,” “Writing,” etc. to be filed each
nontraditional school approaches. However, if we think page into a corresponding section and create a table of
about it, our ultimate goal is to teach the students to contents of each section.
become independent learners and be able to check
their own work. Do not highlight mistakes in the material the student has
not yet studied as mistakes, but rather as suggestions.
Students genuinely believe that mistakes correction is • Example: I can not to read. ---- mistake No “to”
completely the teacher’s job. This is the stereotype that after “can”
needs to be changed.
Always discuss corrections. Encourage reasoning
The purpose of language teaching is to turn the process rather than saying which answer is “right” or “wrong.”
of error correction into an automatic process that the In your final error check highlight mistakes, provide
student should be able to perform independently. It is to suggestions and create list of repeating mistakes. Give
encourage self-check, that provide necessary tools for the students more exercises to practice specific points
self-editing and proofreading which develop critical that they have probably understood. If grading is
thinking and independence. necessary, suggest some extra points for completing
the correction assignment.
As a teacher, you should provide the correction and
KINDS OF ERRORS OF ESL STUDENTS
state why they made that mistake for improvement.
You should also identify if the student commits a
PRODUCTIVE SKILLS RECEPTIVE SKILLS
mistake or an error. The teacher can also create a ERRORS ERRORS
checklist that lists the common mistakes of the students
in terms of punctuations, capitalization, SVA’s, etc. USE Errors in spoken or Errors in listening and
COLORFUL MARKERS to check their works. Do not written skills include reading skills include
use red since the students thinks “red” is a negative. It vocabulary, misinterpretation of
is highly recommended to use green pens. pronunciation, and content,
grammatical errors, as misunderstanding of
well as errors in words, or simply the
GOAL: to make your students became independent producing intelligible inability to comprehend
learners. language that can be someone’s speech in
understood globally. total.
 a. Self-correction: Repeating - The teacher
WHEN TO CORRECT STUDENTS? asks the student to repeat what she/he has
just said, by using the word ‘again’ with
IN FLUENCY-BASED IN ACCURACY-BASED questioning intonation to indicate that
LESSONS LESSONS something is wrong. (“AGAIN”)
b. Self-correction: Echoing - The teacher
If you’re teaching a class you can correct repeats what the student has just said
or activity where fluency immediately after the using a questioning intonation or repeats
is the goal, try to monitor mistake has been made, the sentence up to the error/mistake and
your students and take assuming that it is a ass someone to continue. (“RE-ECHO”)
notes of major or mistake about said rule
c. Self-correction: Questioning - The
repeating mistakes.
teacher can ask the whole class ‘Is that
Don’t interrupt your
student’s speech. correct?’ The advantage of this technique is
that it focuses the attention of the whole
class on the problem. (“ASK THE OTHER
DOS AND DON’TS IN ERROR CORRECTION STUDENTS FOR CORRECTION”)
d. Self-correction: Denial - The teacher
DOS DON’TS simply can say that the answer is not right
Be sensitive to your Don’t over-correct every and ask the student to repeat it. It may be
students’ needs and single mistake your more discouraging than the earlier
preferences. students make techniques. (STRAIGHTFORWARD)
e. Self-correction: Expression - The
Be kind and patient in the Avoid interrupting your teacher can show that the response was
way you correct. students while they’re incorrect by a facial expression or with
making an effort to speak some gesture, but it must be done carefully
fluently so that the student will not think that the
Give your students a Never scold, become teacher’s expression is mockery. (USE OF
chance to self-correct, or loud, or show your FACIAL EXPRESSION OR BODY
apply peer correction in impatience with angry
LANGUAGE)
your classroom. facial expressions.
2. Student-to-student correction - A method of
Use visual cues
learning where students correct each other ' s
WHY IS ERROR CORRECTION IMPORTANT? work or mistakes. It is often used in language
1. Reinforcing Language Rules - Correcting learning contexts where students practice their
errors helps students to understand and language skills by interacting with one another
internalize the rules of the language. By and providing feedback on each other’s
pointing out their mistakes and explaining the language use. (PEER CORRECTION – PAIR
correct form, teachers can help students to YOUR STUDENT WITH ANOTHER STUDENT
avoid repeating the same errors in the future. WHO IS GOOD AT USING THE LANGUAGE)
2. Building Confidence - If corrections are done
in a constructive and supportive manner, they 3. Teacher-correction - A method of learning
can help students to build confidence in their where a teacher provides feedback and
language abilities. correction to students ' work or mistakes. It is a
3. Improving Accuracy - Accuracy is important, common approach used in many educational
especially in formal contexts such as academic settings, including language learning contexts.
writing or business communication, where (WILL ONLY APPLY WHEN THE PEER AND
errors can affect the credibility of the writer or SELF CORRECTION IS NOT APPLICABLE
speaker. OR NOT WORKING)
4. Facilitating Communication - Correcting
errors helps students to communicate more WHAT IS FEEDBACK?
clearly and effectively with others, whether it is ➢ Feedback refers to the information that learners
in their personal or professional life. receive from their teacher about their
performance, which will help them take self-
ERROR CORRECTION TECHNIQUES corrective action and improve their
1. Self-correction - is the best technique because achievement.
the student will remember it better. When
correcting, the students themselves may be the Types of Feedback
best place to start. When students realize
they've made a mistake, they can frequently fix POSITIVE FEEDBACK CORRECTIVE
FEEDBACK
it themselves. (They can self-correct)
It keeps learners Corrective feedback
motivated and lets them helps learners to improve
 know you are their language skills, Lesson 2: Spoken Grammar vs Written Grammar
recognizing their hard helps to develop memory
work and their and attention to specific Spoken Grammar
successes. aspects of the language ➢ Spoken Grammar is the grammar of everyday
and lets learners know interaction.
where to focus their ➢ It is informal and natural in a way that it uses
attention. informal language for informal speech
➢ Spoken Grammar is flexible in its word order.
➢ Spoken Grammar is more dynamic and
Types of Corrective Feedback
immediate.
1. Explicit Correction - The feedback is stated
➢ Spoken Grammar is more communicative as it
clearly, visible, and obvious. (DIRECT)
presents ideas at lower-level engagement.
• Example: Student: “When I have 12 years
old” Teacher: “No, not have, but when I was
Spoken grammar is used in a informal manner, it is
12 years old
flexible (not complete) in its word order. There are no
2. Recast - You just only reform and repeat the restrictions as long as you can communicate with other
student’s statement with a correct formation. people.
(REPEAT WHAT THE STUDENT HAVE SAID
BUT WITH CORRECTION) Characteristics of Spoken Grammar
• Example: Student: “My father is long”
Teacher: “My father is tall” 1. Ellipsis - It is the omission of elements
normally part of a certain structure and is found
3. Larification Request - It is an elicitation of a in either spoken or written English.
reformulation or repetition from the students. Examples:
(THE CORRECTION MUST BE COMING (No Ellipsis) “Do you have any
FROM THE STUDENT’S REALIZATION) questions?”
• Example: Student: “How many years do (Ellipsis) “Any questions?”
you have?” Teacher: “I am sorry?”
2. Dislocation - Dislocation is a sentence
4. Metalinguistic Clues - Posing questions, structure in which a constituent occurs outside
making comments, or providing information the clause boundaries, either to its left or to its
about the learner’s utterance without explicitly right.
stating the correct answer. (USE OF CRITCAL
THINKING “THINKING ABOUT Heads (left-dislocation) Tails (right-dislocation)
LANGUAGE”) are a way to introduce are comments that are
and orient listeners to a added to the end of a
• Example 1: Student: I go out yesterday.
topic before giving phrase.
Teacher: Do we say I go out yesterday or I information on the topic.
went out yesterday
Example:
5. Elicitation - Prompts the student to self- With Head: “The T20 Example:
correct. (REPEAT UNTIL YOU GET THE finals last night, it was With Tail: “My colleague
RIGHT ANSWER) really exciting.” is a nice person, the one
• Example 2: Student: She got catched from New Zealand.”
by…. Teacher: She got…… Student: No Head: “The T20 finals
caught. last night was really No Tail: “My colleague
exciting.” from New Zealand is
6. Repetition - The student’s error is repeated really nice.”
with emphasis/raised intonation to draw
3. Fillers - Fillers are words and utterances like
attention to it. (REPEAT THE WRONG WORD
“er”, “well”, “hmmm”, and “um” that do not have
AND PUT AN EMPHASIS)
a specific meaning.
• Example: Student: Let me told you
Teacher: Let me TOLD you? Student: Let
They don’t have a specific meaning but rather fill
me tell you
time and allow the speaker to gather his or her
thoughts.
Importance of Feedback
• Students learn the pronunciation better.
4. Backchannels - Backchannels are words and
• Students will have a better understanding.
utterances like “uh-uh”, “oh”, “yeah”, and “I
• It hinders fossilization. see”.
• To not make the same mistake again
 They are used to acknowledge what the speaker is WHY SHOULD WE TEACH GRAMMAR?
saying and encourage him or her to continue.
1. The sentence-machine argument - Part of the
5. Phrasal Chunks - Phrasal words or phrases process of language learning must be what is
that can combine with other elements but act as sometimes called item-learning — that is the
ready-made lexical units of language. memorization of individual items such as words
and phrases.
Are fixed words or phrases that can combine with
other elements but act as ready-made lexical units Grammar is a kind of 'sentence-making machine'.
of language.
2. The fine-tuning argument - The purpose of
Written Grammar grammar seems to be to allow for greater
➢ Written Grammar is more formal and inflexible. subtlety of meaning than a merely lexical
➢ Sentence is the basic unit of constructions in system can cater for. It should focus both in
written grammar terms of intelligibility and in terms of
➢ Written Grammar tends to be more complex appropriateness.
and intricate than speech with longer sentences
3. The fossilization argument - Research
PRESCRIPTIVE VS DESCRIPTIVE suggests that learners who receive no
instruction seem to be at risk of fossilizing
Prescriptive Grammar (PRESCIBED GRAMMAR) – it sooner than those who do receive instruction.
establishes norms and correct usage of the language.
4. The advance-organizer argument - Grammar
Descriptive Grammar (SPOKEN GRAMMAR) – It instruction might also have a delayed effect.
doesn’t have specific structure, means everything is Previous knowledge of grammar acted as a
kind of advance organizer for later acquisition
acceptable)
of the language. (BASED ON THE PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE OF THE STUDENTS AND
DESCRIPTIVE PRESCRIPTIVE
HOW THEY UNDERSTAND IT)
Descriptive grammar is Prescriptive grammar, on
the approach to grammar the other hand, is an
that is concerned with approach to grammar 5. The discrete item argument - Grammar
describing the usage of that is concerned with consists of an apparently finite set of rules. By
language by native or establishing norms of tidying language up and organizing it into neat
non-native speakers correct and incorrect categories (sometimes called discrete items),
without reference to usage and formulating grammarians make language digestible. (ALL
proposed norms of rules based on these GRAMMATICAL CLASSES HAS TO BE
correctness or advocacy norms to be followed by CATEGORIZED. THE WAY WE TEACH
of rules based on such users of the language. GRAMMAR IS BASED ON HOW IT IS BEING
norms. USED)

Descriptive grammar Prescriptive grammar 6. The rule-of-law argument - It follows from the
takes the principle that takes the principle that
discrete-item argument that, since grammar is
the language usage can the long-existed
a system of learnable rules, it lends itself to a
vary according to varied grammar rules created
speakers. Thus, it does by the native speakers view of teaching and learning known as
not consider what is are the ‘correct’, and the transmission. A transmission view sees the
‘correct’ or incorrect variations are ‘incorrect.’ role of education as the transfer of a body. (IT
grammar. SHOULD BE TRANSMITTED TO WHO
SHOULD LEARN IT)
The rules are made There are specified and
according to the daily standard set or grammar 7. The learner-expectations argument - Many
usage of the language by rules in prescriptive learners come to language classes with fairly
the speakers. Therefore, grammar that should be fixed expectations as to what they will do there.
no specific or standard followed by the speaker These expectations may derive from previous
rules are there in in their usage. classroom experience of language learning.
descriptive grammar,
They may also derive from experience of
rather the rules describe
classrooms in general where (traditionally, at
and explain the
speaker’s manner of least) teaching is of the transmission kind
language usage. mentioned above. (TALKS ABOUT THE
STUDENTS’ EXPECTATION, FIRST
IMPRESSION)
PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES IN TEACHING GRAMMAR Example: Incorporating fun activities like grammar
games or real-world language use to make grammar
Balancing Form and Function lessons more enjoyable.

Issue: Finding the right balance between teaching the Formative vs. Summative Assessment
form (rules and structures) of grammar and the function
(how grammar is used in communication) can be Issue: Striking a balance between ongoing formative
challenging. assessment (to monitor progress) and summative
assessment (to evaluate overall understanding) of
Example: Teaching students the difference between grammar concepts. (MONITORING IMPROVEMENTS)
"used to" and "would" for past habits (form) and when
to use each in conversation (function). Example: Using regular quizzes and peer editing
(formative) alongside end-of-unit tests (summative) to
Scaffolding Learning assess grammar knowledge.

Issue: Progressing from simple to complex grammar Technology Integration

concepts while ensuring that students grasp each step
is crucial, but it can be challenging to determine the Issue: Leveraging technology effectively to enhance
appropriate pace. grammar instruction while ensuring that it complements
traditional teaching methods. (MIXTURE OF
Example: Starting with basic verb tenses like present TRADITIONAL AND TECHNOLOGY)
simple before introducing more complex tenses like
present perfect. Example: Using grammar-checking software for writing
assignments and incorporating interactive online
Handling Learner Errors grammar exercises

Issue: Addressing learner errors effectively without Cultural Sensitivity

discouraging students from using the language can be
tricky. (ADDRESSING LEARNERS’ EMOTIONS) Issue: Addressing potential cultural differences in how
grammar is used or perceived, which can impact
Example: Correcting a student who says, "I have been language learners.
to Paris last year" by providing feedback on the correct
use of the present perfect tense Example: Teaching students about differences in
politeness levels and honorifics in different cultures
Teaching Grammar in Context when discussing grammar rules related to addressing
others
Issue: Integrating grammar lessons into meaningful
contexts to make learning more engaging and relevant. Incorporating Authentic Materials
(STUDENTS LEARN THE LANGUAGE BASED ON
THEIR NEEDS. THE TEACHER SHOULD ALSO Issue: Finding and adapting authentic materials like
IDENTIFY THE STUDENTS’ TALENT) newspaper articles, songs, or dialogues to teach
grammar points effectively. (CONTEXTUALIZATION
Example: Teaching the past continuous tense within AND LOCALIZATION)
the context of narrating a personal experience, such as
"I was studying when the phone rang." Example: Using a news article to teach reported
speech by having students convert direct quotes to
Differentiated Instruction reported speech while discussing current events

Issue: Tailoring instruction to meet the diverse needs Teaching Meta-Awareness

and proficiency levels of students in a single classroom.
Issue: Developing students' metalinguistic awareness,
Example: Providing additional exercises or challenges or their ability to reflect on and analyze language
for advanced students while offering extra support to structures. (CONCERN OF ALL SUJECT)
those who struggle with a particular grammar concept.
Example: Encouraging students to analyze sentence
Motivating Learners structure in their native language and compare it to the
target language to deepen their understanding of
Issue: Maintaining student interest and motivation grammar
when teaching grammar, which some may find less
engaging than other language skills. (POKE THE
INTEREST OF YOUR STUDENTS. MANAGE THE
BEHAVIOR)
Teacher Training and Professional Development
LEVEL 4: ADVANCE
Issue: Ensuring that language teachers have the • 75% mastery of level 3
necessary training and access to ongoing professional • simple sentences
development to stay updated with effective grammar • compound sentences
teaching strategies. • complex sentences
• simple questions
Example: Providing workshops and resources for • information questions
• embedded questions
teachers to improve their grammar instruction
• noun clauses (reported speech)
techniques and stay current with language pedagogy
• adjective clauses (reduction)--participles as
trends modifiers

SEQUENCING Such systems for dividing the grammar among

proficiency levels have often been based on ideas about
How do we sequence grammar in a teaching the easiness or difficulty of certain structures for
program? learners. The lack of consistency in the decisions that
have been made using these standards suggests that
A Traditional Divide-Up-the-Grammar Curriculum the "ease" and "difficulty" cannot be defined with
(Byrd and Reid, 1998) Divided into four levels: certainty.
beginner, low intermediate, intermediate, and advance.
PATTERNS AND REASONS, NOT RULES
LEVEL 1: BEGINNER Larsen-Freeman's (2000a) suggested that teachers
• simple sentences (affirmative & negative) concentrate on teaching "reasons, not rules. “
• compound sentences (and, but, or, so)
• complex sentences (while, before, when,
1. Overemphasis on memorization - Traditional
because, after) [optional for this level]
• simple questions (yes, no) grammar teaching often relies on rote
• information questions (who, what, when, memorization of rules, which can lead to
where) superficial understanding and difficulty in
• nouns (singular & plural) applying grammar in real-life situations.
• pronouns (objective, demonstrative)
• possessives (noun, pronoun, adjective) 2. Overemphasis on Accuracy - Grammar
• position of adjectives (comparatives and instruction often prioritizes accuracy over
superlatives) [optional for this level] fluency, leading to students being hesitant to
use grammar structures in real-life situations.

LEVEL 2: LOW INTERMEDIATE 3. Inconsistency in language use - English

• 75% mastery of level 1 grammar is full of exceptions and irregularities,
• simple sentences which can be confusing for learners.
• compound sentences
• complex sentences with time clauses
4. Lack of explicit instruction on grammar
• simple questions
patterns - Students may struggle to identify
• information questions (which, whose, whom,
when, because) and apply grammar patterns if they have
• noun phrases (count, noncount with articles) not been explicitly taught.
• pronouns (reflexive and impersonal "you")
• adjective clauses (restrictive) [optional at this 5. Lack of Contextual Understanding -
level] Grammar rules are often taught in isolation,
• noun modifiers without considering the context in which they
are used. This can make it challenging for
students to apply grammar correctly in their
LEVEL 3: INTERMEDIATE writing.
• 75% mastery of level 2
• simples’ sentences While rules provide some security for learners, reasons
• compound sentences give them a deeper understanding of the logic of English
• complex sentences with time and cause- and help them make it their own.
and-effect clauses
• simple questions
WHAT IS FOSSILIZATION?
• information questions
• tag questions
• nouns (collective and abstract) Language fossilization refers to the process in the
• adjective clauses (restrictive) learning of a secondary language in which the student
• adjective clauses (non-restrictive) [optional has more and more difficulty furthering his fluency in the
at this level]
language, until eventually, the student can learn no
more.

Fossilization is the 'freezing' of the transition between

the native language and the target language

What are Fossilized Errors

• Mistakes that students know is wrong but keep
making
• Errors from force of habit which students no
longer notice they are making
• Something that students learnt wrong and now
need to change
• Errors that students may correct when focused
but still make on their own
• Mistakes that recur despite constant correction
• Errors based in Native Language interference
or Target Language overgeneralization that is
made by many speakers
• Mistakes that teachers may not any longer hear
after a number of years teaching in a particular
context
• Mistakes that have been repeated so that it
sounds right to the learner

Causes of Fossilized Errors

• L1 interference
• Lack of correction
• Connection between interlanguage and errors
• Method of instruction
• Errors that come from previous stages of
learning
• Lack of motivation to correct oneself
• Lack of strategies
• Lack of learner autonomy