CHAPTER-1

ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE AND ECOSYSTEM

Definition – Scope and importance – Need for public awareness

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
 The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to ‘encircle or
surround’.
 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical conditions that surround,
affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people, animals and plants”
 This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment as well as the cultural
and social contexts that shape human lives.
 It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or population at any point
in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a particular occurrence and all the things that surrounds
us

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MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various branches of studies
like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources, reactions,
transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water, soil and the effect of from
human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments like natural,
constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter disciplinary in nature including the
study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to
understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues and citizens and
experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary and
methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the definition and
solution of environmental problems.


SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

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 Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of areas and aspects,
which may be summarized as follows:
 Natural resources- their conservation and management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environmental pollution and control
 Human population and environment
 Social issues in relation to development and environment

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 these are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every section of society.
Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various environmental
problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for developing cleaner technologies and
promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to environment, need for
environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related to water, air, forest,
wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on marketing
goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000 certification.
Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great demand in the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television, radio,
newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which environmentally educated persons are
required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging environmental
consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related problems.

1.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental degradation can be
reversed if people of educated communities are organized, empowered and experts are involved in
sustainable development.
 Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities

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 At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and complexity day by
day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues are studied besides giving effective
suggestions in the environment studies.
 The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our natural
resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain, marine
pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be
tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems,
Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North, to
cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories to South. When the West
developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path
is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent
of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural
resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of
micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We need a
goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

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 (3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over- consuming wasteful
societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our activities cause
destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have all to be
synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions should be planned
ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

1.1.3 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its
natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit
the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet the
development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent on the
nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our
people are still below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor w ho depend upon the resources of their
immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment degradation are
two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have
caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like
community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical

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 fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is
essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water bodies. Suitable strategies for
conservation of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean should be
developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water,
plan to harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would
submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate. Forests in India have been
shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once
green, stand today as waste lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give them sustenance. We must
recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving forests. The modern knowledge and skills
of the forest department should be integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local
communities. The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential
for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil
degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is
classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of
livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land,
most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying
degrees. Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be
avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas. Urbanization and
industrialization has given birth to a great number of environmental problems. Over 30 percent of
urban Indians live in slums. Out of

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 India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence,
coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A
great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the worst in terms of air and water
pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their
implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people are
to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.

ECOSYSTEM

ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) – means “house” (or) place
of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of. Hence, ecology is the branch of science that
deals with the study of the pattern of relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”
The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or)
surroundings (or) Environment, w here living organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in
regular and interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is called as
“ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the ecosystems.

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 2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY
STRUCTURE:

 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:

 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:

 Dynamic (Not static)

 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:

 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

.
2.1.3 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains the
relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.

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 Biotic
Component

Eco System

Abiotic
Component

2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic component”.

Examples: Plants (Producers)

Animals (Consumers) and

Micro Organisms (Decomposers)

 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how they get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

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 A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)
 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs. Examples:
All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence they are also called
“Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some extent through oxidation of
certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-
autotrophs. For instance, in the ocean depths, where there is no sunlight, chemoautotrophic sulphur bacteria
make use of the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in the earth’s core and released in
ocean’s depths. They use this heat to convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into
organic compounds.

C. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly (or)
indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
 They directly depend on the herbivores for their food
 . Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.

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 Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for
their food.

 Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.

Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called
detritivores.

 Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.

Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition
inorganic nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take
part in metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The
abiotic component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors: Solar radiation, temperature, wind,
Water current, rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances

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I. Abiotic Structure

The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure. It includes climatic factors, edaphic (soil)
factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and toxic substances.

(a) Physical factors: The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours, average temperature, maximum-
minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude and altitude, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. are some of
the important physical features which have a strong influence on the ecosystem.

We can clearly see the striking differences in solar flux, temperature and precipitation (rainfall, snow etc.) pattern in a desert
ecosystem, in a tropical rainforest and in tundra ecosystem.

(b) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen
and sulphur, level of toxic substances, salts causing salinity and various organic substances present in the soil or water largely
influence the functioning of the ecosystem.

2.1.4 : FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of energy.
Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food. They are
always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco
system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and decompose
them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.

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  The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is called
as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a
picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of
organisms in an environment, as shown in the following figure.
Carnivores Omnivores

SUN Producers Herbivores Decomposer

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight,
chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals and plants and
release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are re-used by new plants, back to the
starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain (or)
detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain. Example:
Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain:

Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagle

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 Forest food chain:

Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion

Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco
system. Food chain in water is called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain , Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain , Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond:

Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man

Marine Food chain:

Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

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 Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and goes to decomposer
through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic matter.

Dead
mangrove

Detritus
Phytoplankt Carnivor

Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Largefish

Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain either consumer (or) producer
is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are connected at
different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level.
Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

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 Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

Significance of food chains and food webs

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 Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two most
important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
 The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different animals and thus,
 help maintain the ecological balance.
 Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals.

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 Figure: Food W eb
Sp ar r ow

Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food chains are inter connected
with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.

C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the tropic levels (i.e.,
tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

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 Apex

Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Secondary Consumers
Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

(Carnivores)

Primary Consumers

(Herbivores)

Producers

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in organist population.
Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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 1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.

 Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in numbers.
So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 st tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the
numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level. Since the
numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The number
and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are decreases from
lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from lower tropic level to
higher tropic level as shown in figure.

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 Apex

Large Tertiary Consumers

Fish
Distance in Number

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base

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 Large Fish

Small Fish

Zoo Plankton
Ex: Protozoa Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae) Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

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 Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these producers occupy the lower
tropic level which is narrow base.

The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the number of birds,
insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy the third tropic level. Since the
number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since the number of lion, tiger are
lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower.
So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called partially upright of number
as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Lion,
Tiger

Snakes, Secondary Consumers

Foxes

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Trees
Producers

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 Tertiary Consumers
Lion, Tiger

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Trees Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher tropic level, is known
as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers

Birds
Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or) organism)
present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.
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  Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
Upright pyramid of biomass.
Inverted pyramid of biomass.
Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to consumer
level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as shown in
figure)

Apex

Lion- Tertiary Consumers

10kgs

Snakes,
Secondary Consumers
fox- 100kgs
Distance in Number

Insects, Birds- Primary Consumers

1000kgs

Trees-10000kgs Producers

Base

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 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Producers
Trees

i. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are called as
Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels as shown in
the following figure.

Big fish
Tertiary Consumers

Sma ll fish Secondary Consumers

Insect
Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

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 Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level. At each successive
tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at
each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy
at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is
always upright as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
5 Kcals

50 K cals
Decrease in Energy

Secondary Consumers

500 K Cals Primary Consumers

5000 K cals Producers

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 5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers

50 K cals
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
500 k cals

Producers
5000 K cals

MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:

1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt
content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
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 Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores ,land along the edges of sea

MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:

An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals
Types:
Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
Littoral and swamps
Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc

Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals

Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria

Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water and marine
ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.

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 Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae, aquatic
plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing,
bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during summer
is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone Second layer –
enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone Third layer – very poor or no
sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached to sediments eg.
Snails
Types of lakes : Many types

1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content

2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination
3. Desert salt lakes –that contains high saline water due to over evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and nutrient content are
uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of running water provides more oxygen
supply. The animals have very narrow range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims
of in dustrial pollution.

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 River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen – plants attached
to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that require
less oxygen are seen.
Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and delta –
very rich in biodiversity.

Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea
products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate biochemical
cycles.
 Two zones:
4. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary productivity.
5. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich
in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however to
be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc

. Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

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 2.1.7.1 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but
erratic – overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate

a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests.
Eg. Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are
common in dry seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to
fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of
high CO2 – global warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold
winter and very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs
and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic
wolf, fox, etc. – A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil
surface throughout the year – known as permafrost – summer insects
and birds appear.

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