BIO 102 Course content

Basic Characteristics, Identification and Classification of Viruses, Bacteria and Fungi

A generalized Survey of the Plant and Animal Kingdoms based mainly on the Study of Similarities and
Differences in the External Features.

Ecological Adaptations

Briefs on Physiology to include Nutrition, Respiration, Circulation, Excretion, Reproduction, Growth and
Development
What are viruses?
Viruses are tiny infectious agents that replicate inside the cells of an organism. They are made up
of a protein coat called a capsid, which surrounds a core of genetic material (either DNA or
RNA).

Characteristics of Viruses
 Small size: Viruses are much smaller than bacteria, with diameters ranging from 20-400
nanometers.
 Not considered living cells: Viruses don't have cellular structures or metabolic processes
like living cells do.
 Replicate inside host cells: Viruses hijack the host cell's machinery to produce more viral
particles.
 Can infect various organisms: Viruses can infect animals, plants, fungi, and even
bacteria.

Types of Viruses
 DNA viruses: Have DNA as their genetic material (e.g., herpesviruses, poxviruses).
 RNA viruses: Have RNA as their genetic material (e.g., influenza, HIV).
 Retroviruses: Convert RNA into DNA during replication (e.g., HIV).
 Viruses with reverse transcription: Can convert RNA into DNA and vice versa (e.g.,
HIV).

Spread of Virus
 Airborne transmission: Through respiratory droplets or aerosols (e.g., influenza).
 Close contact: Through touching or shaking hands (e.g., norovirus).
 Vector-borne transmission: Through insects like mosquitoes (e.g., Zika).
 Contaminated food and water: Through fecal-oral transmission (e.g., rotavirus).
 Bloodborne transmission: Through blood transfusions or needle sharing (e.g., HIV).
Impact of Viruses on hosts
 Cause diseases: Ranging from mild to severe, like common colds or life-threatening
conditions.
 Trigger immune responses: Activate the host's immune system to fight the infection.
 Alter host cells: Can modify host cell behavior or lead to cell death.
Treatment and prevention of Viral Infection
 Vaccines: Available for some viruses, providing immunity.
 Antiviral medications: Can treat or prevent viral infections.
 Public health measures: Include quarantine, sanitation, and education.
 Personal protective equipment: Like masks and gloves.
Ecological Adaptations of Viruses
 Host range: Viruses can infect specific hosts or a wide range of hosts, from bacteria to
animals and plants.
 Transmission strategies: Viruses use various transmission methods, such as airborne,
waterborne, vector-borne, or direct contact.
 Replication strategies: Viruses can replicate quickly or slowly, depending on the host and
environmental conditions.
 Latency: Some viruses can remain dormant in hosts for extended periods, allowing them
to survive adverse conditions.
 Mutation and evolution: Viruses can rapidly evolve and adapt to changing environments
and host populations.
 Symbiotic relationships: Some viruses form symbiotic relationships with their hosts,
providing benefits like protection or nutrients.
 Genetic manipulation: Viruses can manipulate host genetics to enhance their own
survival and replication.
 Immune evasion: Viruses have developed strategies to evade host immune systems, such
as antigenic variation or immune suppression.
 Environmental persistence: Viruses can survive in environments outside hosts, allowing
them to persist and spread.
 Horizontal gene transfer: Viruses can transfer genes between hosts, influencing evolution
and adaptation.
 Phage-bacteria interactions: Viruses that infect bacteria (phages) play crucial roles in
bacterial ecology and evolution.
 Ecological niches: Viruses occupy specific ecological niches, influencing ecosystems and
host populations.
Bacteria
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are tiny, single-celled microorganisms that belong to the domain
Bacteria. They are prokaryotic cells, meaning they lack a true nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles. Bacteria are the most abundant organisms on Earth. They can survive in
extreme environments (e.g., high temperatures, high pressures). Some bacteria can form biofilms
(complex communities). Bacteria have been used in biotechnology and bioremediation
Characteristics of Bacteria
 Small size (typically 0.5-5.0 μm) Escherichia coli (2-4 μm), Staphylococcus aureus (0.5-
1.0 μm)
 Simple cell structure
 No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
 Cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (also known as murein) in both Gram-negative and
Gram-positive bacteria and Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present in Gram-negative bacteria
 Can be spherical (Cocci) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus; rod-shaped (Bacilli) e.g.
Escherichia coli or spiral (Spirilla) e.g. Helicobacter pylori and Comma-shaped (Vibrio)
e.g. Vibrio cholerae
 Can be gram-positive (retain crystal violet dye) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
subtilis or gram-negative (do not retain crystal violet dye) e.g. E. coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
 Can be aerobic (oxygen-loving) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus or anaerobic
(oxygen-avoiding) e.g. Clostridium difficile, Bacteroides fragilis
 Can be autotrophic (produce their own food) e.g. Rhodopseudomonas palustris,
Nitrosomonas europaea (oxidizes ammonia), Rhizobium leguminosarum (Nitrogen-
Fixing Bacteria, convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms) Synechocystis
(Phototrophic Bacteria, use light energy to produce food), Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
(Chemolithotrophic bacteria oxidize sulfur as energy sources) or heterotrophic (obtain
food from external sources) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus or Saprophytic (obtain
nutrients from dead organic matter) e.g. Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis or
Parasitic (obtain nutrients from living hosts) e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae
 Can be non-motile (cannot move) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus or motile (can move) e.g.
E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Can be mesophilic (grow best at moderate temperatures) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus
aureus or thermophilic (grow best at high temperatures) e.g. Thermus aquaticus,
Pyrococcus furiosus or psychrophilic (grow best at low temperatures): Psychrobacter
arcticus, Colwellia psychrerythraea
 Some bacteria are pathogenic (cause disease in hosts) e.g. Streptococcus pneumonia,
Haemophilus influenzae
Bacterial Growth and Reproduction
 Binary fission (splitting into two identical daughter cells)
 Budding (formation of new cells from existing cells)
Budding in bacteria is a process of asexual reproduction, where a new cell is formed from an
existing cell. Here's a step-by-step explanation of how budding takes place in bacteria:
 Cell preparation: The parent cell prepares for budding by replicating its DNA and
organizing the cell's contents.
 Bud formation: A bud, or a small outgrowth, appears on the surface of the parent cell.
This bud is a new cell that will eventually separate from the parent cell.
 Cell division: The parent cell's DNA is divided, and a copy is transferred to the bud.
 Growth and maturation: The bud grows and matures, developing its own cell wall and
cellular components.
 Separation: The bud separates from the parent cell, forming a new, independent cell.
 Repeat: The process can repeat multiple times, allowing bacteria to rapidly reproduce
and colonize new environments.
 Spore formation (dormant, highly resistant cells)
Importance of Bacteria
 Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling: Bacteria like Pseudomonas putida and Bacillus
subtilis break down organic matter, recycling nutrients for plants and other organisms.
 Nitrogen Fixation: Rhizobia and Frankia convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms
for plants, essential for agriculture and ecosystems.
 Gut Health: Gut bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium maintain our digestive
health, boost our immune system, and produce vitamins.
 Food Production: Bacteria like Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides are
used in fermentation to create yogurt, cheese, bread, and other food products.
 Bioremediation: Bacteria like Pseudomonas putida and Dehalococcoides mccartyi clean
up environmental pollutants, such as oil spills and toxic chemicals.
 Antibiotics and Pharmaceuticals: Bacteria like Streptomyces coelicolor produce
antibiotics, while others are used to develop vaccines and medications.
 Biotechnology: Bacteria like E. coli and Bacillus subtilis are used in genetic engineering,
biofuel production, and other industrial applications.
 Climate Change: Bacteria like Methanococcus jannaschii and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
play roles in the carbon cycle, methane production, and sulfur reduction.
 Soil Health: Bacteria like Azospirillum brasilense and Pseudomonas fluorescens promote
plant growth, improve soil structure, and suppress plant diseases.
 Human Health: Bacteria like Wolbachia and Lactobacillus rhamnosus have been used to
control mosquito populations and maintain vaginal health.

FUNGI
Fungi (singular: fungus) are a group of organisms that obtain their nutrients by decomposing
organic matter or forming symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In the five kingdom
system of classification, the fungi are treated as a separate kingdom. The body of fungi is very
simple and in majority of cases consists of network of branched filaments called hyphae. The
tangled mass of hyphae is the mycelium. The mycelium attaches to a food source, and the
hyphae although microscopic present a large surface area through which food can be absorbed.

Characteristics
 Eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus)
 Non-motile (cannot move on their own)
 Cell walls made of chitin (a polysaccharide)
 Obtain nutrients by decomposing organic matter or forming symbiotic relationships
 Can be single-celled (yeasts) or multicellular (molds and mushrooms)

Types of Fungi
 Yeast: Single-celled fungi that reproduce by budding (e.g., baker's yeast, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae)
 Mold: Multicellular fungi that form a network of branching hyphae (e.g., Aspergillus,
Penicillium)
 Mushroom: Fruiting bodies of fungi that produce spores for reproduction (e.g., button
mushrooms, Amanita)

Roles of Fungi in the Ecosystem

 Decomposers: Break down organic matter, recycling nutrients
 Symbionts: Form relationships with plants (mycorrhizae), algae (lichens), or insects
(fungus-growing ants)
 Pathogens: Cause diseases in plants and animals

Growth and Reproduction of Fungi

 Fungi grow by extending their hyphae (branching filaments)
 They reproduce by producing spores, which can be sexual or asexual
 Some fungi have a complex life cycle involving multiple stages
Importance of Fungi
 Ecological balance: Fungi play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter and cycling
nutrients
 Food source: Many fungi are edible and considered delicacies (e.g., truffles, morels)
 Medicine: Fungi are a source of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) and other pharmaceuticals
  Research: Fungi are used in scientific research, particularly in genetics and molecular
biology

Classification of Fungi
Fungi are classified into divisions.
 Basidiomycota: These are the Basidiomycetes or Club Fungi. They produce sexual
spores termed basidiospores
 Deuteromycota: These are the Deuteromycetes or Fungi imperfecti. They lack perfect or
sexual stages
 Ascomycota: These are the Sac Fungi. The ascocarp is multicellular and complex,
bearing the asci
 Zygomycota: These are the zygote forming fungi. The zygote is unicellular and simple

Bryophyta
Bryophyta, also known as liverworts, is a division of non-vascular plants that are characterized
by their simple, thalloid or leafy structures. They have a unique life cycle, with a dominant
gametophyte generation and a reduced sporophyte generation. Some species have specialized
structures, such as the "umbrella-like" splash cups of Marchantia, which help disperse spores.
The most common example of the bryophyte is the moss. Mosses are commonly seen in forests
and woodlands, growing on the trunk of trees. Thy can also be seen on the walls of old drains,
old buildings and other brick works especially if these have been damp for a long time.
Generally they grow in damp and shady places. Bryophytes don’t produce flowers and seeds,
instead, reproduce through spores. Bryophytes are called “amphibians of the plant kingdom”
because they are terrestrial plants, but require water to complete their life cycle at the time
of sexual reproduction. The study of bryophytes is called Bryology.

General Characteristics of Bryophytes

 Plants occur in damp and shaded areas
 The plant body is thallus like, i.e. prostrate or erect
 It is attached to the substratum by rhizoids, which are unicellular or multicellular
 They lack true vegetative structure and have a root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structure
 Plants lack the vascular system (xylem, phloem)
 Bryophytes show alternation of generation between independent gametophyte with sex
organs, which produces sperm and eggs and dependent sporophyte which contains spores
 The dominant part of the plant body is gametophyte which is haploid
 The thalloid gametophyte is differentiated into rhizoids, axis and leaves
 The gametophyte bears multicellular sex organs and is photosynthetic
 The antheridium produces antherozoids, which are biflagellated
 The shape of an archegonium is like a flask and produces one egg
 The antherozoids fuse with egg to form a zygote
 The zygote develops into a multicellular sporophyte
 The sporophyte is semi-parasitic and dependent on the gametophyte for its nutrition
 Cells of sporophyte undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes which form a gametophyte
 The juvenile gametophyte is known as protonema

 The sporophyte is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule

Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction: gametophyte generation produces gametes (sperm and eggs)
 Asexual reproduction: vegetative reproduction by fragmentation or spores
Habitat
 Moist environments, such as soil, rocks, logs, and tree trunks

Classification of Bryophyta
Bryophyta is divided into three classes
 Hepaticopsida (Liverworts) e.g. Riccia, Marchantia
 Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts) e.g. Anthoceros, Megaceros, Notothylas
 Bryopsida (Mosses) e.g. Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum

Importance of Bryophytes
Ecological Importance
 Mosses and lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks. They decompose the rock
making it suitable for the growth of higher plants. The acid secreted by lichens, death and
decay of mosses helps in soil formation
 Bryophytes grow densely so act as soil binders
 Mosses play an important role in bog succession. Mosses can change the landscape from
open soil to climax forest. The thick mat formed of mosses forms suitable substratum for
germination of hydrophilic seeds due to the presence of water and humus. In the course
of time, the dead and decayed mosses and hydrophilic plants form a solid soil for
mesophytic development
 They prevent soil erosion by reducing the impact of the falling rain
 They reduce the amount of run-off water due to their water holding capacity
 They help in recycling of the nutrients
 They act as a rock builder. Certain mosses (Bryum) along with algae, present in calcium
bicarbonate rich shallow water or lakes form calcareous (lime) rock-like deposits around
these plants. These plants decompose bicarbonate ions resulting in the precipitation of
insoluble calcium carbonate. This mineral deposit continues to grow and extends over
several hundred square feet area.

Medical importance
 Sphagnum is used in surgical dressing due to its high absorptive power and some
antiseptic property for filling absorptive bandages in place of cotton for the treatment of
boils and discharging wounds
 Marchantia has been used to cure pulmonary tuberculosis and affliction of liver
 The decoction of dried sphagnum is used in the treatment of acute haemorrhage and eye
infections
 Peat-tar is antiseptic and used as a preservative. Sphagnol, which is a distillate of peat-tar
is used to treat skin disease
 Polytrichium species has shown to dissolve stone in kidney and gall bladder
 Antibiotic substances can be extracted from certain bryophytes having antibiotic
properties

Research
 Mosses and liverworts are used in research in the field of genetics. The mechanism of sex
determination in the plant is discovered in liverworts

Packing material
  Dried mosses make an excellent packing material for fragile goods like glassware, bulbs.
For trans-shipment of living material such as cuttings and seedlings as they have water
retention capacity
Food
 Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other mammals

As Indicator plants
 Some bryophytes grow in a specialised area and can be used as an indicator for acidity
and basicity of the soil. E.g. Polytrichum indicated the acidity of the soil, Tortella species
grow well in the soil rich in lime or other bases and occur as calcicoles

In seedbeds
 Because of its water retention capacity, it is used in seedbeds, greenhouses, nurseries to
root cuttings. Sphagnum is also used to maintain high soil acidity required by certain
plants

Peat formation
 Sphagnum is also known as peat moss. Peat is formed by slowing down the decaying
process. The gradual compression and carbonisation of partially decomposed vegetative
matter in bogs give rise to a dark-coloured substance called Peat. This can be used as a
fuel; its lower layers form coal; used in the production of ethyl alcohol, ammonium
sulphate, ammonia, dye, paraffin, tannins etc. and it improves soil texture in horticulture

Formation of stone
 The travertine rock deposits are extensively used as a building stone

Pteridophyta
Pteridophyta is one of the older groups of plants present in the Plant kingdom. They have
evolved much earlier than the angiosperms. They are one of the very first “true” plants to adapt
to life on land. They commonly grow in the forestland and woodlands like the mosses.
Sometimes they grow from the ground unlike the moss. The most familiar structure usually seen
in the sporophyte is the fern frond. The roots usually become well established and able to absorb
water and food materials from the soil while the leaves (fronds) and other aerial portions
containing chlorophyll manufacture food for photosynthesis.

Characteristics of Pteridophyta
Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on land
It is speculated that life began in the oceans, and through millions of years of evolution, life
slowly adapted on to dry land. And among the first of the plants to truly live on land were the
Pteridophytes.

They are cryptogams, seedless and vascular

Pteridophytes are seedless, and they reproduce through spores. They contain vascular tissues but
lack xylem vessels and phloem companion cells.

The plant body has true roots, stem and leaves

They have well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves.

Spores develop in sporangia

The sporangium is the structures in which spores are formed. They are usually homosporous
(meaning: one type of spore is produced) and are also heterosporous, (meaning: two kinds of
spores are produced.)

Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls

Leaves that bear the sporangia are termed as sporophylls. The tip of the leaves tends to curl
inwards to protect the vulnerable growing parts.

Sex organs are multicellular

The male sex organs are called antheridia, while the female sex organs are called archegonia.

They show true alternation of generations

The sporophyte generation and the gametophyte generation are observed in Pteridophytes. The
diploid sporophyte is the main plant body.

Life Cycle of Pteridophyta

Pteridophytes show alternation of generations. Their life cycle is similar to seed-bearing plants,
however, the pteridophytes differ from mosses and seed plants as both haploid gametophyte and
diploid sporophyte generations are independent and free-living. The sexuality of
pteridophytic gametophytes can be classified as follows:

 Dioecious: the individual gametophyte is either a male producing antheridia and sperm or
a female producing archegonia and egg cells.
 Monoecious: every individual gametophyte may produce both antheridia and archegonia
and it can function both as a male as well as a female.
 Protandrous: the antheridia matures before the archegonia.
 Protogynous: the archegonia matures before the antheridia.

Classification of Pteridophyta
Pteridophyta is classified into four main classes:

 Psilopsida e.g. Psilotum and Tmesipteris.

 Lycopsida e.g. Selaginella, Lycopodium.
 Sphenopsida e.g. Equisetum.
 Pteropsida e.g. Pteris, Dryopteris, Adiantum

Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms [gymnos, naked; sperma, seed] are a group of plants that produce seeds not
enclosed within the ovary or fruit. These plants develop on the surface of scales or leaves, or at
the end of stalks forming a cone-like structure. The stem of gymnosperms can be branched or
unbranched. The thick cuticle, needle-like leaves, and sunken stomata reduce the rate of water
loss in these plants.

Characteristics of Gymnosperms
 They do not produce flowers.
 Seeds are not formed inside a fruit. They are naked.
 They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs.
 They develop needle-like leaves.
 They are perennial or woody, forming trees or bushes.
 They are not differentiated into ovary, style and stigma.
 Since stigma is absent, they are pollinated directly by the wind.
 The male gametophytes produce two gametes, but only one of them is functional.
 They form cones with reproductive structures.
 The seeds contain endosperm that stores food for the growth and development of the
plant.
 These plants have vascular tissues which help in the transportation of nutrients and water.
 Xylem does not have vessels and the phloem has no companion cells and sieve tubes.

Classification of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are classified into four divisions
 Cycadophyta e.g. Cycas revoluta
 Ginkgophyta e.g. Ginkgo biloba
 Gnetophyta e.g. Welwitschia, Gnetum
 Coniferophyta e.g. Cedrus libani

Life Cycle of Gymnosperms

The life cycle of gymnosperms is both haploid and diploid, i.e., they reproduce through the
alternation of generations. They have a sporophyte-dominant cycle. The gametophyte phase is
relatively short. The reproductive organs are usually cones.

Male Cones – These have microsporophylls that contain microsporangia. Microsporangium

produces haploid microspores. A few microspores develop into male gametes called pollen
grains, and the rest degenerate.

Female Cones – The megasporophylls cluster together to form female cones. They possess
ovules containing megasporangium. It produces haploid megaspores and a megaspore mother
cell.

The pollen reaches the egg through wind or any other pollinating agent, and the pollen grain
releases a sperm. The nuclei of male and female gametophytes fuse together to form a zygote.
This is known as fertilization.
The seed appears as scales which can be seen on the cones of the gymnosperm.

Importance of Gymnosperms
 Provide timber, paper, and other forest products
 Play a crucial role in ecosystems, providing habitat and food for many animals
 Have medicinal properties (e.g., Ginkgo biloba)

Angiosperms
Angiosperms [Gk. angeion, vessel; sperma, seed] are vascular plants that produce flowers and
having leaves, stems, and roots. They bear seeds inside the ovary when the egg or ovule is
fertilized. Angiosperms are distributed over a large area of ecological habitat and represent about
80% of all known green plants now living. Angiosperms range from tiny (Wolffian, 0.5 cm
diameter) to tallest angiosperms (Eucalyptus, 120 m height), and the largest angiosperms plant
is Ficus bengbalensis which may spread over a large area. Angiosperms can grow in various
habitats and are herbs, shrubs or trees.
Characteristics of Angiosperms
 Their main plant body is diploid and sporophyte. The sporophyte is divided into stems,
leaves, and roots.
 All plants have flowers; flowers are concerned with sexual reproduction that helps in
exchanging genetic materials.
 The vascular system is well developed and consists of xylem and phloem.
 Xylem consists of tracheids and vessels, and phloem consists of companion cells.
 Reproduction takes place by indirect pollination, i.e., the pollen grains are received at stigma
found at the tip of carpels.
 The flower consists of stamens (microsporophyll) and the carpels (megasporophyll); each
microsporophyll has four microsporangia.
 The ovules are covered by the ovary at the base of the carpels.
 Double fertilization and triple fusion take place, which leads to the formation of diploid
zygotes and triploid endosperms.
 The root system of angiosperms is very complex and consists of the xylem, phloem, cortex,
and epidermis.
 Endosperms production is the greatest advantage of angiosperms due to it is a source of food
for the developing seed and seeding.

Morphology/Anatomy of Angiosperm
Angiosperms consist of different four parts flowers, leaves, stems, and roots. Flowers are the
reproductive organs, while other body parts are non-sexually reproductive parts.
Generally, angiosperms are divided into two parts root system (which represents the parts of the
plant which is located under the soil) and the shoot system (which represents the part of the plant
above the soil).
Angiosperms Root system
 It is an underground part of the plant, a brown, non-green part. Primary rot and lateral or
branching root are present in the root system.
 Root systems help in the storage, anchorage, and absorption of mineral waters from the soil
and provide nutrition all over the body.
 A root that arises from the radicle of the embryo of the seed is called the primary root, and
lateral branches are grown from the primary root, called secondary roots.
 The roots have unicellular root hair.
 Generally, the root tip is protected by a thin-like structure called a root cap.
 The origin of lateral roots is endogenous nature.
 The root is positively geotropic but negatively phototropic.
Generally, two types of root systems are seen in angiosperms one is the tap root, and another
is the adventitious root.
Taproot
 Taproot arises from the radicle of the embryo (germinating seed).
 It is always underground and penetrates very deep into the soil.
 It consists of a prominent root that gives many thin branches; the primary root persists
throughout the life of the plant.
 The tap root system is mainly found in dicotyledonous plants such as mangoes, mustard
seeds, and banyan.
 Adventitious root system
 Adventitious root system arises from any part of plants other than the radicle.
 It may be underground, or some are aerial and don’t penetrate the deep soil.
 Clusters of roots are present that may grow from the same point.
 The primary root is short-lived and is soon replaced by adventitious roots.
 This root system is mostly found in monocotyledonous plants such as maize, oak, trees, and
horsetails. Functions of adventitious root systems are vegetative propagation and mechanical
supports.
 In wheat, carrot, onion, grass, and paddy, fibrous adventitious roots were found. This type of
root arises from thin, primary, or moderately branchy root growing from the stem, fibrous
adventitious root system found in fern and monocotyledonous.

Angiosperms Shoot system

Stems
 The essential part of the plant is the stem. It is an aerial axis in nature.
 Stems bear the flowers, fruits, and leaves.
 The function of the stem is the conduction of minerals and water.
 It is connected to the root system for the continuous flow of nutrients by a transition region
known as hypocotyl.
 Steams developed from the plumule of the germinating seeds.
 Generally, young stems’ color is green and becomes woody and brown when it grows into a
tree.
 It provides axial stability to plants.
 The terminal bud is present at the apex of the steams.
 In angiosperms, stems are differentiated into nodes (points where the plant bears leaves) and
internodes (area between the two nodes).
According to phyllotaxy, we can study the arrangements of leaves on the stems as follows:
 One leaf per node as a spiral arrangement.
 One leaves per node with a divergence of 180 degrees as the alternate arrangement.
 Two leaves per node are opposite arrangement and,
 More than two leaves per node are a whorled arrangement.

 Except for axial stability, the stems of plants undergo certain conditions that undergo
modification, such as suckers, runners, climbers, tubers, tendrils, thorns, bulbils, cladode, and
rhizomes. That helps in the protection, synthesis of food, vegetative propagation, etc., to keep
the plant healthy and growing even with the changing condition.
Leaves
 Leaves of the angiosperms are usually flattened and laterally born structures. It is an
important part of the plant for photosynthesis, absorbing lights, and the exchange of gases via
the stomata.
 The leaf base, petiole, stipules, and lamina, also called a blade, are the main part of a leaf.
 A couple of stipules are found on each turn of the leaf base, but the lamina and the leaf base
are linked through the petiole.
 The leaf grows from the node and bears a bud at the axil.
 The leaves are green due to the presence of chlorophyll (which is photosynthetic pigment)
and have a tiny pore or opening called stomata.
 Venation is the terms refers to the arrangement of veins and veinlets in a leaf.
 Based on a pattern of leaf lamina, leaves can be further divided into simple and compound
leaves, and different other types of classification are done based on the arrangement of
leaves, venation, and shape of the leaf.
 There are some essential functions performed by leaves are storage, photosynthesis,
transpiration, guttation, and defense.
 The basic structure of the leaf differs from one plant to another plant depending on its
functionality and the presence or absence of petiole and stipules. The various structural form
of leaves is leaf tendrils, spines, storage leaves, and insect-catching leaves.

Flower
 The flowers are the reproductive part of angiosperms. Micro and megaspores are arranged in
flowers that may be bisexual or unisexual.
 Flowers are arranged on the floral axis is called inflorescence, which is two types one is
Racemose (that lets the main axis continue to grow), and the second is Cymose (that
terminates the main axis in a flow).
 They are beautiful, color full, and most of them have a sweet smell. Insects and birds are
attracted to the flower due to the smell. Birds and insects play an important role as vectors for
the transport of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of different plants or the same
plant. This process is called pollination.
 Pollens, stamens and carpels are main parts of flower.
 The pollen grain is produced by stamens; it is the male gamete (or sperm) that unites with the
female gamete ova present in the ovary.
 Carpel is the female part consisting of stigma, style, and ovary, and the stamen is the male
part consisting of anther and filament.
Angiosperm – Flower Anatomy
Four different whorls are present in the flowers, which are as follows:
 Calyx: it is the outermost part of the flowers.
 Corolla: corolla comprises petals.
 Androecium: it is comprises of stamens.
 Gynoecium: it is composed of one or more carpels.
 The primary function of flowers is reproduction, production of diaspores without
fertilization, developing gametophytes, attracting insects and birds for pollination, and
developing fruits that contain seeds.

Fruits
 A mature ovary develops into fruits containing seeds. The fruits produced without
fertilization are known as parthenocarpic.
 Three various types of fruits are known based on the mode of development.
 Simple (developed from the monocarpellary or multicarpellary)
 Aggregate (developed from the multicarpellary) and,
 Composite (developed from the entire inflorescence rather than from a single flower
example are blackberries, strawberries, etc.).
Seeds
 Seeds are found inside the fruits, made up of an embryo and seed coat. Seeds are classified
into two groups depending on the number of cotyledons; monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous.
Classification of Angiosperms
Angiosperms are classified into two classes based on cotyledons present in seeds.
Monocotyledons Examples: sugarcane, banana, lilies, etc.
Dicotyledons Examples: grapes, sunflowers, tomatoes, etc.
Life cycle and reproduction of Angiosperms
 Flowers are the reproductive organ in angiosperms.
 The sexual reproduction process depends upon pollination to bring these gametophytes into a
close association so that fertilization can take place.
 All plants undergo alternation of generation and alternation between haploid gametophyte
and diploid sporophyte’s life stages.
 Sporophytes are the main phase of the life cycle of angiosperms.
 Angiosperms are heterosporous and produce microspores that will form pollen grain (male
gamete) and megaspores that will produce female gametophyte ovule.
 Inside the anther, microsporangium is present. These microsporangia undergo meiosis and
generate haploid microspores, and again microspores undergo mitosis and produce pollen
grains. Each pollen grains have two cells: one generative cell, which is divided into two
sperm cell, and a second cell which is developed into the pollen tube cells.
 Inside the ovule, megasporangia are presently surrounded by integument and the ovary wall,
Megasporocytes produce four megaspores through meiosis (three small and one large), and
only large megaspores are retained and produce embryo sac.
 One egg cell, three antipodal cells, two synergids, and two polar nuclei are present in the
mature embryo sac.
 When the pollen grain migrates and reaches the stigma, it enters the stigma, and the pollen
cell extends from the pollen grain down the style to form the pollen tube. The generating
cells divide mitotically to form two sperm nuclei. These are deposited into the embryo sac.
 A double fertilization process then occurs. Once the sperm nucleus fertilizes the haploid egg
creating the diploid zygote, the future embryo and the other sperm (n) fuses with the polar
nuclei (2n), forming a triploid (endosperms).
 The diploid seed coat hardens, and the endosperms tissue serves as a food source for the
embryo while the seed is dormant.
 After germination, when the seed coat breaks to expose the sporophyte, the sporophyte grows
and matures into the flowering plant, and the cycle repeats.
Uses and Applications of Angiosperms
 Angiosperms serve as an important source of food for animals, humans, and living
organisms. That contains an abundant amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fat, and nutrients.
 For the ecological web and food chain, angiosperms are very important.
 Carbohydrate contains a compound that is important to synthesize the cellular structure of
plants and provide the nutritional need and their metabolism.
 The vegetative part of the angiosperm plants is consumed by different types of insects and
invertebrates, and foods or seeds are an energy source for animals.
 The life cycle or reproductive cycle of many animals like birds, bats, and mammal depends
on the energy they synthesize after consuming fruits available on the angiosperms.
 Angiosperms protect many plants from foreign invasion or herbivores via producing toxic
secondary compounds such as oils, alkaloids, and glycosides.
 Many medicines are synthesized from angiosperms, so they play a vital role in
pharmaceuticals. Vitamins, aspirin, narcotics, and quinine are formulated from angiosperms.
 Some compounds of angiosperms are used for the treatment of disease, quinine is used to
treat malaria, and leukemia is treated by using Vincristine.
 Animal and human habitat depend on food resources and oxygen supply so, it maintains
human, animals, birds, and insect habitats.
 Tropical angiosperm trees are used as a source of timber.
 Woody plants are used to make furniture.
 Water-repellent fiber extracted from kapok fruits is used in sound and thermal insulation, an
oil used for cooking, lubricant, and preparation of soap.
 Corn, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, rice, and ray members of the family Poaceae are
economically the most important grains throughout the world.
 Grapes, barley, wheat, etc. are used in the alcoholic beverage production industry.
 Corn oil and cornstarch are used in manufacturing cosmetic products, adhesives, varnishes,
paints, soap, and linoleum.
 Some seeds contain an abundant amount of proteins and oil (peanuts, soybean), which are
most beneficial for farmers to build up their economic condition.
 Coffea (derived from Coffea arabica) and tea (derived from Camellia sinensis), and many
soft drinks derived from the angiosperms.
 Flowers are used for decoration, and angiosperms also contribute to biodiversity.