Fourier Transform

A strong mathematical technique that is frequently employed in electrical engineering is the

Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts time-domain signals to frequency-domain
signals. The Fourier transform has the following applications in electrical engineering:
1. Frequency Analysis: Engineers can examine signals in the frequency domain by using
the Fourier transform. It is possible to determine the precise frequencies contained in a
signal by converting it from the time domain to the frequency domain. Understanding the
frequency components of electrical signals is critical in fields like signal processing and
communication systems.
2. Signal Filtering: To develop and execute filters for signals, engineers employ the
Fourier transform. It is possible to identify and filter out undesirable frequency
components by converting a signal into the frequency domain. This is especially crucial
for applications like audio processing, where it's necessary to remove undesired
frequencies or noise.
3. Modulation and Demodulation: Modulation is the process of changing a carrier signal's
characteristics in order to transfer data in communication systems. Modulation scheme
analysis and design are aided by the Fourier transform. Comparably, the Fourier
transform is used during demodulation—the process of obtaining information from a
modulated signal—in order to comprehend the frequency components and obtain the
original data.
4. Spectral Analysis: To examine a signal's frequency composition, electrical engineers
apply the Fourier transform to the situation. This is important in domains like power
systems, where maintaining the stability and effectiveness of electrical networks requires
an understanding of the harmonic components of voltage and current waveforms.
5. System Analysis: Linear time-invariant (LTI) systems are analyzed using the Fourier
transform. Engineers can determine the frequency response, gain, and phase shift of a
system by altering its input and output signals. It is essential to comprehend how a system
reacts to various input frequencies in control systems and circuit design.

Transfer function
Applications of Transfer Function in Electrical Engineering

The transfer function is a fundamental idea in electrical engineering that is used to analyze and
build electrical systems, especially in the domains of signal processing and control systems.
Definition: The relationship between the input and output of a linear time-invariant (LTI) system
in the frequency domain is represented by a transfer function in electrical engineering. It is often
defined as
𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
𝑈(𝑠)
 and is expressed as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the input to the Laplace transform of
the output. Here, 𝑌(𝑠) is the output, 𝑈(𝑠) is input and 𝑠 is the Laplace variable. All the initial
conditions are assumed to be zero.
𝐾
The transfer function of a first-order system is given by 𝐺 (𝑠) = 1+𝑇 , where 𝑇𝑠 is time constant
𝑠
1
representing the time it takes for the system’s response to reach 𝜀 of its final value in a
step response. K is the system gain indicating the amplification or attenuation of the
input signal.

Frequency Response: The study of frequency response is one of the main uses of transfer
functions in electrical engineering. Engineers can determine how a system reacts to
various frequencies by analyzing the transfer function for various values of the complex
frequency variable s. When designing filters, amplifiers, and other electronic systems,
this is essential.
Amplifiers and Filters: The design and analysis of amplifiers and filters heavily relies on transfer
functions. The transfer function aids in determining the system's gain and frequency
dependency for amplifiers. Transfer functions are used in filter design to help create
filters that may reject or pass certain frequencies selectively, giving engineers more
flexibility to customize the system's response to desired conditions.
Control Systems: The designing of control systems requires transfer functions. They support the
analysis of how feedback and control signals affect the dynamic behavior of electrical
systems. Transfer functions are used by engineers to create controllers that enhance
transient response, stabilize systems, and produce desired results.
Feedback Systems: The analysis of feedback systems requires a thorough understanding of the
transfer function. Transfer functions are used by engineers to evaluate steady-state
behavior, transient response, and stability. This allows feedback loops to be optimized for
increased system robustness and performance.

Circuit Analysis: The link between voltage and current in electrical components can be studied
more easily in circuit analysis thanks to transfer functions. They are especially helpful in
the design of circuits with precise frequency responses by enabling the determination of
the behavior of circuits in the frequency domain.
IMPULSE RESPONSE
The impulse response is a fundamental tool in electrical engineering for analyzing and
characterizing the behavior of linear time-invariant systems. It provides a bridge between the
time and frequency domains, allowing engineers to gain insights into system dynamics and
design efficient and stable systems for various applications.
Definition
In the electrical engineering context, the impulse response of a system is the output of the system
when it is subjected to a unit impulse input. A unit impulse is an idealized mathematical function
that is infinitesimally short in duration but has an area of unity
The impulse response essentially characterizes the system's behavior over time. It provides
insights into how the system reacts to sudden changes in input or disturbances. By analyzing the
shape and duration of the impulse response, engineers can gain an understanding of the system's
dynamic behavior.

The impulse response is mathematically defined as 𝑦(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) ∗ 𝛿(𝑡). Here 𝑦(𝑡) is the output
of the system, ℎ(𝑡) is the impulse response, 𝛿(𝑡) is the unit impulse input and ∗ denotes
convolution.
Mathematically, the convolution is expressed as
∞

𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏, where 𝜏 is a damming variable of integration.

−∞

Periodic input
Periodic input refers to a type of signal or input waveform that repeats itself at regular intervals
over time. In various fields of engineering and signal processing, periodic inputs are encountered
frequently, and understanding their characteristics is crucial for analyzing and designing systems.
Here are key points about periodic input.
Definition: A periodic input is a signal that repeats its pattern or waveform identically after a
certain period. Mathematically, a signal 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic if there exists a positive constant 𝑇 such
that 𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡) for all 𝑡 in the signal’s domain.

The period (𝑇) is the smallest positive constant for which the signal repeats itself. It represents
the duration of one complete cycle of the periodic waveform. The reciprocal of the period,
𝑓 = 1/𝑇 is the fundamental frequency of the periodic signal in hertz.
A periodic input can be represented using Fourier series, a mathematical tool that decomposes a
periodic signal into a sum of sinusoidal components. The Fourier series representation allows the
analysis of the signal in the frequency domain.
Periodic signals can be composed of a fundamental frequency and its harmonics. The harmonics
are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and contribute to the overall shape of the
signal.
Periodic inputs are prevalent in various engineering applications, including communications,
control systems, and signal processing. For example, sinusoidal waves are common periodic
inputs in the analysis of electrical circuits and systems.
Understanding a system's response to periodic inputs is crucial for analyzing its behavior. In
many cases, engineers use methods such as frequency response analysis to study how a system
responds to different frequency components present in the periodic input.

Gain and Phase Lag

Gain refers to the amplification or attenuation of a signal as it passes through a system. It is a
measure of the ratio of the output magnitude to the input magnitude in a system.
Gain and phase lag are fundamental concepts in electrical engineering, particularly in the
analysis and design of control systems. Let's discuss five characteristics of gain and phase lag.
Gain (Amplitude Gain): Gain represents the ratio of the output magnitude to the input
magnitude in a system. It quantifies how much the amplitude of a signal is amplified or
attenuated by the system.
Phase Lag: Phase lag refers to the time delay or phase shift between the input and output signals
of a system. It indicates the delay in the output response concerning changes in the input signal.
Gain: The gain of a system may vary with frequency. In frequency-dependent systems, the gain
can exhibit different values at different frequencies.
Phase Lag: The phase lag is also frequency-dependent. It describes how the phase difference
between input and output signals changes with varying frequencies.
Gain: In the frequency domain, gain is often represented using a Bode plot, showing the
magnitude (in decibels) of the gain as a function of frequency.
Phase Lag: Similarly, the phase lag is represented in a Bode plot, illustrating the phase shift (in
degrees) between the input and output signals across different frequencies.
Gain: High gain can lead to instability in a system, causing oscillations or overshooting in the
output response. Conversely, low gain may result in a sluggish response.
Phase Lag: Excessive phase lag can also lead to instability, affecting the transient response and
potentially causing system oscillations.
Gain: Adjusting the gain is a crucial aspect of control system design. It allows engineers to tailor
the system's response to meet specific performance requirements, such as stability and transient
response.
Phase Lag: Controlling phase lag is essential for maintaining stability and avoiding undesired
effects like overshooting or oscillations. Phase lag is particularly critical in feedback control
systems.
In a frequency domain analysis, gain is often represented using the magnitude of the transfer
function 𝐻(𝑓) of a system. The transfer function relates the output to the input in the frequency
domain.
Mathematically, gain is defined by
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = |𝐻(𝑓)|
Gain is crucial in applications such as amplifiers, filters, and communication systems. It
determines how much a signal is amplified or attenuated by a system.
Phase lag (or phase shift) is a measure of the time delay introduced by a system to different
frequency components of a signal. It indicates the shift in the phase angle between the input and
output signals.
Phase lag is represented by the argument of the transfer function 𝐻(𝑓) in the frequency domain
Phase Lag = arg(𝐻(𝑓)) , and its unit is degree or radians.
Phase lag is crucial in control systems, filters, and communication systems. It affects the time
synchronization and alignment of signals in a system.
Examples
Given an input signal amplitude of 2V and an output signal amplitude of 8V, calculate the gain
in decibels (dB).

In a control system, if the input signal amplitude is 5 and the output signal amplitude is 15, find
the gain in dB.
For a given system, if the input amplitude is 10V and the output amplitude is 2V, determine the
gain in decibels.
In a feedback control system, if the phase difference between the input and output signals is -45
degrees, calculate the phase lag.
For a sinusoidal input signal with a frequency of 100 Hz, if the phase difference between the
input and output signals is 30 degrees, determine the phase lag in seconds.

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