COMPUTER NETWORK

ASSIGNMENT -1
MCA-IInd year
SUBMITTED BY

Question: Describe the basic communication model

and its components.
Answer: The basic communication model in computer networking is
where the Sender (encodes the message) channel sends a message over a
channel or medium and receiver (decodes the message) gives Feedback.

Components
The components involved in the successful implementation of the basic
communication model are as follows −

 Sender − Who sends the message.

 Encodes − Translates messages into symbols like words,
pictures, sound, etc.
 Channel or medium − It used to transmit messages. Some
channels are face-to-face communication, over telephone,
letters, television, newspapers, radio, etc.
 Decode − Receiver decodes these symbols to understand
what the sender wants to say.
 Receiver − A person who receives the message.
 Feedback − After receiving a message, the receiver sends
feedback to the sender, answer and what he understands
from the message.

In the basic communication model, the sender encodes the message and
transmits the message through communication channels like verbal (face-to-
face, over telephone, video calls) and non verbal (newspapers, letters) for
sending the message.

Then, the receiver receives the message and decodes it according to their
understanding and again sends feedback to the sender.

In this communication process, noise plays a role of

disruption. If noise is there in the communication process then the receiver
does not receive the exact message.
Question: What is topology? Explain topologies in
data communications.
Answer: Topology defines the structure of the network
of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.

Types of topology:
 Bus Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring
Topology 
Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel. In this topology the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is
also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In this topology all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can
be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the
same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them.
Bus Topology
In this topology network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a
non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus
Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To
avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure
Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
Ring Topology
In a this topology it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach
the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called
Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is
used by the workstations to transmit the data.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
  The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb
the whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical
flow of data.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies
we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any
form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a
combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses
the protocol that has been discussed earlier.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.

Question: Define computer network and categorize the computer

networks.
Answer:
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer

network is mainly of four types:
 o LAN(Local Area Network)
o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area
Network) o WAN(Wide Area
Network

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network. o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line. o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 o It can be used in an Airline
Reservation. o It can be used in a
college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable
or satellite links.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.

Question: Explain the various types of transmission media in

computer networks.

Answer: A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and

the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic
applications.
Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their
antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications:
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in
designing the interior and exterior of automobiles

Question: Describe the various connecting devices in computer

network.
Answer: Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking
hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge,
Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal
but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original
strength. It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the
best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as
a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the
maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
the distance between nodes.
  Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add
on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source
and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device. 4.
Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a
data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data,
which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch
divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their
IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains
of hosts connected through it.
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
that may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents
that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also
called a protocol converter.

Question:

Answer: Data communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive

data. For data communication two models are available. We will discuss these two
models in this article and also see the differences between these two articles.
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has 7 layers Physical layer, Data
Link layer, Network layer, Transport layer, Session layer, Presentation layer,
and Application layer. Each layer performs its task independently. It was
developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Advantages
 Both connection-oriented services and connectionless services are
supported.
 It is quite flexible.
 All the layers work independently.
Disadvantages
 Setting up a model is a challenging task.
 Sometimes, it becomes difficult to fit a new protocol into this model.
 It is only used as a reference model.
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It has 4 layers
named as Physical layer, Network layer, Transport layer, and Application layer. It
also can be used as a communications protocol in a private computer network.

Advantages
 Many Routing protocols are supported.
 It is highly scalable and uses a client-server architecture.
 It is lightweight.
Disadvantages
 Little difficult to set up.
 Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the transport layer.
 Vulnerable to a synchronization attack.

Question: Differentiate wired LANs and wireless LANs.

Answer:
LAN WLAN

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area

LAN stands for Local Area Network.
Network.

LAN connections include both wired WLAN connections are completely

and wireless connections. wireless.
 LAN WLAN

LAN network is a collection of WLAN network is a collection of

computers or other such network computers or other such network devices
devices in a particular location that are in a particular location that are connected
connected together by communication together wirelessly by communication
elements or network elements. elements or network elements.

LAN is free from external attacks like

Whereas, WLAN is vulnerable to external
interruption of signals, cyber criminal
attacks.
attacks and so on.

LAN is secure. WLAN is not secure.

LAN network has lost its popularity due

to the arrival of latest wireless WLAN is popular.
networks.

Wired LAN needs physical access like

Work on connecting wires to the switches
connecting the wires to the switches or
and routers are neglected.
routers.

In LAN, devices are connected locally For WLAN Ethernet cable is not
with Ethernet cable. necessary.

Mobility limited. Outstanding mobility.

It varies due to external factors like

It may or may not vary with external
environment and quality of cables. Most
factors like environment and quality of
of the external factors affect the signal
cables.
transmission.

LAN is less expensive. WLAN is more expensive.

Example: Computers connected in a Example: Laptops, cellphones, tablets

college. connected to a wireless router or hotspot.

Question : Write short note on:

(i) Multipoint connection
(ii) Jitter
(iii) Reliability
(iv) Passive Hub
(v) SMTP

Answer:
(i) **Multipoint Connection:**
A multipoint connection refers to a telecommunication or network
setup where multiple devices or nodes share a common
communication channel. Unlike a point-to-point connection, where
there is a dedicated link between two devices, a multipoint connection
allows several devices to communicate over the same channel
simultaneously. This type of connection is commonly found in
networks where multiple devices need to exchange information, such
as in bus or ring topologies. Multipoint connections are efficient for
broadcasting information to multiple recipients but may face
challenges in managing simultaneous transmissions.

(ii) **Jitter:**
Jitter is the variability in the arrival time of data packets in a
communication network. It can result from network congestion,
varying transmission delays, or other irregularities in the data transfer
process. In real-time applications such as voice over IP (VoIP) or
video conferencing, excessive jitter can lead to poor audio or video
quality. Minimizing jitter is essential for maintaining a smooth and
consistent flow of data in time-sensitive applications.

(iii) **Reliability:**
Reliability in the context of information systems and networks refers
to the ability of a system to consistently perform its intended functions
without failures or errors. A reliable system should be available when
needed, provide accurate results, and be resistant to disruptions or
faults. Achieving high reliability often involves redundancy, fault
tolerance, and robust error-handling mechanisms. Reliability is a
critical factor in various applications, including communication
networks, where downtime or data loss can have significant
consequences.
(iv) **Passive Hub:**
A passive hub is a basic networking device that operates at the
physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model. Unlike active hubs or
switches, passive hubs do not amplify or regenerate the incoming
electrical signals. Instead, they serve as simple connection points,
allowing multiple network devices to be physically connected in a star
topology. Passive hubs are often used in small networks where signal
strength and data integrity are not significant concerns, and cost-
effective solutions are preferred.

(v) **SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):**

SMTP is a standard protocol used for the transmission of electronic
mail (email) over the internet. It is part of the application layer of the
TCP/IP protocol suite. SMTP is responsible for sending and relaying
outgoing mail between mail servers and for receiving incoming mail
from other servers. It works in conjunction with other protocols such
as POP3 (Post Office Protocol) or IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol), which are used by email clients to retrieve messages from
a mail server. SMTP is a text-based protocol that defines the rules for
the interaction between mail servers in the process of sending and
receiving emails.