COURSE OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION

TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Forensic Chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry that deals with the application
of chemical theories and principles in the solution of legal problems in relation to the
administration of justice. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably
legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy photography.
and

To analyze physical evidence, forensic chemistry draws on chemistry principles and

concepts. Investigating the physical and chemical properties of a substance is
central to forensic chemistry. Without an appreciation for these properties and the
scientific method, forensic chemistry would not be possible.

Importance of Forensic Chemistry

Forensic science deals with the application of science to legal matters and crime
solving. Chemistry plays an essential role in the interdisciplinary field of forensic
science, especially in the crime laboratory wherein the same principles and laws of
chemistry are used to examine evidence (Johll, 2009).

Crime scene analysis involves the use of forensic chemistry principles in establishing
the causes of unnatural death, detecting illegal drugs in blood and urine, and
determining the causes of fire. Therefore, methods of research, practice, and
presentation must meet the needs of both the scientific and legal communities. At
present, forensic chemistry has proven to be very effective in reconstructing the
sequence of events that constitute the crime being investigated, thus bringing a
perpetrator close to the crime he or she has committed. Such accurate information
may eventually lead to the perpetrator's Identification, arrest, and conviction.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

The history of forensic science dates back thousands of years. Fingerprinting was one
of its first applications. The ancient Chinese used fingerprints to identify business
documents.

1813
Mathiew Orfila, a Spaniard who is considered the father of modern toxicology.
Credited of the first use of a microscope in the assessment of blood and semen stains.

1835
Henry Goddard became the first person to use physical analysis to connect a bullet
to the murder weapon.

1836
Scottish chemist named James Marsh developed a chemical test
to detect arsenic, which was used during a murder trial.

1859
The invention of the spectroscope by joseph) Fraunhofer and its application for the
identification of trace chemical shreds of evidence.

1906
Paper chromatography by botanist Makhail Tsvet, found to be useful for the
separation of individual substances from the mixtures.
1910
Edmond Locard, a professor at the University of Lyons, set up the first police crime
laboratory in France in 1910. He became known as "the Sherlock Holmes of France.

1920
Bullet examination became more
precise when American physician Calvin Goddard created the comparison
microscope to help determine which bullets came from which shell casings.

1930
Scientist Karl Landsteiner won the Nobel Prize for classifying human blood into its
various groups. His work paved the way for the future use of blood in criminal
investigations.

1960
Lucas, described the application of gas chromatography to the identification of
petroleum products in the forensic laboratory and discussed potential limitations in
the brand identity of gasoline.

1970
A team of scientists at the Aerospace Corporation in
California developed a method for detecting gunshot residue using scanning
electron microscopes.

1964
forensic scientists had a wealth of high-tech tools at their disposal for analyzing
evidence from polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for DNA analysis, to digital
fingerprinting techniques with computer search capabilities.

Basic Concept of Forensic Chemistry

Questioned sample the sample being analyzed having an unknown identity; usually
collected from the crime scene.

Known sample - the sample having a known identity and origin.

Evidence - available body of facts or information indicating whether the belief or

proposition is true or valid.

Scientific method - the principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of
knowledge.

Theories of Forensic Chemistry

The chemist follows a specific process, based on the scientific method, for analyzing
evidence. Samples collected from a crime scene and brought to the lab for analysis
are called questioned samples because the identities and origins of those samples
are unknown. In order to draw conclusions about the identity or origins of questioned
samples, the forensic chemist will need known samples as a reference. A known
sample might be collected as part of the evidence-for instance a hair sample
collected from a suspect
Forensic analyses may perform to
(1) identify a questioned sample or
(2) compare a questioned sample to a known sample for the purpose of
determining the source or origin of the sample (where it came from).

ROLES OF FORENSIC CHEMIST

Most forensic scientists analyze evidence in a crime laboratory and spend little time
at the crime scene. The duties of forensic scientists are not exactly as they are
portrayed on many popular television shows, where the crime scene investigator
plays the role of Sherlock Holmes and does everything from collecting the evidence
to solving the crime. In real life a team of experts does the job of television's crime
scene investigators. The forensic scientists do not directly solve crimes; they simply
analyze the physical evidence.

Forensic chemists analyze physical, biological and trace evidence found at crime
scenes in order to identify unknown materials and match samples to known
substances. They also analyze drugs/controlled substances taken from scenes and
people in order to identify and sometimes quantify these materials.

They must follow strict procedures regarding the handling and documentation of
evidence, as well as scientific protocols to ensure the quality and reliability of tests
and equipment.

The pressure from law enforcement personnel to speed results can be intense, so
the forensic chemist must be able to prioritize well and work efficiently while
ensuring that the results are accurate.

Testifying in court requires strong communication skills, including the ability to

remain calm in the face of cross-examination and explain complex scientific
procedures in a manner juries can understand.

RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

The six golden rules in the practice of forensic chemistry are;

1. Go slowly
Good work cannot be hurried, therefore take all the time necessary to make the
case complete, no matter how urgent it may appear or how pressing others may be
for the result; it is generally possible to adjourn a case if the work cannot be finished
in time.

2. Be thorough
Make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with
a qualitative analysis if a quantitative one be possible; it always pays to do too much
rather than too little and it is difficult to foresee what will or will not be required in
Court.

3. Take notes
Keep a full, neat and clear record of everything seen and done.

4. Consult others
Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar, and when
this happens, he should consult those who are most likely to know.
5. Use imagination
This is somewhat hazardous advice, since an expert with a vivid and uncontrolled
imagination is a most dangerous person; a disciplined imagination, however, which
enables inferences and deductions (to be verified or discarded at a later stage) to
be made from slender and incomplete premises is often very useful. In writing the
report, the imagination must be kept well in hand. The expert should remember that
what to him may be merely a helpful working hypothesis is liable to be taken by
others for more than its actual worth and adopted by them as a final explanation.

6. Avoid complicated theories

The simplest explanation is the most likely to be the right one.

2. Mount on a glass slide a single strand of human hair. Secure it with the use of a
Scotch tape on both ends.

3. Rotate the revolving nosepiece so that the low power objective (LPO) - 10x is in
operating position.
4. Look through the eyepiece of the microscope then open the iris diaphragm and
adjust the mirror’ until the light is sufficient enough then place the slide on the stage.

5. Turn the coarse adjustment knob (focus knob) so that the stage moves upward.

6. Keep on moving the slide on one hand while your other hand is turning the coarse
adjustment knob up and down until the image of a hair strand comes into focus.
Make sure that the objective did not touch the slide to avoid breaking it.
 CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE AND CHAIN
OF CUSTODY
EVIDENCE IS A PROOF OF ALLEGATION. In law, scientific evidence is evidence
derived from scientific knowledge or techniques. Most forensic evidence, including
genetic evidence, is scientific evidence. Scientific evidence, therefore, may be
defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding
the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.
Evidence based on or conforming to the principles and techniques of science.

In terms of the investigation as a whole, reconstructive evidence is relevant to

understanding what actually happened at the crime scene and the sequence of
events. Cast off blood, blood spatters and bullet holes can help determine exactly
how the victim was attacked. Tool marks and broken glass can reveal how a
perpetrator entered and left the scene. Associative evidence is used to create or
eliminate a link between a suspect and a crime scene.

Forensic scientists place evidence into various categories. Direct evidence

establishes fact without the need for further analysis. Perhaps the most important
form of direct evidence is the eyewitness account. If someone saw a murder, then
there may be nothing to add, although the witness could give false testimony and
other evidence may be needed to prove this. Circumstantial evidence is more
indirect and it is up to the forensic scientist to provide an explanation for it through
his or her investigations. Most of the evidence handled in the forensic lab is
circumstantial evidence. Although more objective than direct evidence, there is
always the danger of losing or contaminating circumstantial evidence.

Forensic evidence is divided up into two basic classes, physical and biological.
Physical evidence covers items of non-living origin, such as fingerprints, tire marks,
footprints, fibers, paint, and building materials. Biological evidence comes from a
living source, usually the victim or perpetrator. Biological evidence includes DNA
extracted from blood or other bodily fluids, semen, hair, and saliva. Botanical items,
such as pollen and plants, would also be considered as biological evidence.
Fingerprints are probably the most valued type of physical evidence because of their
ability to identify or eliminate a suspect. However, as DNA analysis technology
becomes increasingly automated and rapid, it is likely that forensic investigators will
place more emphasis on the collection of biological evidence.

Forensic Evidence
• Physical: non-living • Biological: from living things

- Fingerprints, shoe and tire impressions, - Blood, saliva, urine, semen, hair, plant
tool marks, fibers, paint, glass, drugs, material, animal or insect materials, etc.
firearms, bullets and shell casings,
documents, explosives, accelerants,
etc.

In terms of the investigation as a whole, reconstructive evidence is relevant to

understanding what actually happened at the crime scene and the sequence of
events. Cast off blood, blood spatters and bullet holes can help determine exactly
how the victim was attacked. Tool marks and broken glass can reveal how a
perpetrator entered and left the scene. Associative evidence is used to create or
eliminate a link between a suspect and a crime scene.
There are two kinds of associative evidence, class and individual. Class evidence
relates to items that are, to some extent at least, mass-produced. In itself, class
evidence cannot tie a crime to any one individual. For instance, a gun found at the
crime scene will be of a particular make, but it will not be unique. Similarly, relatively
new shoes all make similar footprints if they are the same brand and cannot be tied
to any one person. However, if the shoe is worn, then the footprint may be particular
to an individual, as people wear down their shoes in a unique way. Fingerprints and
DNA are the most significant forms of individual evidence. In all investigations, it is
individual evidence that provides the most information and is therefore, the most
valued. Class evidence is also important but usually has to be taken in context with
other evidence; the more, the better.

Trace evidence may fall into various categories and includes microscopic evidence
such as hair, fibers, paint, and bloodstains. Lockard’s exchange principle explains
that every contact between a suspect and people or objects at the scene of crime,
including the victim, leaves traces. Evidence is transferred from suspect to scene and
vice-versa. The suspect may leave their own hair behind and take seemingly invisible
splashes of the victim's blood with them, for instance. Trace evidence can be a
powerful form of associative evidence that can lead to identification of the
perpetrator. Most often, trace evidence is found in the form of textile fibers and paint
flakes.

Importance of Physical Evidence

• Can prove crime has been committed or establish key elements of a crime
• Can place suspect in contact with the victim or with the crime scene
• Can establish and identify persons associated with the crime
• Can exonerate the innocent
• Can corroborate the victim's testimony
• Can make admissions or even make suspect confess
• It is more reliable than eyewitnesses to crimes
• Court decisions
• It is expected by court juries in criminal cases

COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE
The collection of evidence begins once a crime scene has been thoroughly
processed, and the locations of the evidence have been recorded. The collection
process begins with the collection evidence that is most likely to be easily lost. Priority
can also be to special evidence or objects that must be moved to a new lo
Afterwards, collection continues along the crime scene trail or in other logical
manner. Photographs should also be taken continuously so that investigators can
reveal layers of evidence not previously documented because they were hidden
from sight.

It is important to note that evidence containing moisture should NOT be packaged

in plastic containers. This is because moisture facilitates the growth of
microorganisms, which can destroy or alter the quality of the evidence collected.
Biological evidence must be packaged in paper containers or envelopes.
WAYS TO COLLECT EVIDENCE
Document and photograph the evidence

Properly secure the evidence by placing in a paper bag or envelope

Close, seal, or tape the paper bag or envelope. The examiner must write initial,
date, and time across the sealed

Examiner must place signature. date, and time on the envelope

Label the bag or envelope with the patient's identifying information

Important factors to follow when collecting evidence:

Prevent contamination of the sample. Collect evidence correctly. preserve each
specimen separately, use and change gloves often, avoid coughing or sneezing
during the collection, use appropriate tools such as cotton-tipped applicators, sterile
water, cardboard swab boxes, separate paper bags, and envelopes

Preserve the original integrity of the sample. Allow swabs to dry thoroughly, dry with
cold air only, no heat, package in a vented swab container box, or paper. Do not
use plastic.

Maintain the individuality of the sample by labeling each specimen collected with
the patient's identifying information such as the patient's date of birth, medical
record number, date and time, and the signature or initials of the examiner

CHAIN OF CUSTODY
In criminal and civil law, the term "chain of custody" refers to the order in which items
of evidence have been handled during the investigation of a case. Proving that an
item has been properly handled through an unbroken chain of custody is required
for it to be legally considered as evidence in court.

What does the chain of custody establish?

• Who had contact with the evidence? the date and time the evidence was
handled
• circumstances the for the evidence being handled
• what changes, if any, were made in the evidence

In court, the chain of custody documentation is presented by the prosecution in

order to prove that the item of evidence is, in fact, related to the alleged crime and
that it had been in possession of the defendant. To establish reasonable doubt of
guilt, the defense looks for holes or acts of mishandling in the chain of custody to
show, for example, that the item may have been fraudulently "planted" to make the
accused person appear guilty.
A chain of custody in a criminal case might be:
A police officer collects a The police officer gives the The forensics technician
gun at the crime scene gun to a police forensics removes the gun from the
and places it in a sealed technician. container, collects
container fingerprints and other
evidence present on the
weapon, and places the
gun along with the
evidence collected from it
back into the sealed
container.
The forensics technician The evidence technician Items of evidence are
gives the gun and related stores the gun and related typically moved in and
evidence to a police evidence in a secure out of storage and
evidence technician. place and records handled by different
everyone who accesses people. All changes in the
the evidence during the possession, handling, and
investigation until the final analysis of items of
disposition of the case. evidence must be
recorded on a Chain of
Custody Form.
PROPER TAGGING AND LABELING OF EVIDENCE
Tagging and Labelling The tag should include After Tagging and Labelling
All pieces of evidence collected at the • description of item Once pieces of evidence have been
crime scene should be tagged. If the item • police case number or identifier date tagged, they can be placed in police
cannot be tagged, then it should be • location of collection evidence bags. If a piece of evidence was
labeled or marked. Consistency should • collectors name and identifier brand name not tagged because of its shape or size, the
always adhere to the information used for • any serial number or garment information evidence package might be the only way
marking and labeling the evidence. to identify it. On this evidence package,
Tagging is a useful part of the evidence make sure to include the police case
collection process because it affixes number, date, time, item description, and
information directly into the item to case type. This is also a good place to
eliminate confusion, each police record the collector's name, any serial
department has its preferred procedures numbers, and where the evidence is being
for tagging evidence, but it's essential to sent for analysis. The type of package
remain consistent with each case. needed depends on the type of evidence
collected and whether it is a liquid, solid,
hazardous, corrosive, or fragile.
GUIDELINES TO DESCRIBE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE FOUND AT THE CRIME SCENE
One of the essential factors of identification of collected evidence is its description.
Proper description of evidence written on the evidence tag ensures its safety and
protection. It starts from the time it was found or discovered at the crime scene, up
to the time it is presented in court as an exhibit. Description of evidence must be
synchronized in chronological order: from the time it was found and collected at the
crime scene by the technician, as recorded by the evidence custodian at the crime
scene, as received by the duty officer at the crime laboratory, as described by the
forensic analyst/examiner of specific branch at the crime laboratory, as received by
the custodian of the crime laboratory, finally until it is presented in court by the
expert. Below are guidelines to describe evidence which is an ESSENTIAL PART OF THE
EVIDENCE TAG:

1. State the number of pieces found as well as evidence received at the scene of
crime. 2. State the specific location where the evidence is found at the crime scene.
Example: One (1) piece kitchen knife on the right hand of the victim.
This can be supported by photographs, notes and sketches particularly the pattern
of additional objects found in a particular area of evidence like dried bloodstain and
other body fluids.
3. State the color, shape (for fixed objects like whether it is square, rectangle, oval,
oblong, irregular, etc.), size (whether large, medium, small, big, long, tiny, etc.). For
fixed solid objects provide the dimension, by obtaining its measurements using a ruler
or any other measuring device.
4. Preferably obtain the weight of the evidence mentioned in number 3, using triple
beam balance or any available weighing device.
5. In case of liquid, estimate or approximate the volume, and the color of the liquid
or similar items.
6. State whether it is a hard object (ex. made of metal, wood or stone/rocks), in
powder form, or granules.
7. State and describe the kind of packaging or describe the container where the
evidence is found. Example, one (1) amber bottle containing unknown liquid inside
a carton marked "acetone".
8. State whether the evidence is packed once or twice and the manner it is sealed
(mention here whether it is stapled or sealed through glue or ordinary paste).
Example, one (1) stainless kitchen knife with black hard plastic handle inside a
transparent cellophane stapled four (4) times.
9. State whether a label could be found on the package of the evidence such as
sort of serial numbers, what is it made of, and or manufactured by what company.
 DANGEROUS DRUGS
In the Philippines, there are several laws against these drugs, as listed in the
categories (schedules) formulated by the Department of Health.

Controlled Substance
The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 separates drugs that may be abused into five
(5) categories (schedules) based on the biological effects of the drugs. Strict
regulations for the use and supply of the drugs in each schedule are also established.

Schedule 1
Almost all the drugs in this schedule (e.g., heroin, LSD, marijuana) are illegal and have
a high potential for dependence and abuse. It is illegal to have these types of drugs
in your possession.

Schedule 2
These drugs (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines, morphine, some barbiturates) are highly
addictive but can remain in medical use because of the lack of satisfactory non-
addictive alternative medications. For these types of drugs, renewal of prescription
is not allowed without a new prescription from your doctor.

Schedule 3
This schedule includes drugs that have some potential for abuse or dependence
(e.g., acetaminophen or aspirin with codeine, some appetite suppressant).
Prescriptions can be renewed up to five times within a six-month period if your doctor
also authorizes. In some states in the US, prescriptions phoned to the pharmacist by
your doctor must be confirmed in writing.

Schedule 4
These drugs (e.gDiazepam, chloral hydrate, phenobarbital) are considered less likely
to cause dependence or to be abused as much as the drugs in Schedule 3;
however, the prescriptions are covered by the same regulations that govern
Schedule 3.

Schedule 5
These drugs (e.g., some antidiarrheal medications and cough medicines) are
included in the regulations because they contain small amounts of narcotics.
However, they are the ones that are least likely to be abused.

LAWS AGAINST THE ABUSE OF DRUGS

Republic Act 9165 or the Dangerous Drugs Act, is the blueprint of the Philippine
government against illegal drugs. In this law, the State needs to enhance further the
efficacy of the law against dangerous drugs, and it is one of today's more pressing
social ills. Towards this end, the government shall pursue an intensive and unrelenting
campaign against the trafficking and use of dangerous drugs and other similar
substances. The government shall, however, aim to achieve a balance in the
national drug control program so that people with legitimate medical needs are not
prevented from being treated with adequate amounts of appropriate medications,
including the use of dangerous drugs". In this law, the Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA) was created for the efficient and effective law enforcement of all
the provisions on dangerous drugs, precursors, and essential chemicals as provided
in R.A. No.9165,
Other laws include:
[Republic Act No. 10640]: An Act To Further Strengthen The Anti-Drug Campaign Of
The Government, Amending For The Purpose Section 21 Of Republic Act No. 9165,
Otherwise Known As The "Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act Of 2002"

Republic Act No. 7624: An Act Integrating Drug Prevention And Control In The
Intermediate And Secondary Curricula As Well As In The Non-Formal, Informal And
Indigenous Learning Systems And For Other Purposes.

A. MICROMETER
Micrometer is an instrument that measures breadths of samples like hairs and fibers.
It also measures the thickness of flat and thin objects like paper documents of various
thickness, and other similar objects. This instrument is composed of two calibrated
cylindrical tubes that are equally divided which provides the precise value of objects
measured from a hundredth (0.01) of a meter to a maximum of 25 mm.

Parts and function

1. Frame
A U-shape structure that supports the major parts of the instrument. This is the
part where you hold the instrument while measuring a sample.

2. Anvil
A short protruding cylindrical tube attached to the left arm of the frame.

3. Spindle
A long cylindrical tube that coincides with the size of the anvil which slides away
from the anvil to provide a measuring space for the sample.

4. Thimble
A cylindrical tube with grid handle that can be rotated clockwise and
counterclockwise to open and close the spindle. The thimble tube slides
towards the right direction and vice versa when it is rotated. The thimble
displays equally divided
calibration from 0.01 to 0.50 mm. The horizontal line at zero calibration coincides
with the horizontal reference line found on the sleeve.

5. Sleeve
A cylindrical tube under the thimble that displays a horizontal line serves as the
reference point at the zero scale of the thimble. The sleeve has graduated
scales in vertical lines ranging from 0 to 25 mm. This calibration is visible when
the thimble is rotated clockwise and slides to the right, unfolding gradually the
divisions of the
sleeve.

6. Rachet
At the extreme right end of the thimble is the rachet. The rachet like the thimble
has a grid handle that is used to open the spindle by rotating clockwise and
counterclockwise. Although rachet is used when the object measured is almost
completely pressed by the spindle through the rotation of the thimble. A click
sound is heard when the spindle has driven the exact force that presses the
sample which means that the rotation of the rachet must be stopped.
 7. Lock
A circular structure with a tail that can be moved to either side (left and right)
The direction. When the lock is moved to the left it loosens the thimble/rachet
making the rotation easy. When it is moved towards the right it locks and stops
the rotation of 0 thimble/rachet. The lock is used after the click sound of the
rachet rotation is heard so that the spindle and the racket will no longer move
and are in a steady position. At this point the calibration on the thimble that
coincides with the reference line on the sleeve is the value of the object being
measured.

Operation Procedure:
1. Check first the parts of a micrometer.
2. Calibrate the instrument by rotating the thimble until the zero scale coincides with
the reference line forming a hairline. The hairline formation is an indication that the
instrument is ready for use.
3. Place the lock in a neutral position.
4. Set the zero line in the thimble such that it will coincide with the reference line on
the sleeve.
5. Rotate the thimble to open the spindle.
6. Place the object on the space in between the anvil and the spindle.
7. Rotate the thimble clockwise so the spindle will press the sample being measured..
8. When the spindle has almost totally closed the object rotates the rachet clockwise.
9. When the click sound is heard, stop the rotation of the rachet.
10. Move the lock towards the left side just enough to secure your sample from being.
blown away.
11. The scale on the thimble which coincides with the reference line on the sleeve is
the value of the thickness of the sample.
12. Read the scale on the thimble. Breadths of human hairs range from 0.06 mm to
0.08 mm. While that of animals like cows, carabao, pig, horse, are much bigger than
human hairs.

B. VERNIER CALIPER
The Vernier caliper is a sliding scale that increases an observer's accuracy in
measuring the fractional proportion of the smallest division of the main scale. It can
read up to hundreds of millimeters. The division in the Vernier scale is slightly smaller
than that of the main scale. Twenty divisions in the Vernier scale coincide with
nineteen divisions in the main scale.
How to read a Vernier caliper:
Place the object to be measured between the jaws of the caliper and read on the
main scale the exact number in cm and millimeter between the zero of the scale
and that of the Vernier. To obtain the fractional part, look for a division in the main
scale that coincides with any division in the Vernier scale and multiply it by the least
count. The least count is given on the right side of the Vernier scale. The division of
the Vernier scale will give the number of the tenths or hundredths of the millimeter
that must be added to the initial reading.

Sample reading
a) Main scale reading 25 mm
b) Vernier scale reading 5 x 0.05 (graduation)= 0.25 mm Total Reading 25.25 mm
 FORENSIC DRUG ANALYSIS
PHYSIOLOGY OF DRUGS
We need to look at three critical factors if we are to understand why and how people
use drugs. These are:
• Your personality, the type of drug you take, and The context of your drug use.

These factors are connected and can't be separated. They influence your reasons
for using a drug and the effects it will have on you. We need to understand that there
are different levels of drug use with different types of problems.

Stages of drug use

EXPERIMENTAL USE
Most young people try drugs for the first time as an experiment, usually because their
friends are doing it. It tends not to last long and will not happen often. It depends on
many factors such as: how easy it is to get drugs, where it's happening, your group
of friends, and current trends or fashion. You may go on to recreational drug use or
you may stop once you have satisfied your curiosity.

The main risk of this type of drug use is that young people may not know about the
effects of the drugs they try.

RECREATIONAL DRUG USE

Some people continue to use drugs in order to have fun. This is usually a regular thing,
such as every weekend, and is part of your social life. You may feel that you have
control over your use of drugs. Even if you use a lot, you may not be addicted to the
drug.

This type of drug use only applies to certain drugs and contexts, for example ecstasy
and dance culture. Most people who take recreational drugs see it as a 'normal'
activity in their social circle.

DEPENDENT DRUG USE

If you use drugs for a long time or use them heavily, you may no longer be able to
control your use. This is called dependence or addiction and may be physical or
psychological. Physical dependence means that your body craves the drug.

Psychological dependence is when you feel that you can't cope without it. This level
of drug use usually happens on your own or in a small group. As well as making you
sick, it

ABSTAINERS
An abstainer is someone who does not take any drugs or someone who has been
off drugs for a long time and does not want to use them again.
DRUG TEST
A drug test looks for the presence of one or more illegal or prescription drugs in your
urine, blood, saliva, hair, or sweat. Urine testing is the most common type of drug
screening. Drug screening is used to find out whether or not a person has taken a
particular drug or drugs. It may be used for:

Employment. Sports organizations.

Employers may test you before hiring or Professional and collegiate athletes
after hiring to check for on-the-job drug usually need to take a test for
use. performance-enhancing drugs or other
substances.
Legal or forensic purposes. Monitoring opioid use.
Testing may be part of a criminal or If you've been prescribed an opioid for
motor vehicle accident investigation. chronic pain, your health care provider
Drug screening may also be ordered as may order a drug test to make sure you
part of a court case. are taking the right amount.

A drug test generally requires that you give a urine sample in a lab. You will be given
instructions to provide a "clean-catch" sample. The clean-catch method includes the
following steps:

1. Wash your hands

2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider.
Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and
clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have
markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container to the lab technician or health care provider.
A doctor or trained technician will usually carry out the urine drug screen. There are
two types of urine drug screens, and both require a sample.
• An immunoassay (IA) test is the most common type because it is the quickest
and most cost-effective. However, it can give a false-positive result. These show
the presence of a drug when a person has not used it.

• The second type of urine screen can confirm the results of an IA test. The second
test is called gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). GC-MS is a
more reliable method of screening than IA. It can also detect a broader range
of drugs. Usually, providers only use GC-MS tests as follow-ups because they are
more expensive, and the results take longer to receive.

SPECIMEN TAMPERING
Fearing a positive result with significant consequences, participants are often willing
to go to great lengths to thwart drug tests. They may embrace creative techniques
or attempt to foil the results with new-fangled technology. Drug test tampering (also
known as adulteration) refers to the ingestion of a foreign substance or the addition
of foreign material to a testing specimen to prevent drug use detection.

Common Tampering Techniques

People attempt to "cheat" or "beat" drug tests in a variety of ways. Common
tampering techniques include all of the following:

• Household Products: To change the urine pH and prevent drug detection, a

participant might add a household cleaning product to the specimen. Popular
choices include acid, ammonia, lye, vinegar, and bleach. These products may
interfere with the initial (screening) test.

• Substitution: A participant might substitute a urine specimen with lemonade,

soft drinks, sports drinks, water, or someone else's urine. Another popular choice
for substitution is powdered urine, which donors mix with water.

• Dilution: To dilute their urine specimen, hoping to mask or destroy evidence of

drug use, participants might consume large quantities of lemonade, soft drinks,
sports drinks, or water. Sometimes this happens unintentionally. A diluted
sample does not guarantee a negative test result; the lab will detect the diluted
sample. In some cases, a participant will add a liquid substance directly to the
urine specimen.

• Chemical Additives: Some participants add chemicals to the specimen after

collection. These include glutaraldehyde (UrinAid), nitrites (Klear Whizzies),
chromates (Pyridine, Urine Luck Instant Clean ADD-IT-ive), and halogens.
Donors can purchase all of these products online. Glutaraldehyde affects the
drugs tested in the initial (screening) test. One Nitrites, chromates, halogens,
and other oxidizing adulterants may negate the initial and confirmatory tests
for marijuana and morphine/heroin.

• Prescription Drugs: Some prescription drugs that are non-steroidal and anti-
inflammatory will interfere with the initial (screening) test. For example, Tolectin
can impact a participant's test results.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DRUG SPECIMEN
A qualitative test tells you if a particular substance (analyte) is present in the
specimen. A quantitative test tells you how much (the quantity) of an analyte is
present.

After the presence of an analyte has been established (which may involve a second,
confirmatory test), the amount of the analyte present in the sample then may be
measured. For example, you could test for the presence of alcohol in the blood
(qualitative) and check for the actual blood alcohol level (quantitative).

INTRODUCTION
Forensic labs are often called in to identify unknown powders, liquids and pills that
may be illicit drugs. There are basically two categories of forensic tests used to
analyze drugs and other unknown substances: Presumptive tests (such as color tests)
give only an indication of which type of substance is present - but they can't specially
identify the substance. Confirmatory tests (such as gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry) are more specific and can determine the precise identity of the
substance. Confirmatory tests (such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) are
more specific and can determine the precise identity of the substance.

Color tests expose an unknown drug to a chemical or mixture of chemicals. What

color the test substance turns can help determine the type of drug that's present.
Here are a few examples of color tests:

Type of Test Chemical Reagent Interpretation of Results

Marquis Color Formaldehyde and Heroin, morphine and
concentrated sulfuric acid most opium-based
drugs will turn the
solution purple.
Amphetamines will turn
it orange-brown
Cobalt Thiocyanate Cobalt thiocyanate, distilled Cocaine will turn the
water, glycerine, hydrochloric solution violet-blue
acid,
chloroform
Dillie-Koppan Cobalt Acetate and isopropyl Barbiturates will turn the
amine solution violet-blue
Van Urk P- LSD will turn the solution
dimethylaminobenzaldehyde, blue-purple
hydrochloric acid, ethyl
alcohol
Dusquenois - Levine Test Vanillin, acetaldehyde, ethyl Marijuana will turn the
alcohol, chloroform solution purple
 EXPLOSIVES
Explosives - any substance or device that can be made to produce a volume of
rapidly expanding gas in an extremely brief period.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
• Low explosives
are mixtures of chemicals that burn very rapidly, but subsonically (as opposed to
supersonically), meaning that they "deflagrate." They consist typically of fuel and an
oxidizer. The black powder used in fireworks is one example of a low explosive. Black
powder burns very quickly, but to get it to go bang, we have to contain it.

• High explosives
consist of materials that typically combine the reacting elements in the same
molecule. This allows them to react much faster, and they "detonate." Detonation
involves supersonic shock waves that pass through the material, causing chemistry
that happens quite a bit faster than burning.

Mechanical explosive
- is one that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading a container
with compressed air. Such a device has some application in mining. where the
release of gas from chemical explosives may be undesirable, but otherwise is
very little used. Examples include an overheated boiler or a simple tin can of
beans tossed into a fire. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions are one type
of mechanical explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurized
liquid is ruptured, causing a rapid increase in volume as the liquid evaporates.

Nuclear explosive
- is one in which a sustained nuclear reaction can be made to take place with
almost instant rapidity, releasing large amounts of energy. Almost all nuclear
explosive devices that have been designed and produced are nuclear
weapons intended for warfare. For example, the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945, containing only about 64 kg (140 pounds) of highly
enriched uranium, released energy equaling about 15 kilotons of chemical
explosive.

Chemical explosives
- Basically has two types: (1) detonating, or high, explosives and (2) deflagrating,
or low, explosives. Detonating explosives, such as TNT and dynamite, are
characterized by extremely rapid decomposition and development of high
pressure, whereas deflagrating explosives, such as black and smokeless
powders, involve merely fast burning and produce relatively low pressures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES
In general, an explosive has four primary characteristics:
• It is a chemical compound or mixture ignited by heat, shock, impact, friction,
or a combination of these conditions:

• Upon ignition, it decomposes rapidly in a detonation;

• There is a rapid release of heat and large quantities of high-pressure gases that
expand rapidly with sufficient force to overcome confining forces;
 • And the energy released by the detonation of explosives produces four basic
effects;
• Rock fragmentation;
• Rock displacement;
• Ground vibration;
• Airblast.

A general theory of explosives is that the detonation of the explosive charge causes
a high-velocity shock wave and a tremendous release of gas. The shock wave
cracks and crushes the rock near the explosives and creates thousands of cracks in
the rock. These cracks are then filled with the expanding gases. The gases continue
to fill and expand the cracks until the gas pressure is too weak to expand the cracks
any further or are vented from the rock.

EXPLOSIVE ANALYSIS
❖ There are two separate examinations performed in the forensic analysis of
explosives: identification and characterization of the intact explosives and
examination of explosive debris. Examiners will analyze intact explosives and
residues as well as intact or fragmented device components.

❖ The overall objective of forensic explosives examination is the identification of

any explosives present. If intact explosive particles were found, the type of
explosive, producer, and brand name might be identified.

❖ In contrast, trace residues of explosives may be analyzed and classified, but are
difficult to identify. Variables such as ambient temperature, weather conditions,
and temperature and pressure at the time of explosion all complicate the
forensic analytical process.

INTRODUCTION
Forensic analysis of explosives includes analysis of post-explosion residues, and
detection and identification of traces of explosives on suspects' hands, on clothing,
and on other related items. Preliminary field tests may be used for screening the
debris on the explosion site. They include commercially available explosive vapor
detectors and chemical color tests. Like post-explosion residues, personal items
suspected to contain traces of explosives and hand-swabs, are often heavily
contaminated. It is therefore of major importance that the analytical procedures
have to include good screening, clean-up, and extraction methods. (Yinon, 2000).
 PARAFFIN TEST AND GUN POWDER
RESIDUE
GUNPOWDER AND GUNPOWDER RESIDUE
GUNPOWDER an explosive consisting of a powdered mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and
charcoal. The earliest known propellant explosive, gunpowder has now largely
been superseded by high explosives, although it is still used for quarry blasting and
infuses and fireworks. Although it can explode, its principal use is as a propellant.
Historians believe gunpowder originated in China. Initially, it was used as an
incendiary. Later, it found application as fuel and explosive.

When a gun is fired, the gunshot residue particles - small particles produced during
the gunpowder explosions are emitted from the back of the weapon and the
muzzle. These particles fly onto the skin and clothing of the person holding the gun.
Gunshot residue contains burned particles (potassium nitrite) and some unburned
particles (potassium nitrate), and for decades criminal investigators collected these
particles by applying melted paraffin wax to a subject's hands. Upon removal of
the wax cast, a reagent containing diphenylamine and sulfuric acid were used.
The development of blue specks was indicative of the presence of nitrates.

A paraffin test is a method of finding gunshot residue (GSR) in the hands of a

possible shooting suspect. The tester will dip the suspect's hands in a sort of melted
wax. When the wax has had time to cool, the suspect is left with lovely white wax
gloves. The wax is then peeled off the hands, and examined for flecks of evidence
that he has shot a gun.

GUIDELINES FOR ESTIMATING TARGET DISTANCES GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)

Shooting distance determinations are performed in an attempt to approximate
firearm muzzle-to-target distance (range) at the time of a suspect firearm being
discharged. Distance determinations are possible because burnt and unburnt
gunpowder particles, along with the bullet, are removed from the muzzle, which
then impacts clothing or other items. Single or multiple projectile firearm residues
may leave a pattern on a victim's outermost garment or another contact surface,
such as a wall. Clothing, and other surfaces, may be analyzed to ascertain an
approximate muzzle-to-target range.

❖ In theory, the closer a discharged firearm is to an object, the smaller its

gunpowder pattern will be; likewise, the more distant, the larger the
gunpowder pattern. Many firearms gunpowder patterns (or gunpowder
particles that impact a target) drop off substantially at approximately 36"-48".

Visual examinations, along with microscopic and chemical investigations, are

conducted on a questioned bullet hole and its surrounding area to obtain a
pattern for analysis. The suspect firearm and suspect ammunition are tests fired into
similar target material (witness panels) at varying ranges to achieve known
standard tests for comparisons. These known test standards are then analyzed in
the same way as the questioned bullet hole An approximate distance range may
be determined when the questioned pattern is compared to the test patterns.

A routine part of the evidence examination is evaluating a shooting victim's

clothing in an attempt to determine bullet entrance and exit holes. Once an
entrance hole has been located. further testing can be done to determine the
Distance Determination Analysis distance from the muzzle of the firearm to
the victim's clothing
Testing Procedure includes:
• The item containing the bullet hole was examined to determine the exact
location of the bullet hole. The hole is then measured in relation to fixed,
permanent
• features on the item, such as seams. At least two measurements were taken
to describe the location of the hole.

• The presence of any gunshot residues and the shape and appearance of the
hole were documented.

• Subject the specimen to the modified Griess test. This test detects the
presence of nitrite residues, which are a by-product of smokeless gunpowder
combustion.

• Next is, Sodium Rhodizonate Test This test detects the presence of lead
residues that are present on an item of evidence.

• Test Firing is done to determine the muzzle to target distance range for the
item of evidence.

• Submission of Information
o Evidence should be appropriately sealed.
o Package each item individually. Do not place several articles of clothing
in the same bag- as this can cause cross-contamination to occur,

• A chain of custody should be included with the evidence but is not

mandatory for acceptance.

• A letter enclosed which lists:

o The type of analysis requested (GSR, Optical Microscopy, FTIR).
o Name, address, and phone number of the person to send the report to.
o Name, address, and phone number of a person to send the evidence
back to if different than above.
o Name, address, and phone number of the person to send the invoice to if
different than above.

• A brief synopsis of the case.

• Evidence should be shipped through any means that provides that package
with a tracking number, or items can be hand-delivered.
 INTRODUCTION
A method used for the detection of gunshot residue. This test determines
whether a person has discharged a gun, the Paraffin-Diphenylamine test. If there
were nitrates on the suspects' hands, they would be transferred to the paraffin
cast and then those spots would turn blue once treated with the solution. This is
the indication that the suspect may have fired a gun, as particles of
nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose spray onto the hands and forearms of a shooter
after firing a weapon.

PROCEDURES:
1. Melt paraffin wax, cool down then put into a container
2. Wash your hands and dry using a clean towel.
3. One in your group will cover one hand with ash, another with artificial fertilizer,
Pond's day cream and last with urine.
4. Place the hands exposed in a clean bond paper.
5. Using a tong and cotton, dip the cotton, in the paraffin wax and cover your left
hands thoroughly.
6. Wait till dry, then release your hands.
7. After having the cast lifted off, take diphenylamine and sulfuric acid solutions into
the separate droppers.
8. Add drops by drops of the solution into the portion of the paraffin cast exposed
with the hand droppers.
9. Observe.
 GLASS FRACTURE
Glass is technically defined as " the inorganic product of fusion which has cooled to
a rigid condition without crystallizing

Glass is reasonably hard, transparent, or translucent material composed of fused

inorganic materials, primarily of silicon dioxide (sand). The wide variety of chemical
compositions can alter its characteristics.

Glass is very useful evidence because it is often encountered in criminal

investigations. For example, when a burglar breaks a windowpane, small fragments
of glass are often showered onto their hair, clothing, or shoes, and these fragments
can later be found on the suspect as transfer evidence.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
The main characteristics of glass are transparency, heat resistance, pressure and
breakage resistance, and chemical resistance.

GLASS FRACTURE
The glass bends in response to any force that is exerted on any of its surfaces; when
the limit of its elasticity is reached, the glass fractures. Frequently, fractured window
glass will reveal information that can be related to the force and direction of an
impact; such knowledge may be useful for reconstructing events at a crime-scene
investigation. The penetration of ordinary window glass by a projectile, whether it is
a bullet or a stone, produces a familiar fracture pattern in which cracks both radiate
outward and encircle the hole. The radiating lines are appropriately known as radial
fractures, and the circular lines are termed concentric fractures.

TERMINOLOGIES
• Radial fracture - a crack in the glass that extends outward like the spoke of a
wheel from the point at which the glass was struck.
• Concentric fracture - a crack in the glass from a rough circle around the point
of impact.
• Conchoidal fracture - is a smoothly curving fracture surface of fine-grained
materials with no planar surfaces of internal weakness or planes of separation
(no cleavage)

Types of Glass fracture

Low-velocity impact fractures
• Low-velocity projectiles produce cracks in the glass, which radiate outward
from the point of impact (radial cracks).

• High-velocity impact fractures

A high-speed projectile striking a piece of glass will produce a cone or crater.
If the projectile passes through the glass, the opening on the exit side will be
larger than the opening on the entry side. The size of the hole and the diameter
of the crater cannot be used to reliably predict the size of the projectile.
Projectiles that pass through the glass at an angle to the surface produce an
elongated hole. Radial cracks may also develop from high-velocity impact.

• Thermal fractures
In non-tempered glass a typical heat crack is curved, has a smooth edge, and
has no indication of the point of origin of the crack. If a pane of glass has been
cracked by the action of heat, it shows characteristic long wavy fractures.
THEORIES RELATED TO GLASS FRACTURE
The direction of force determination
This method determines which direction a projectile went through the glass by
evaluating radial fractures in the glass fracture's first concentric ring.
The determination of force direction is a process quickly done by a crime scene
technician. The purpose of this determination is to establish which direction the
projectile went through the glass. The method used to determine this is the 4R Rule:
Ridgelines on Radial fractures are at Right angles to the Rear.
o The first step in this method is to find radial fractures that are within the first
concentric fracture. Radial fractures are similar to the spokes of a wheel.
Concentric fractures connect the radial fractures in a pattern the same to a
spider web.

o The next step is to figure out which side of the fragment was facing in and which
side was facing out. Contaminants or residues from the inside surface will feel
different than the outside surface and help determine the sides.

o Once the technician finds a radial fracture and determines which side of the
glass-faced where they must look at the broken edge of the glass. When a
projectile strikes glass, it creates ridges called conchoidal fractures along the
edge that are visible in profile. These conchoidal fractures are nearly parallel to
the side in which force was applied (the direction which the projectile came
from). The side of the glass opposite of the force is the rear of the glass; this is
the side of the glass in which the conchoidal fractures lie at right angles.

The sequence of force determination

An examiner can establish the sequence of the shots by considering the radial
fracture's termination points. The first shot's radial fractures will extend completely
while the subsequent shots' radial fractures will be stopped or cut off as they come
into contact with prior fractures.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE RESULTING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRACTURE

❖ The strength of a glass object has a profound effect on the resulting fracture
features. The level of the fracture stress directly affects the crack patterns which
develop when propagating cracks intersect the surface (traces) of a glass
object. This is because it is the strength, the fracture stress that determines the
level of stored elastic strain energy in the glass.
❖ The trajectory of the Projectile or path of the object thrown.
❖ Force exerted during the collision.

COLLECTING AND HANDLING GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS

The gathering of glass evidence at the crime scene and from the suspect must be
thorough if the examiner is to have any chance to individualize the fragments to a
common source. If even the remotest possibility exists that fragments may be pieced
together, every effort must be made to collect all the glass found.
❖ For example, the collection of evidence at hit-and-run scenes must include all
the broken parts of the headlight and reflector lenses. This evidence may
ultimately prove to be an invaluable means of placing a suspect vehicle at the
accident scene by actually matching the fragments with glass remaining in the
headlight or reflector shell of the suspect vehicle. Also, an examination of the
headlight's filaments may resolve any questions regarding whether or not an
automobile's headlights were on or off before the impact.
 ❖ When an individual fit is thought improbable, the evidence collector must
submit all-glass evidence found in possession of the suspect along with a
representative sample of broken glass remaining at the crime scene. This
standard/reference glass should always be taken from any remaining glass in
the window or door as close as possible to the point of breakage. About one
square inch of sample is usually adequate for this purpose.

❖ The glass fragments should be packaged in solid containers to avoid further

breakage. If the suspect's shoes or clothing are to be examined for the
presence of glass fragments, they should be individually wrapped in paper and
transmitted to the laboratory. The field investigator should avoid removing such
evidence from garments unless it is thought necessary for its preservation.

❖ When a determination of the direction of impact is desired, all broken glass must
be recovered and submitted for analysis. Wherever possible, the exterior and
interior surfaces of the glass must be indicated. In cases in which this is not
immediately apparent, the presence of dirt, paint, grease, or putty may
indicate as to the exterior surface of the glass."

GLASS ANALYSIS
Forensic analysis of glass consists of the examination of two or more fragments to
determine whether they have a common origin. Identifying broken glass fragments
having a common source to the exclusion of all other sources may only be done if
they can be physically matched together.

Samples from a crime scene must first be confirmed as glass. Differentiating glass
from plastic is done by examining relative hardness, solubility, and observation with
a polarized light microscope. Once confirmed as glass, the examiner will perform an
analysis of physical properties (colour, fluorescence, thickness, curvature, and
density), optical properties (Refractive Index) and chemical composition. If a
difference between questioned and known samples is found at any point in this
process, no further comparison is needed.

INTRODUCTION:
Glass is commonly found at crime scenes, especially those involving car accidents,
car theft, and burglaries. Glass fragments that are likely to remain on garments for
an extended period of time are extremely stable. They don't decay or change over
time like biological evidence. Even though the pieces are often minute, the
refractive index of glass may be measured using the Glass Refractive Index
Measurement (GRIM) system equipment since glass is often a transparent substance.
This, together with the glass's chemical composition, thermal history, and any surface
characteristics, gives a sensitive way to identify these pieces from glass. fragments.