Question 1

QUESTION 1
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for bonding electrons in molecules

compared to that of other atoms. The electronegativity values devised by Linus Pauling, an American
chemist, are dimensionless quantities that range from slightly less than one for the alkali metals to a
maximum of four for fluorine. Large electronegativity values indicate a stronger attraction for
electrons than small electronegativity values.
Electronegativities increase from left to right across the periodic table (Figure 1.3). Elements on the
left of the periodic table have low electronegativities and are often called electropositive elements.
The order of electronegativities F > O > N > C is an important property that we will use to explain the
chemical properties of organic compounds. Electronegativities decrease from top to bottom within a
group of elements. The order of decreasing electronegativities F > Cl > Br > I is another sequence that
we will use to interpret the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds.
QUESTION 2
Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when a neutral atom in the gas phase gains an
electron to form a negative ion. This process can either release or absorb energy, but most elements
release energy, resulting in a negative value for electron affinity. A high, negative electron affinity
indicates a strong attraction for electrons.
### Key Points:
1. **Energy Release**: When an atom gains an electron, energy is usually released, indicating that
the atom becomes more stable.
2. **Negative Values**: The more negative the electron affinity, the stronger the attraction for an
added electron.
3. **Periodic Trend**:
- **Across a Period**: Electron affinity generally becomes more negative as you move from left to
right, especially in groups like halogens that strongly attract electrons to complete their valence shell.
- **Down a Group**: Electron affinity becomes less negative as you go down a group, since larger
atoms have a weaker attraction for additional electrons.
4. **Exceptions**: Noble gases, nitrogen, and some alkaline earth metals do not follow the trend
because of their stable configurations, often resulting in positive or low electron affinities.
5. **Importance in Reactivity**: Atoms with highly negative electron affinities, like halogens, are
highly reactive and act as oxidizers, readily gaining electrons in reactions.
Electron affinity, therefore, helps predict reactivity, especially for elements that readily gain electrons
to form stable ions.
QUESTION 3
Ionization potential (or ionization energy) is the amount of energy required to remove the outermost
(or highest-energy) electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous state. It reflects how strongly an
atom's nucleus holds onto its electrons and plays a key role in determining the reactivity of an
element.
### Key Points:
1. **Definition**: Ionization potential is measured in electron volts (eV) or kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol), representing the energy needed to overcome the attraction between the positively charged
nucleus and the negatively charged electron.
2. **Periodic Trends**:
- **Across a Period**: Ionization potential generally increases as you move from left to right. Atoms
become smaller, and their nuclear charge increases, which makes it harder to remove an electron.
- **Down a Group**: Ionization potential decreases as you move down a group, because atoms
become larger and the outermost electrons are further from the nucleus, making them easier to
remove.
Ionization potential is crucial for understanding chemical bonding, stability, and the reactivity of
elements across the periodic table.
QUESTION 4
The size of an atom, or **atomic radius**, is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost
electron shell. It can be measured in picometers (pm).
### Trends:
1. **Across a Period**: Atomic size decreases from left to right as the nucleus' positive charge
increases, pulling electrons closer.
2. **Down a Group**: Atomic size increases because additional electron shells are added, making
the atom larger.
### Types:
- **Covalent Radius**: Half the distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms.
- **Ionic Radius**: The size of an ion; cations are smaller, anions are larger than their neutral atoms.
Atomic size influences reactivity, with larger atoms (like alkali metals) being more likely to lose
electrons, while smaller atoms (like halogens) attract electrons strongly.

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QUESTION 1

Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for bonding electrons in molecules

### Key Points:

### Key Points:

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