SENSORS AND ACTUATORS (MCE 411)

MODULE 2
WEEK 3: Sensor Technologies: Temperature and Pressure Sensors

1 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

A. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer:

• A simple nonelectrical temperature-measuring device

• It typically uses alcohol or mercury as the working

fluid, which expands and contracts relative to the glass
container.

• The upper range is usually on the order of 600OF.

• When making measurements in a liquid, the depth of

immersion is important, as it can result in different
measurements.

• Because readings are made visually and there can be a

meniscus at the top of the working fluid, measurements must be made carefully and
consistently.
 B. Bimetallic Strip:

C. Electrical Resistance Thermometer:

A resistance temperature device (RTD) is constructed of metallic wire wound around a

ceramic or glass core and hermetically sealed.

NB. In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. Copper and Nickel
have a temperature range of 120oC and 300oC respectively.
 D. Thermistor:

Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as manganese, 23

nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in variety of sizes and shapes.
The thermistors may be in the form of beads, rods or discs.

Advantages: Low cost. It produces more accurate output and fast. It is suitable for the
usage in remote location. It can be manufactured in almost any shape and size. A high
degree of accuracy. Good stability and repeatability. It can withstand mechanical and
electrical stresses.

Disadvantages: It produces highly non-linear output. It has a limited measuring range. Self-
heating may occur. An external power supply is required. It is fragile in nature. Shielded
cables should be used to minimize interference

Applications of Thermistors: Thermistors are used in an automotive applications

Instrumentation and Communication. Consumer electronics. Food handling and
processing. Industrial electronics. Medical electronics. Military and aerospace

• PTC Thermistor: Current limiting devices. Timer in degaussing coil. Motors. Self-
Regulating heaters.

• NTC Thermistor: Very low temperature thermometers. Digital Thermostats. In-rush

protection devices. Battery pack monitors
 E. Thermocouple:

2 PRESSURE SENSOR

The first pressure gauges were purely mechanical. They used mechanisms such as a
diaphragm or a “Bourdon tube” that changed shape under pressure to move a pointer on
a dial. Hence, either the deflection of the membrane or its change in resonance frequency
is measured; both of these values are proportional to the pressure applied. These
mechanical changes are transformed into electric signals. Membranes can be
manufactured by bulk micromachining of a (100) silicon substrate, whereby the membrane
is produced with one of the etch stop techniques. Pressure sensors usually employ piezo
resistive or capacitive measuring principles.

In a piezoresistive strain gauge sensor, the change in electrical resistance of one or more
resistors mounted on a diaphragm is measured. The change in resistance is directly
proportional to the strain caused by pressure on the diaphragm. The resistors are
connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which is a very sensitive way of converting the
small changes to an output voltage.
Capacitive pressure sensors measure changes in electrical capacitance caused by the
movement of a diaphragm. A capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates
separated by a small gap. One of the plates acts as the diaphragm that is displaced by the
pressure, changing the capacitance of the circuit. The resulting change of resonant
frequency of a circuit can be measured. Or, in a digital system, the time taken to charge
and discharge the capacitor can be converted to a series of pulses.
Piezoelectric sensors. A piezoelectric sensor is a device that converts mechanical stress into
an electrical charge. The word "piezoelectric" comes from the Greek word "piezein",
which means "to press". Piezoelectric sensors are used in a wide variety of applications,
including:

• Pressure sensors: Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure pressure. They

are typically used in pressure gauges, tire pressure sensors, and medical
devices.
• Acceleration sensors: Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure
acceleration. They are typically used in accelerometers, airbag sensors, and
gaming devices.

v Piezoelectric sensors work by using the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect is
the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge when they are subjected
to mechanical stress.
v When a piezoelectric sensor is subjected to mechanical stree, it generates an electric
charge that is propotional to the stress.
v The sensor generates an electric charge that is proportional to the stress.
v The electric charge is then amplified and converted into a digital signal.
v The digital signal is then processed by a microcontroller or computer.
Advantages and disadvantages of the three sensor types

Piezoresistive strain gauge sensors

• These are the earliest and most widely used type of pressure sensor.
• The simple construction means low cost and durability. The sensors are robust with
good resistance to shock, vibration, and dynamic pressure changes.
• The readout circuits are very simple and enable high-resolution measurement.
• The output is linear with pressure and the response time is typically below one
millisecond.
• They can be used for a wide range of pressure measurements from 3 psi up to about
20,000 psi (21 kPa to 150 MPa). The output is also stable over time.
• The resistive elements can be bonded to the diaphragm. This is a standard
technique that has been in use for a long time but there can be problems with the
adhesives at high temperatures and overpressure.
• Alternatively, thin film resistors can be created directly on the membrane. These
can operate at higher temperatures and are more suitable for use in harsh
environments.
• The main disadvantage is that the sensor has to be powered. This makes them
unsuitable for low power or battery operated systems. Scaling down the size
reduces the resistance and increases the power consumption.
• The sensor output is temperature dependent. This can be a big disadvantage for
applications such as tyre pressure measurement where there are large
temperature changes over the operating cycle.
• Silicon strain gauges are much more sensitive and can measure pressures down to
2 kPa.
Capacitive sensors

• The capacitive element is mechanically simple and robust.

• Capacitive sensors are able to operate over a wide temperature range and are very
tolerant of short-term overpressure conditions.
• They can be used to measure a wide range of pressure from vacuum (2.5 mbar or
250 Pa) to high pressures up to around 10,000 psi (70 MPa). They’re ideal for both
lower-pressure applications and reasonably harsh environments.
• Because no DC current flows through the capacitor, they are inherently low power.
• Passive devices may not require a power source at all; the excitation signal can be
provided by the external reader. This makes them suitable for wearable or
implanted medical devices. These applications can be enhanced by new
technologies that enable the construction of sensors that are flexible or moulded
to shape.
• Capacitive sensors exhibit low hysteresis and good repeatability of measurements.
They also have low temperature sensitivity.
• The response time is in the order of milliseconds, and even faster in the case of
MEMS devices.
• Because they’re inherently AC devices, capacitive sensors are suitable for wireless
applications. They can be used in an oscillator circuit to generate a signal, with a
frequency proportional to pressure, that can be received wirelessly.
• Alternatively, the reader can use inductive coupling to measure the change in
resonant frequency – this is particularly suitable for passive devices that require no
power supply.
• One of the main disadvantages of capacitive sensors is the non-linearity exhibited
because the output is inversely proportional to the gap between the parallel
electrodes. This can be improved by using the sensor in touch mode, where the
diaphragm is in contact with the insulating layer on the lower electrode. However,
this can reduce sensitivity and increase hysteresis. They are also sensitive to
vibration.
• The interface needs to minimise stray capacitance by having the electronics as close
as possible to the sensor. This is another benefit of MEMS technology.
Piezoelectric sensors

• The main advantages of piezoelectric sensors are robustness and low power.
• The sensing elements are made of rigid materials, which can be natural crystals
such as quartz or specially formulated ceramics. These require only a very small
deformation to generate an output, so there are effectively no moving parts.
• This means the sensors are extremely robust and suitable for use in a range of very
harsh environments. They can also tolerate very high temperatures; some materials
can be used at up 1,000ºC.
• This makes piezoelectric sensors suitable for applications such as measuring
pressures in jet engines.
• The sensor elements are self-powered so they’re intrinsically low-power devices. It
also means they’re insensitive to electromagnetic interference.
• However, designing the electronic interface is more complex than the other sensor
types. A charge amplifier is required to convert the very high impedance charge
output to a voltage signal. This needs to be located close to the sensing element.
• Some sensors include integrated electronics, which simplifies the use of the sensor
but reduces the operating temperature range.
• With ceramic materials, a usable output can be obtained with very small
displacements. This means they can be used for measuring a very wide range of
pressures, between 0.1 psi and 10,000 psi (0.7 kPa to 70 MPa), with very high
accuracy.
• The piezoelectric elements can be very small with an extremely fast response to
changes in pressure. Some devices can measure rise times in the order of 1 millionth
of a second. As a result, piezoelectric sensors are used for measuring pressure
changes in explosions.
• The sensors are simple to construct and can be made from inexpensive materials.
• The main limitation of piezoelectric sensors is that they can only be used for
dynamic pressure measurement.
• The sensors are sensitive to vibration or acceleration, which may be common in the
applications where they are used. This can be minimised by using an extra
“compensation” sensor attached to a dummy mass. The output from this is used
to correct for acceleration experienced by the sensor.
• Overall, these three sensor types are robust and low cost. They function over a wide
range of pressures and temperatures so there are suitable sensors available for
almost every application.
WEEK 4: Sensor Technologies: Position and Motion Sensors

3 POSITION AND MOTION SENSORS

Introduction
A position sensor (also known as a motion sensor) is used to precisely determine the
physical position and / or speed of the assembly attached to it at a specific and particular
time.

A. Encoders
Any transducer that generates a coded (digital) reading of a measurement can be termed
as an encoder. E.g., Shaft encoders; are digital transducers that are used for measuring
angular displacements and angular velocities. Applications of these devices include motion
measurement in performance monitoring and control of robotic manipulators, machine
tools, industrial processes (e.g., food processing and pack- aging, pulp and paper), digital
data storage devices, positioning tables, satellite mirror positioning systems, vehicles,
construction machinery, planetary exploration devices, battlefield equipment, and
rotating machinery such as motors, pumps, compressors, turbines, and generators.
Majority of encoders are classified into two categories depending on the nature and the
method of interpre- tation of the transducer output: (1) incremental encoders and (2)
absolute encoders.

Incremental Encoder

Shaft:
The output of an incremental encoder is a pulse signal, which is generated when the
transducer disk rotates as a result of the motion that is measured. By counting the pulses
or by timing the pulse width using a clock signal, both angular displacement and angular
velocity can be determined. With an incremental encoder, displacement is obtained with
respect to some reference point. The reference point can be the home position of the
moving component (say, determined by a limit switch) or a reference point on the encoder
disk, as indicated by a reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location on the disk.
Wheel:
Encoders can help to track how far each wheel of a robot has traveled. In a differential
drive configuration, wheel encoders can help tracking a robot’s wheel velocity. The
velocity measurements can then be used to estimate the robot relative position and
heading angle.

Absolute Encoders
They use a pattern disk or a code wheel that provides a unique code for each position.
Light sensors read the code, and the sensors can directly determine the absolute position
of the object without needing reference point

B. Accelerometer

An accelerometer is a sensor used to measure the acceleration of an object. It is commonly

found in various devices, such as smartphones, fitness trackers, automotive systems,
aerospace applications, and more. The accelerometer provides data about changes in
velocity or acceleration along its sensing axes. There are two main types of
accelerometers: piezoelectric accelerometers and capacitive accelerometers

Working principle of a Piezoelectric accelerometer

Piezoelectric accelerometers work by using the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric

effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge when they are
subjected to mechanical stress. When an accelerometer is subjected to acceleration, the
piezoelectric material inside the sensor generates an electric charge that is proportional
to the acceleration.
Construction of a Piezoelectric accelerometer

The piezoelectric accelerometer is constructed as follows.

• It consists of a housing and contains a mass attached to the mechanical axis

• The piezoelectric element in the form of a cylinder is first bonded to a central
pillar. Then a cylinder mass is bonded to the outside of the PZT of the crystal.
element.
• Acceleration in the direction of the cylinder axis causes a shear force on the
element, which provides its own spring force.
• The acceleration of the piezoelectric material generates electric potential when
subjected to mechanical strain along a predetermined axis.
• The initial calibrating force is predetermined between the mass and spring using a
preloaded spring
• As the housing of the accelerometer is subjected to vibrations, the force exerted
on the piezoelectric element by the mass is altered.
• The charge generated on the crystal is sensed using a charge amplifier. A force F
applied to the crystal develops a charge, Q=dF.
• When a varying acceleration is applied to the mass crystal assembly, the crystal
experiences a varying force.

Here a is the acceleration and V is the voltage produced. Thus, the output is a measure of
the acceration.
N.B. Modern accelerometers are often small Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS), consisting of a cantilever beam with a proof mass. Damping results from the
residual gas sealed in the device.

C. Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a sensor used to measure and maintain orientation or angular velocity in
three-dimensional space. It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin
axis) is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis
is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of
angular momentum.

Gyroscopes are commonly used for navigation, smart phones, video games, and
industry applications.

o The spin axis of a gyroscope is typically mounted in gimbals, which are rings that allow
the spin axis to move freely in three dimensions.
• The gimbals are supported by bearings that minimize friction and allow the spin axis
to move freely.
• The torque applied to the spin axis of a gyroscope can be caused by a variety of
factors, including gravity, acceleration, and rotation of the mounting.
• The rate of precession of a gyroscope is proportional to the torque applied to the spin
axis.
• The precession of a gyroscope can be used to measure the orientation of the
gyroscope or the forces acting on the gyroscope.

Modern Gyroscope Technology indlude:

• A Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG)

• A Fibre Optic Gyroscope (FOG)
• MEMS gyros
D. Proximity Sensor