UNIT III: CULTURE AND THE ARTS

Lesson 10: Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation

Learning outcome
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain how meanings can be derived from art;
2. discuss how improvisation can make an artwork distinctive; and
3. identify the issues and problems that can arise because of appropriation of art.

Soulmaking: Making and Deriving Meaning from Art

In order for humans to make sense of language and derive meanings from words, semantics and
grammatical rules are important elements to be considered. Aside from this, context and
symbolisms are also considered to interpret and analyze either verbal or written works. When it
comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it would require understanding the
visual elements where art was grounded on, especially the principles of design. It is important to
note that the audience of the artwork must have a certain level of awareness to the style, form,
and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it would be difficult to appreciate the
visual arts in its fullness and entirety.
Style refers to the distinctive handling of elements and media associated with the work of an
individual artist, a school, a movement, or a specific culture or time period (Fichner-Rathus,
2013). Throughout history, there have been developments in art styles that depict different and
varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This form is what the audience
sees a finished product put harmoniously (or not) according to the different principles of design.
In essence, form is the totality of the artwork, which includes the textures, colors, and shapes
utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not only its form but also its subject
matter and underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). The perceiver of the artwork
must take into consideration the totality of elements, underlying themes and motifs, and
composition.
Improvisation
Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior preparation. There is a decision
to act upon something that may not necessarily be planned. Within the present context,
improvisation has become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a reaction
against the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century. There is a call for liberation from
monotony that aims to rekindle the creative spirits of people in the arts.
For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to the totality of the work of art.
The unexpectedness of the changes brought about by improvisation makes the artwork to have a
distinctive quality that creates its individuality and identity. Some artists subscribe to the idea of
allowing chances in the process of producing the work. For example, artists would want to
capture the gloom brought about by an approaching storm or the beauty of a meteor shower at
night. Since they do not necessarily have absolute control over natural phenomena, their
reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their expected outcome. Artists allowing their
subjects do improvisation may have totally different results as well.
When an artist makes his work, he has already an idea of the elements that will be included in
his work. As he begins to craft his work, he may have deviated from his original plan. So in
essence, improvisation is evident in the process of making the painting. During the 1960s, art
improvisation has taken form in the galleries around New York City. Performance arts, dance,
and visual arts were combined to create new forms of artworks using a new medium. These
performances were known as the "Happenings" which later on paved the way for modern body
art and performance art. One of central figures in the improvisation movement was Georges
Mathieu. He started the "action painting" wherein the process is seen real-time. In this scenario,
the process is more important than the finished product.
 Figure 1 shows how improvisation allows for a certain extent of
freedom for the artist to improvise and allow the subject to perform
and embody the artwork itself. To a certain extent, it allows the
artist to explore and think about how the audience can actually be
a part of the work in itself. Improvisation may have been a
revolutionary concept when it comes to art because it blurs the line
of reality and that of imagination.

Figure 1: Marta Minunjin Performance Art

Appropriation
If, for example, an artist created a painting and displayed it in a museum, who do you think owns
the artwork: the artist or his intended audience? During the twentieth century, people started
raising the question whether or not the act of deriving meaning gives the ownership of the
artwork to the viewer rather than the artist himself. This notion paved the way for the
emergence of appropriation artists who seem to promote the idea that the authorship relies on
the viewer. If this is the case, then appropriation artists can take as much as he wants from an
existing artwork.
Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history. In the past, if an apprentice
painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he would be allowed to use his master's work to copy.
It is as if the apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of techniques to something
he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who go to the extreme by believing
that copying the exact artwork of an artist and attributing it to his own. This could pose a
problem especially with authorship. The problem arises when the appropriation artist would get
bits and pieces from other works and incorporate these elements into his own work. In addition,
when appropriation artists eschew the responsibility for putting up the details of other works and
integrating them into their own, their voices and perspectives of the other artists get lost with
that of the appropriation artist. There seems to be a very thin demarcation line between
appropriation art and forgery. Traditionally, forgery can be classified into two forms: outright
copies of existing works and pastiches, which are works that bring together elements from a
work and infusing them to a new work. But in contemporary times, forgery can be in the form of
creating an approximate of what an artist would do by prediction: This can be done by observing
the techniques and style the artist employed and even the focal points highlighted in his
previous and existing works.
The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since issues of plagiarism or
forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that the reason behind the appropriation is that they
want the audience to recognize the images they copied. There is a hope on the part of the artist
for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective. That appropriation would bring
about a new context to the original work. One of the most famous works of appropriation would
have to be Andy Warhol's "Campbell's Soup Cans" (1962). Warhol copied the original labels of
the soup can but deliberately filled up the entire picture plane. The idea of putting together of
the soup cans is something new for the audience. Just like any product, the brand is integral to
Campbell's identity. As an artist, Warhol decided to isolate the image of the product. This
attempt could in turn stimulate product recognition. A common viewer would associate the
Campbell soup with the portraits of the soup cans. This association would bring about a certain
kind of craving for the said product. In a way, it is a subtle form of advertising that would entice
the consumer to buy and patronize the product.
Lesson 11: Art in Asia
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify key influences to Chinese art;
2. identify key characteristics of Japanese art;
3. compare and contrast Chinese and Japanese artworks;
4. trace the development of Philippine art;
5. discuss the concept of okir, and
6. explain how art can be a key element in the formation of a society's culture .

When ancient civilizations in Asia flourished, trade became a very important activity. In the
process of establishing trading relationships among Asian countries, they started sharing their
cultures and belief systems. China, being one of the oldest civilizations in Asia, has a rich history
when it comes to culture and the arts. Most of their cultural and even religious beliefs and
practices are represented through different artworks. Japan was initially influenced by China in
terms of the arts. Later on, they opened themselves to the Western world, allowing for the fusion
of East and West. Both Chinese and Japanese artworks are concrete manifestations of their
cultural identity as a people. Philippine art was a product of several periods in history spanning
from the pre-colonial period to the contemporary times. Depending on a given context, art in the
Philippines has served various uses from everyday living to expression of belief systems and
advocacies.
Chinese Art
In the present context, China is at the forefront of economic development. Its booming economy
has led to its modernization. In addition, history shows that China has been at the leading edge
of development especially in terms of cultural development. Inhabitants of China in the past
were able to produce primitive artisan works. Excavated pieces show bronze vessels with
intricate designs depicting a lot of imagery dating from the second millennium BCE. The Chinese
during the Zhou Dynasty was under a feudal kind of social system. It was a parallel period with
that of Greece's Golden Age: a period when culture, particularly art, has flourished tremendously.
During this period, metal works befitting the royal family were produced in abundance. Jade was
also a popular choice of material for artworks.
Confucianism was the dominant way of life subscribed to by the general public. Those who
subscribed to principles espoused by Confucius believed that in order for society to work, one
must learn how to sympathize to others. These principles became evident in most artworks
depicting everyday life and how these social interactions come to play.
The Chinese also had interactions with Western missionaries who came from India and brought
some of the Indian influences to China. Because of this, Indian models inspired a lot of Chinese
artists for a few centuries. By the start of the sixth century, Chinese artists started making art
that highlighted their very own culture. Paintings usually depicted magical places and realms
that were born out of sheer imagination while still infusing the Chinese characters that define
their culture. It was a dominant belief that a great power coming from a higher spirit is the one
moving the artist and his work together.
Most paintings were done in monumental styles wherein rocks and mountains served as a barrier
that made the viewer distracted initially from the main subject of the work. Rounded forms rise
in a way that it flows from the background into the foreground. Artists also used sharp
brushstrokes to provide detail in their works. Western landscapes usually had a single vanishing
point while Chinese paintings had the opposite since most paintings aimed to give the audience
a multiple perspectives on the subject.
Porcelain is one of the commonly used items to make decorative ornaments, such as vases and
jars. Some artifacts from excavation sites show intricate works of the Chinese in these porcelain
vases. This can be attributed to the tradition of passing down the artistry from one generation to
the next. Just like most Chinese artworks, the focal point in these vases depicts a central theme:
nature. They believe that man is an integral part of nature ensuring that there is a certain
balance in it. But part of their culture is emphasizing a form of social life, giving importance to
communities and interactions among people. In addition, some of the common overarching
themes of Chinese artworks include everyday activities, war and violence, death, and nature. It
can also be noted that Chinese artworks are infused with a lot of symbolisms. Art becomes an
avenue for the artist to convey his reflection of the things he is aware of.
It is customary for the ancient Chinese people to show respect for their ancestors and departed
relatives. From a Western point of view, this reverence of the Chinese can be mistaken for as
that of worshipping gods. Most of the departed of the ancient Chinese were placed in either gold
or bronze vessels, depending on their social status.

Japanese Art
Art in Japan has undergone a series of transitions and periodization. From being an isolated
nation to that of embracing Western influences and modernization, Japan. has transitioned into a
modern cultural mixing pot. It is evident how the Japanese were able to infuse local and
indigenous materials with modern Western subjects and focal points.
Based on artifacts such as ceramic figures and ornaments, it is important to take note that there
are Korean and Chinese influences evident in Japanese artworks. One of the ceramic products
created by the Japanese is called Haniwa. These are ceramic figures that are made up of clay.
They are placed beside burial spots for reasons that are unknown.

Haniwa House

The native religion of Japan is Shintoism. Although, this religion subscribes to beliefs such as
being one with nature and embracing the notion of the existence of many gods, it did not use art
to communicate its beliefs. When Japan established trading relations with China, they did not
only trade goods with them but they were also influenced by the Chinese with their religious
beliefs and practices. Buddhism became an integral part of Japanese culture. Artworks such as
images and sculptures of Buddha were produced. Buddhist temples also became staples in key
places. Art in essence became an expression of worship for the Japanese.
As mentioned earlier, Japan and China had a long-standing relationship. In addition to Buddhism,
China also influenced Japan in terms of paintings. After the fourteenth century, Japan isolated
itself from the rest of the world, which in effect, gave them the avenue to let their culture
flourish. The Japanese style of painting leaned toward abstract and naturalistic handling. In
essence, the artist is given the free reign for his work, which had more room for spontaneity and
individuality. Many artists focused on individual portraits, elements of nature, and scenes from
everyday life in creating their artworks. Although the Chinese influenced them, the Japanese
adapted a more minimalist take on their paintings. This is a stark contrast with the extravagant
and sometimes over-the-top designs of the Chinese. The Japanese also developed a kind of
painting called the ukiyo-e, which was crafted through woodcut prints. The artists developed a
technique that used lines and colors in a very distinctive manner. Some Western artists were
intrigued and influenced by these ukiyo-e paintings. An example would be the woodcuts of
Hiroshige and Sharaku who had a lasting impact on Western artists like Vincent van Gogh and
Edouard Manet.
 An ukiyo-e painting entitled “Ase o fuku onna” (Woman Wiping Face). Print: Color and Woodcut

Philippine Art
Throughout Philippine history, spanning from the precolonial period to the contemporary periods,
different art forms have emerged in the Philippine art scene. Before the colonizers came to the
Philippines, ethnic minorities have used art not only for daily activities but also for religious
rituals and practices. Most art forms used by ethnic communities include pottery, weaving,
carving, and the use of metalwork and jewelry.
Pottery is said to be one of the earliest art forms used by the early Filipino people. One of the
most prominent artifacts related to pottery is the Manunggal Jar found in Palawan. This jar is a
representation of the early Filipinos' religious beliefs and practices. It serves as a burial jar, which
depicts two men rowing a boat. This reflects their belief in afterlife the crossing of the body of
water is a transition from life here on earth unto the next. Eventually, pottery produced items
that are of practical value for the early Filipinos, such as pots for cooking and large vases for
storing. Weaving was also one of the earliest forms of art expressions in the Philippines. One of
the most popular artisans of weaving is the people from the Cordilleras. They are known for their
colorful woven cloth, which also have both religious and practical value. The T'boli people from
Mindanao are also known for their woven abaca cloth called t'nalak. They use this particular cloth
to make ornaments, which also represent their beliefs through symbols. One example is the
image of the frog, which is their representation for fertility. Woodcarvings from Palawan also
depict animals like birds, which are representations of their religious beliefs. According to local
stories, the birds serve as the messengers of the people to the heavens and vice versa. In
Mindanao, the Tausug and Maranao people are known for their okir, which are designs applied to
their woodcarvings. Their common subjects include the sarimanok, naga, and the pako rabong.
Each subject is a representation for a certain theme or motif but generally, these symbols depict
their beliefs as a people. The sarimanok is a stylized design of a mythical bird either standing on
a fish or holding a piece of fish on its beak. The story of the sarimanok was a central figure to a
number of legends. One narrative tells the origin of the word sarimanok. A sultan of Lanao once
threw a party for his daughter named Sari who was beautiful but seemed unhappy with her
situation. On the day of her party, a rooster crashed and the princess ran off with the rooster.
She was never found. In memory of Sari, the Sultan carved a rooster. The Sultan's act paved the
way for the term sarimanok. Initially, jewelry was used as amulets for protection to drive away
evil spirits. Eventually, some minority groups from the Cordilleras and Cotabato utilized jewelry
as ornaments integrated in their clothing. The naga forms an S-shape, depicting an elaborate
figure of a mythical dragon or serpent. The numerous curved lines serving as detail for the figure
depicts the scales. The pako rabong, on the other hand, is like a growing fern with a broad base.
The fern gracefully stems and tapers upward. The sarimanok and naga are usually used as
ornamental designs for the houses of the sultans.
 Maranao Okir in 3D
When the Spaniards discovered the Philippines during the sixteenth century, they introduced
their religion to the local people. Aside from acquiring resources, they had a goal to replace the
existing indigenous cultural practices and beliefs of the early Filipinos. Art was used by the
Spaniards to propagate their Christian faith while at the same time, subtly establishing their
foothold in the country. The Church, just like in Western Europe at one point, became the sole
patron of the arts. This can be evidently seen through the construction of churches. These
churches house various relics and paintings. There is an underlying move to integrate Western
culture and ideals in the Philippine setting. Being under colonial rule, it is not surprising for
Filipinos to express their indignation and desire for liberation. Art became one of the avenues for
Filipino patriots and nationalists. Probably one of the most famous works that expressed Filipino
nationalism and stood against the colonizers would be Juan Luna's "Spoliarium." This large-scale
academic painting garnered a gold medal and signified that the reformists could come at par
with their European counterparts. At the same time, Luna's win signaled the start of the Filipino's
call for equality.

Juan Luna's "Spolarium" displayed at the National Musuem

When the Philippines was liberated from the Spanish rule, the Americans took over to establish a
colonial government. They also propagated their culture and beliefs through the implementation
of public school systems. Art had a new role in advertising American-controlled markets. After
World War II, the Philippines saw itself as an independent state transitioning into the formation of
its national identity. Artists focused on modern takes when it comes to content, form, and
subject matter. In addition, a debate emerged on whether art should be done as "proletarian art"
or "art for art's sake." As modern paintings started to emerge, a triumvirate of artists was
formed- Carlos Francisco, Galo B. Ocampo, and Edades.
The 1960s proved to be a period of modernism and dynamism with a lot of styles, techniques,
and methods emerging. Most artworks were reflections of the political, social, and economic
situation of the Philippines during the Marcos administration. It was a period wherein people
embodied and advocated for nationalist ideals. This is the reason why there was a paradigm shift
of subjects in the artworks. Beautiful and idealistic imagery was replaced with aggressive
undertones. The works were reflections of the general feel of the people based on the political
situation during that time. When former President Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law, social
realism became the norm. Most artworks were forms of protest against the government's
suppression of freedom of speech and expression. In addition, some of the works reflected issues
like economic problems, land reforms, gender rights, worker's rights, and cultural minorities
plaguing the Filipino people brought about by the Martial Law. Eventually, photography has
evolved into an art form, which highlights various artistic expressions evident in a variety of
events, scenes, and activities.