Composites and Manufacturing Methods

Yiding Liu
Lecturer in Aerospace Engineering
Room: 1E120
[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

• Identify the types, properties and manufacture of composite

materials;
• Apply analytical methods to structural components subjected to
complex stress/strain fields.
• Limit the occurrence of failure in materials by appropriate
modelling, design and materials selection.
Learning Resources

Other Books that you might find useful

• Mechanics of Composites – William

Callister and Daniel Gay
• Mechanics of Composite Materials by
Autar Kaw
 What are Composites?

A composite is a combination of two or more distinct

constituents combined macroscopically to yield a useful
material, that is, the properties of the final product should
be significantly different compared to the constituent
materials.

The constituent phases must be distinct and separated

by a distinct interface.

Most composites materials are made up of just two

phases: Matrix and the reinforcement. Shows composite in which the matrix is a
continuous phase which surrounds the
dispersed phase (Callister, 2009)
Why do we use composites?
Micromechanics of Composites
Classification of Composites Materials

Composites

Particle- Fibre-
Structural
reinforced reinforced

Dispersion Large particle

Continuous Discontinuous Sandwich
strengthened e.g. concrete: Laminates
(aligned) (short) panels
(small particles gravel + sand
impede the + cement
motion of
dislocations)
e.g. metal alloys.

Composites materials classification scheme.

8
 What is Composites?

Examples
o Wood
o Bone
o Granite
o Concrete
o CEMET: – CE(ceramics); MET(metals)
o Long fibrous composite
o metal-matrix composites (MMCs)
o Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs)
o Polymer-matrix composites
o C-C composites
 Micromechanics of Composites
Classification of Composites Materials – Dispersed Phase

• For particle-reinforced composites the dispersed phase is equiaxed (i.e.,

particle dimensions are approximately the same in all directions);

• For fibre reinforced composites the dispersed phase has the geometry of a
fibre (i.e., a large length-to-diameter ratio).

• Structural composites are combinations of composites and homogeneous

materials.

10
Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites

• The dispersed phase is in the form

of a fibre

• The design of these sort of

materials is often focused on
achieving high strength and/or
stiffness on a weight basis.

• Fibre-reinforced composites are

subclassified by fibre length
Metal matrix nanocomposite. (Yousef, Ahmed).

11
Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Influence of Fibre Length

The mechanical characteristics of a fibre-reinforced composite depend not only on

the properties of the fibre, but also on the degree to which an applied load is
transmitted to the fibres by the matrix phase.

The magnitude of the

interfacial bond between the
fibre and the matrix is of great
importance when considering
the extend of transmitted
load. The deformation pattern in the matrix surrounding a
fibre that is subjected to an applied tensile load
(Callister, 2009)
Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Influence of Fibre Length

The fibre-matrix bond stops at the fibre ends which in turn produces deformation in
the matrix.

There is no load transmittance

from the matrix at each fibre
extremity.

The deformation pattern in the matrix surrounding a

fibre that is subjected to an applied tensile load
(Callister, 2009)
 (Dispersed phase) Fibres

The fibres are the load-bearing constituent and must be strong

Fibres approach the theoretical strength of a material and are

stronger than bulk components

There is a variety of fibres:

• Carbon
• Glass
• Kevlar (aramid)
• Boron

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wXxn-8OA8Ac
 (Dispersed phase) Fibres

The continuum phase is called the matrix. The

matrix:

• keeps the reinforcement in place

• protects the reinforcement from damage

• needs to have a strong bond with the

reinforcement (to transfer the load to the
reinforcement)
 How are stresses transferred in a
composite?
One of the requirements of the matrix is to transfer stresses to the
reinforcement.

Transfer of stress requires a strong interfacial bond between the

matrix and the reinforcement i.e. there must be a good adherent
interface
 Continuous or discontinuous fibres?

The ends of a fibre carry less load than the remainder of the fibre.

For this reason continuous fibres give composites of higher strength.

 Micromechanics of Composites
Structural Composites

Sandwich panels are designed to be lightweight

beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses
and strengths.

A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or

faces, that are separated by and adhesively
bonded to a thicker core.

The outer sheets impart high stiffness and strength

to the structure and must withstand tensile and
compressive stresses as a result from loading.

The core material is lightweight and normally has a

low modulus of elasticity.
Micromechanics of Composites
Sandwich Composites
MICRO-MECHANICS
Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Influence of Fibre Orientation and Concentration

Properties of fibre-reinforced
composites are dependent on:

• The orientation of the fibres

relative to one another
(aligned or random)
• The fibre concentration
• The fibre distribution
(uniformity)

(a)continuous and aligned, (b) discontinuous and aligned,

and (c) discontinuous and randomly oriented fibre–reinforced
composites .
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Continuous and Aligned Fibres

Mechanical responses of this type of

composite depend on several factors,
including:

• the stress–strain behaviours of fibre and

matrix phases;

• the volume fractions (amount of fibres vs

amount of matrix);

• the direction in which the load is applied

(Longitudinal or transverse direction)
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Continuous and Aligned Fibres

Stage I: both fibres and matrix deform

elastically initially; linear region. the matrix
yields and the fibres stretch elastically.

Stage II: this stage is ordinarily very nearly

linear, but of diminished slope relative to Stage
I. Furthermore, in passing from Stage I to
Stage II, the proportion of the applied load that
is borne by the fibres increases.

The onset of composite failure begins as the

fibres start to fracture, which corresponds to a
strain of approximately 𝜖∗𝑓. Schematic stress–strain curves for fibre reinforced
composites (load applied along the direction of
alignment).
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Continuous and Aligned Fibres

Composite failure is not catastrophic for a

couple of reasons:

1. Not all fibres fracture at the same time;

2. Even after fibre failure, the matrix is still

intact inasmuch as 𝜖∗𝑓 < 𝜖∗𝑚

Schematic stress–strain curves for fibre

reinforced composites.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

Consider continuous and oriented fibre composite materials, that is loaded in the direction of the fibre
alignment, the modulus of elasticity can be derived by recalling that
𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝝐 = 𝜎/𝐸
Assumption:
The deformation of both matrix and fibres is the same; this is known as isostrain (𝝐𝑪
= 𝝐𝒎 = 𝝐𝒇). In other words, the fibre-matrix
interfacial bond is very good.

hence,
𝐹𝑐= 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑓

where 𝐹𝑐 is the total load sustained by the composite, 𝐹𝑚 and 𝐹𝑓 is

the load carried by the matrix and fibres, respectively.

Note: 𝑐 refers in this case to

composite as supposed to critical
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

The equation for modulus of elasticity of a continuous and aligned fibrous composite in
the direction of the alignment (or longitudinal direction), 𝐸𝑐𝑙, is given as

𝐸𝑐𝑙 = 𝐸𝑚𝑉𝑚 + 𝐸𝑓𝑉𝑓

where 𝐸𝑚 and 𝐸𝑓 are the matrix and fibres moduli, respectively;

while 𝑉𝑚and 𝑉𝑓are the matrix and fibres volume fractions,
respectively. This expression is better known as the rule of
mixtures.

Because 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑓 = 1 the expression can be rewritten as follows

𝐸𝑐𝑙 = 𝐸𝑚(1 − 𝑉𝑓) + 𝐸𝑓𝑉𝑓

 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

Other properties, including density, strength, heat capacity, thermal and electrical
conductivity, also have this dependence on volume fractions.

For longitudinal loading, the ratio of the load carried by the fibres to
that carried by the matrix is

𝐹𝑓 𝐸𝑉
= 𝑓 𝑓
𝐹𝑚 𝐸𝑚𝑉𝑚

Assuming that 𝜖∗ < 𝜖∗ , which is the usual case, then fibres will fail
𝑓 𝑚
before the matrix.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

Assuming that 𝜖𝑓∗ < 𝜖∗𝑚 , which is the usual case,

then fibres will fail before the matrix, see Figure 10.

Once the fibres have fractured, most of the load

that was borne by the fibres is now transferred to
the matrix, the longitudinal strength of the
composite, 𝜎𝑐∗ is given as
𝜎∗ = 𝜎 ′ 1 − 𝑉 + 𝜎 ∗ 𝑉
𝑐𝑙 𝑚 𝑓 𝑓 𝐹

Where 𝜎𝑚 ′ is the stress in the matrix at fibre

failure.
Failure mode will mainly depend on fibre and matrix
properties, and the nature and strength of the fibre-matrix
interfacial bond.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

A continuous and aligned glass fibre–reinforced composite consists of 40 vol% of glass

fibres having a modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa and 60 vol% of a polyester resin that,
when hardened, displays a modulus of 3.4 GPa.

a) Compute the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the longitudinal direction.

b) If the cross-sectional area is 250 mm2 and a stress of 50 MPa is applied in this
longitudinal direction, compute the magnitude of the load carried by each of the fibre
and matrix phases.
c) Determine the strain that is sustained by each phase when the stress in part (b) is
applied.

Note: To be completed during class.

 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

a) Compute the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the longitudinal direction.

Solution: use the equation for modulus of elasticity for longitudinal

aligned fibre composites

𝐸𝑐𝑙 = 𝐸𝑚 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝐸𝑓𝑉𝑓
= 3.4 GPa 0.6 + 69 GPa 0.4
= 30 GPa
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

b) If the cross-sectional area is 250 mm2 and a stress of 50 MPa is applied in this
longitudinal direction, compute the magnitude of the load carried by each of the fibre and
matrix phases.

Solution: First find the ratio of fibre load to matrix load

𝐹𝑓 = 69 GPa 0.4
= 13.5
𝐹𝑚 3.4 GPa 0.6

Or 𝐹𝑓 = 13.5𝐹𝑚
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

The total force sustained by the composite 𝐹𝑐may be computed from the applied
stress 𝜎 and the total cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑐

𝐹𝑐= 𝐴𝑐𝜎
= 250 mm2 50 MPa
= 12500 N

However, this total force or load is just the sum of the loads carried by the fibre and
matrix phases; that is
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑓 + 𝐹𝑚 = 12500 N
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

Substituting 𝐹𝑓 = 13.5𝐹𝑚 into equation for total load sustained by the composite
material yields

𝐹𝑐 = 13.5𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑚 = 12500 N

Hence, 𝐹𝑚 = 860 N and 𝐹𝑓 = 11640 N. Thus, the fibre phase supports the vast
majority of the applied load.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

c) Determine the strain that is sustained by each phase when the stress in part (b) is
applied.

Solution: The stress for both the fibre and matrix phases must first be calculated.
Then, by using the elastic modulus for each (from part (a) ), the strain values may
be determined.

1. For stress calculations, the

individual phase cross-sectional 𝐴 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚𝐴𝑐 = 0.6 250 mm2
area must be determined by using 𝐴𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓𝐴𝑐 = (0.4)(250 mm2)
the volume fractions of each phase.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

Thus,
𝐹𝑚 860 N
𝜎𝑚 = = = 5.73 MPa
𝐴𝑚 150 mm 2
𝐹𝑓 11640 N
𝜎𝑓 = = = 116.4 MPa
𝐴𝑓 100 mm2

Finally, strains are computed as

𝜎𝑚 5.73 MPa
𝜖𝑚 = = = 1.69 × 10 −3
Therefore, strains for
𝐸𝑚 3.4 × 103 MPa
𝜎𝑓 116.4 MPa both matrix and fibre
= 1.69 × 10 −3
phases are identical.
𝜖𝑓 = 𝐸𝑓 = 69 × 103 MPa
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

A continuous and oriented fibre composite may be loaded in the transverse direction;
that is, the load is applied at a 90∘ angle to the direction of fibre alignment. For this
situation the stress to which the composite as well as both phases are exposed is the
same, or

𝝈𝑪 = 𝝈𝒎 = 𝝈𝒇 = 𝝈

This situation is better known as an isostress

state. The deformation of the entire composite is
then expressed as
𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝜖𝑓 𝑉𝑓 , but 𝜖 = 𝜎
𝐸

𝐸𝑚 𝐸 𝑓
hence, 𝐸𝑐𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐸 +𝑉 𝑓 𝐸𝑚
𝑓
 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

Determine the elastic modulus a continuous and oriented glass fibre–reinforced

composite loaded in the transverse direction consists of 40 vol% of glass fibres having a
modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa and 60 vol% of a polyester resin that, when hardened,
displays a modulus of 3.4 GPa.

Note: To be completed during class.

 Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour – Example

Use the equation for modulus of elasticity for a composite material loaded in the
transverse direction

𝐸𝑚𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑐 =
𝑉𝑚𝐸𝑓 + 𝑉𝑓𝐸𝑚
(3.4 GPa) 69 GPa
=
0.6 69 GPa + 0.4 3.4 GPa
= 5.5 GPa

Notice how the value for 𝐸𝑐𝑡 is lower, by about five times, than the modulus of
elasticity along the fibre direction, that is 𝐸𝑐𝑙 = 30 GPa.
Micromechanics of Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites – Elastic Behaviour

Table 1. Typical longitudinal and transverse tensile strengths for three

unidirectional fibre reinforced composites (Callister, 2009)
Material Longitudinal Tensile Transverse Tensile
Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa)
Glass–polyester 700 20
Carbon (high modulus)–epoxy 1000 35
Kevlar–epoxy 1200 20
 Micromechanics of Composites
Structural Composites – Laminar Composites

A laminar composite is composed of sheets or

panels that have a preferred high-strength
direction, such as is found in wood and
continuous and aligned fibre–reinforced plastics.

The layers are stacked and subsequently

cemented together such that the orientation of
the high-strength direction varies with each
successive layer
The stacking of successive oriented
fibre-reinforced layers for a laminar
composite (Callister, 2009)
Micromechanics of Composites
Structural Composites – Laminar Composites

To analyse a laminated composite structure, the

properties of each layer and their stacking
sequence must be known.

The stacking of successive oriented

fibre-reinforced layers for a laminar
composite (Callister, 2009)
 Micromechanics of Composites
Laboratory specimen – preparation

Fabric with fibres and

polymer maintained at
− 18∘C
Triangular cuts are made to allow for
different fibre angle arrangements.
 Micromechanics of Composites
Laboratory specimen – preparation

For 0∘ and 90∘ angle the cuts

are made in square shapes Cut outs are then lay-up according to desired
angles and pressed down with a roller.
Micromechanics of Composites
Laboratory specimen – preparation

Finally, a curation
process takes place.
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite – Stacking sequence (Example)

Consider a laminated composite consisting of 16 individual layers. The formation of

the fibres may be in the following formation:

Two layers with fibres at 0∘

The short hand description is:
Two layers with fibres at 90∘
Two layers with fibres at +45∘
0∘ / 90∘ / + 45∘ / − 45∘ 2𝑠
Two layers with fibres at −45∘
Ref.
Two layers with fibres at −45∘
Where the subscript 𝑠 indicates that the
Two layers with fibres at +45∘
distribution is symmetrical about a reference
Two layers with fibres at 90∘ plane while the subscript number 2 indicates the
Two layers with fibres at 0∘ number of layers, with a particular orientation,
above and below the symmetry plane.
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite – Stacking sequence (Example)
The specimens for the composites practical will
have the following stacking sequence:

0∘ 4s:
all fibres in all 8 plies run along the
longitudinal axis.
0∘
90∘ 4𝑠: all fibres in all 8 plies run perpendicular to 90∘
the longitudinal axis.
+45∘
±45∘ 2s : half of the fibres are oriented at
+ 45∘while the other half are oriented at −45∘.
−45∘
Ref.
0o/90 ∘/±45 ∘ 𝑠: see Figure 14. This arrangement 0∘/90∘/±45∘ 𝑠
is called quasi-isotropic lay-up because it carries stacking sequence (only the top half is
equal loads in all four directions. shown).
 Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite – Stacking sequence (Example)
The assumptions to be considered in the
analysis of laminated composites are as
follows:
0∘
1. Fibres are uniformly distributed 90∘
throughout the matrix; +45∘
2. Ideal interfacial bonding between fibres
and matrix. −45∘
3. Matrix is free of voids. 0∘
4. Lamina is initially in a stress-free state
(no residual stresses). 90∘
5. Fibre and matrix behave as linearly +45∘
elastic materials.
−45∘ Ref.
0∘/90∘/±45∘ 2𝑠
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - Rule of Mixtures

The mass of the element in Figure 5 is

𝑚total = 𝑚 fibres + 𝑚 matrix + 𝑚 void

However, if we assumed the mass of

the void to be negligible, then the
volume of the element is

𝑉total = 𝑉fibres + 𝑉matrix

Illustration of the matrix, fibre, and void volumes

Laminate Stacking Sequence
Laminate Stacking Sequence
Laminate Stacking Sequence

[±45/02/90]S 0o
90o
+ 45 o 0o
- 45 o 90o
0o 45o
0o
90o
90o 0o
90o
90o
0o
0o
0o
- 45 o
+ 45 o [(0 / 90 )2 / 45 ]s
Laminate Stacking Sequence
Laminate Stacking Sequence
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - The 10% rule

𝜎c = 𝑉f0∘𝜎0∘ + 0.1(𝑉f90∘ 𝜎0∘ ) + 0.1(𝑉f+45∘ 𝜎0∘ ) + 0.1(𝑉f−45∘ 𝜎0∘ )

Normalised strength, 𝜎 1

Normalised stress
against fibre orientation.

0.1

0∘ ±45∘ 90∘
Angle, 𝜃 (degree)
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - The 10% rule

The rule can be extended to stresses as follows:

𝐸c = 𝑉f0∘ 𝐸0∘ + 0.1(𝑉f90∘ 𝐸0∘ ) + 0.1(𝑉f+45∘ 𝐸0∘ ) + 0.1(𝑉f−45∘ 𝐸0∘ )

1
Normalised 𝐸

Normalised modulus
of elasticity against
fibre orientation.

0.1

0∘ ±45∘ 90∘
Angle, 𝜃 (degree)
Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - The 10% rule: Example

For a 10 ply laminate with the lay-up 0∘/ 90∘/ 0∘ + 45∘/ − 45∘ 𝑆 calculate the average
strength of the composite in the 0∘, 90∘, and ±45∘ directions if the single ply
strength is 3000 MPa.

Note: To be completed during class.

Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - The 10% rule: Example

For a 10 ply laminate with the lay-up 0∘/ 90∘/ 0∘ + 45∘/ − 45∘ 𝑆 calculate the average
strength of the composite in the 0∘, 90∘, and ±45∘ directions if the single ply
strength is 3000 MPa.

Volume ratio can be expressed as follows:

𝜎c,0∘ = 𝑉f,0∘𝜎0∘ + 0.1(𝑉f,90∘𝜎0∘) + 0.1(𝑉f,+45∘𝜎0∘) + 0.1(𝑉f,−45∘ 𝜎0∘)
2 1 1
𝑉𝑓,0∘ = 5 ; 𝑉𝑓,90∘ = 5 ; 𝑉𝑓,−45∘ = 51 ; 𝑉 𝑓,+45∘ = 5

with 𝜎0∘ = 3 × 109N/m2

 Micromechanics of Composites
Laminate Composite - The 10% rule: Example

2 1 1
𝑉𝑓,0∘ = 5 ; 𝑉𝑓,90∘ = 5 ; 𝑉𝑓,−45∘ = 51 ; 𝑉 𝑓,+45∘ = 5 with 𝜎0∘ = 3 × 109N/m2

𝜎c,0∘ = 𝑉f,0∘𝜎0∘ + 0.1(𝑉f,90∘𝜎0∘) + 0.1(𝑉f,+45∘𝜎0∘) + 0.1(𝑉f,−45∘𝜎0∘)

2 1 1 1
=3× 109 + 3 × 109 0.1 + 3 × 109 0.1 + 3 × 109 0.1
5 5 5 5

= 1380 MPa
Thank you for listening

Questions?