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Scuba
Diving
F o u r th E diti o n

Dennis K. Graver, EMT, SEI

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Graver, Dennis.
Scuba diving / Dennis K. Graver. -- 4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-7900-6 (soft cover)
ISBN-10: 0-7360-7900-9 (soft cover)
1. Scuba diving. I. Title.
GV838.672.G74 2009
797.2'34--dc22
2009035767

ISBN-10: 0-7360-7900-9 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-7900-6 (print)
Copyright © 2010, 2003, 1999, 1993 by Dennis K. Graver
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any
information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
This publication is written and published to provide accurate and authoritative information relevant to the subject matter presented.
It is published and sold with the understanding that the author and publisher are not engaged in rendering legal, medical, or other
professional services by reason of their authorship or publication of this work. If medical or other expert assistance is required,
the services of a competent professional person should be sought.
The Web addresses cited in this text were current as of July 2009, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editor: Tom Heine; Developmental Editor: Anne Hall; Assistant Editor: Cory Weber; Copyeditor: Pat Connolly;
Indexer: Dan Connolly; Permission Manager: Martha Gullo; Graphic Designer: Nancy Rasmus; Graphic Artist:
Julie L. Denzer; Cover Designer: Keith Blomberg; Photographer (cover): Jeff Hunter/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images;
Photographer (interior): Dennis Graver, unless otherwise noted; Photo Asset Manager: Laura Fitch; Visual Production
Assistant: Joyce Brumfield; Photo Production Manager: Jason Allen; Art Manager: Kelly Hendren; Associate Art Manager:
Alan L. Wilborn; Illustrators: Figures 2.5, 2.7, 2.12, 3.1, 3.4, 4.3, 4.5, 4.8, 4.20, 4.24, 4.27, 4.28, 4.31, 4.34, 5.9, 5.14, 7.8, and
illustrations on page 46 by Argosy; Figure 4.22 by Mic Greenberg; all other illustrations by Thomas • Bradley Illustration and
Design; Printer: United Graphics
We thank Smokey Point Diving for assistance in providing the shoot location for this edition.
Human Kinetics books are available at special discounts for bulk purchase. Special editions or book excerpts can also be created
to specification. For details, contact the Special Sales Manager at Human Kinetics.
Printed in the United States of America   10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The paper in this book is certified under a sustainable forestry program.
Human Kinetics
Web site: www.HumanKinetics.com
United States: Human Kinetics Australia: Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076 57A Price Avenue
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Scuba
Diving
F o u r th E diti o n
Contents
Foreword vi
Acknowledgments ix

Chapter 1 Diving Into Scuba 1

The Joys of Diving 2 • How Diving
Evolved 3 • The Diving Community 4
• Diver Training 4 • Diving Prerequi-
sites 5 • Diving Risks 6 • Selecting a Dive
Course 7 • Diving Responsibilities 8
• Summary 9

Chapter 2 Diving Science 11

Anatomy for the Diver 12 • Respiration and
Circulation 15 • Contrasts in Air and Water
Environments 18 • Gas Laws 22 • Air Con-
sumption 27 • Heat, Humidity, Light, and
Sound 27 • Summary 33

Chapter 3 Diving Adjustments 35

Thermal Adjustments 36 • Buoyancy Adjust-
ments 39 • Pressure Equalization 40
• Breathing Adjustments 43 • Heart and
Lungs 47 • Equilibrium Adjustments and
Seasickness 48 • Visual Adjustments 49
• Ingassing and Outgassing 49 • Dehydration
Prevention 54 • Mobility Adjustments 55
• Summary 57

Chapter 4 Diving Equipment 59

Basic Equipment for All Divers 61 • Exposure
Suits 65 • Weighting Systems 72 • Buoyancy
Compensators 74 • Scuba Cylinders 76
• Cylinder Valves 81 • Scuba Regula-
tors 83 • Alternate Air Sources 88
• Instrumentation 90 • Dive Knives and
Accessories 94 • Specialized Equip-
ment 97 • Summary 101

iv
Chapter 5 Diving Environment 103
Aquatic Biology 104 • Potentially Dangerous
Aquatic Animals 107 • Conservation and
Preservation 110 • Aquatic Conditions 114
• Boat Diving 125 • Summary 127

Chapter 6 Diving Skills 129

Preparing to Skin Dive 130 • Skin
Diving Skills 132 • Preparing to Scuba
Dive 141 • Basic Scuba Diving
Skills 146 • Managing Physiologi-
cal Problems 164 • Managing Physical
Problems 168 • Managing Emergen-
cies 172 • Summary 177

Chapter 7 Dive Planning 179

Dive-Planning Factors 180 • Advance Plan-
ning and Preparation 182 • Short-Term
Planning and Preparation 182 • On-Site
Planning and Preparation 183 • Area Orienta-
tions 184 • Dive Profile Planning 185 • Dive
Tables 186 • Dive Calculators and Dive Com-
puters 198 • Postdive Review 201 • Sum-
mary 201

Chapter 8 Diving Opportunities 203

Continuing Education 204 • Local Opportu-
nities 206 • Dive Travel 206 • Dive Destina-
tions 209 • Career Opportunities 212 • Lead-
ership Opportunities 213 • Summary 213

Appendix: Associations
and Periodicals 214
Glossary of Scuba Diving Terms 216
Bibliography 225
Index 226
About the Author 233
v
 Foreword

Scuba diving is nearly

indescribable to one
who has not experienced
it. Divers experience many
joys, including the feeling
of weightlessness, the rela-
tive quiet, and the often beauti-
ful sights of the underwater world. Each
dive site and each dive is a unique trip into what
Jacques Cousteau called “The Silent World,” and
each experience leaves the diver with great appre-
ciation for our aquatic environments. Whether
a person is diving in quarries, lakes, or oceans, the
trip beneath the waves is always an exciting and
rewarding one.

Recreational scuba diving spans barely 60 years and was jump-started by sev-
eral events that occurred during World War II and in the period shortly after the
war. The practical demand regulator and high-pressure cylinders came out of the
war, and Navy divers brought their enthusiasm for diving into the civilian world.
The public, particularly the free divers on both coasts, eagerly took to the new
equipment and activity, leading to a need for some form of organized training.
Los Angeles County and then the YMCA led the development of scuba educa-
tion in the United States, which has led to our current scuba training courses.
As always, the goal in scuba education is to provide a safe and fun experience
for the diver, whether that diver is new to the sport or very experienced.

vi
 Education progresses as the diving community learns more about diving medi-
cine and safety. Changes come as a result of new evidence, as with the revised
U.S. Navy diving tables, or as diving physicians learn more about how the human
body responds to diving. As a result, diving physicians and other professionals
make new recommendations so that diving remains as safe as possible. Finally,
diving equipment manufacturers improve diving equipment constantly and offer
many choices for divers of all sizes and diving abilities. For all of these reasons,
diving education must keep pace, resulting in the fourth edition of this excellent
publication. This book will be a valuable resource for you now, in a future scuba
class, and as you continue your diving activity.
We hope that you enjoy your first scuba course, and we encourage you to
continue your scuba education and diving activity after your course is over.
Diving is fun, and active divers are safer and better divers. Welcome to our
underwater world!

Tom Leaird, CEO

Scuba Educators International
Dan Marelli
Program Development Director, Scuba Educators International

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to many individuals and organizations for their assistance with this
book. My first thanks go to Rainer Martens, publisher at Human Kinetics, for
his persistence in persuading me to write Scuba Diving. It also was a pleasure to
work with the rest of the Human Kinetics staff—they are extremely professional.
Many people contributed to the photos in Scuba Diving. I wish to thank Harry
Truitt of Lighthouse Diving Center and Dick Long of DUI, who both loaned
equipment for photos. I am especially grateful to Skip Commagere, owner of
Force E, who provided diving support and photographic models. Thanks also to
Smokey Point Diving in Arlington, Washington, who provided equipment for
the skills photos and the use of a pool; Cliff Newell of the NOAA in Seattle, who
allowed me to photograph the recompression chambers at the NOAA facility;
and my longtime friend and diving buddy, Fred Humphrey, who provided surf
entry and exit shots. While many divers appear throughout the book, I want
to thank these in particular: Michelle Anderson, Bill Black, Skip Commagere,
Beth Farley, Barbara Graver, Scott Harrison, Aaron King, Tom McCrudden, and
Jennifer Olson.
The reviewers have my sincere appreciation, but my deepest gratitude is for
the members of the diving community who have taught me for the past 40
years and who continue to teach me now. It is a pleasure to be able to pass on
to others some of what I have learned.
Finally, I would like to say a special thank you to my loving wife, Barbara,
for all the support she gave me while I completed Scuba Diving.

ix
Chapter 1
Dive In and Discover
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
>> Describe the joys of diving.
>> Define the terms closed circuit, open circuit, scuba, semi-
closed circuit, and C-card.
>> Explain the training requirements for participation in scuba
diving activities.
>> List two medical conditions that disqualify an individual
from scuba diving.
>> Describe three risks associated with scuba diving.
>> List several questions to ask when selecting an entry-level
scuba diver training course.
>> Explain several responsibilities that you assume when you
become a certified scuba diver.

Burrowing anemone, Santa Cruz Island, California

 Diving
Into Scuba
 When you descend beneath
the surface of the water,
you enter an entirely new
and beautiful world. You
have opportunities to see
incredible life-forms that only
a few people ever see. Imagine
swimming in a giant aquarium,
and you’ll get a glimpse of what
you can expect to experience in the
underwater world.
Queen angelfish,
British Virgin Islands

The Joys of Diving

As a diver, you are weightless and can move in all directions. Your freedom
approaches that of a bird as you move in three dimensions in a fluid environment.
Diving weightless in clear water in a forest of underwater plants with sunlight
streaming down is only one of many unforgettable experiences awaiting you.
Just as there are mountains, plains, and various environments above water,
there are various environments for you to experience underwater. Coral reefs,
kelp forests, incredible rock formations, and other natural wonders await divers
in various geographical regions. In addition, divers can explore piers, jetties,
quarries, mysterious shipwrecks, and other artificial structures. The variety of
underwater sights is limitless. There is more to view underwater than anyone
could possibly see in an entire lifetime. A range of activities—such as photog-
raphy, hunting, and collecting—make diving challenging and rewarding. Scuba
diving includes an activity to interest everyone.
Divers are friendly and easy to get to know; their camaraderie is well known.
Diving is a sharing activity, and there is much to share. If you enjoy traveling,
you will probably love diving. Dive travel is the number one business of recre-
ational diving. Reasonably priced dive vacations to exotic islands abound. Most
divers plan one or more diving vacations each year.
The sensations of diving are fantastic but are difficult to explain. Words cannot
describe the peaceful solitude of inner space. Diving contributes to good health,
can help reduce work-related stress, can increase self-esteem, and can make you
feel great. You need to experience the emotions and sensations for yourself. You
will then begin to know the joys of diving.

2
 Diving Into Scuba

How Diving Evolved

Interest in the underwater world has always existed. Driven by curiosity and
the need for food, people have ventured beneath the surface of Earth’s seas for
thousands of years. Records exist of sponge divers, oyster pearl divers, military
divers, and even salvage regulations dating back to 3000 BC. In ancient times,
the two methods employed for diving were breath holding and the use of an
inverted, air-filled bell (which was large and heavy). John Lethbridge, an Eng-
lishman, developed an oak cylinder diving engine in 1715 to pump air into a
bell. The hand-operated air compressor, invented in 1770, allowed fresh air to be
pumped into a submerged diving bell. In 1772, Sieur Freminet of France invented
a helmet-hose system that permitted divers to work without a bell. The greatest
early advancement in underwater equipment occurred in 1837, when Augustus
Siebe (a German living in England) invented the first closed-dress diving suit,
which became known as the hard-hat system. Siebe’s system was so effective
that it dominated underwater work for 100 years, and it is still in use today.
The origin of recreational diving can be traced to 1825. That year, William H.
James, an Englishman, invented the first open-circuit self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus (scuba) system. Although this system was not very practi-
cal, it did solve the problems of the air hose tether and the depth restrictions
related to oxygen poisoning. Benoit Rouquayrol (a French mining engineer) and
Auguste Denayrouze (a French naval officer) invented the aerophore in 1865.
Their creation is considered the source of modern scuba equipment.
Later, two Englishmen, Henry Fleuss and Robert Davis, developed a closed-
circuit oxygen rebreather system in 1878. This system eliminated the air hose
that had previously tethered divers and restricted their movement. The system
had great military application because bubbles were not exhausted into the
water. Oxygen rebreathers were used extensively by Italian and British frogmen
during World War II. However, the use of oxygen rebreather systems is limited
to a depth of 20 feet (about 7.6 m) because breathing pure oxygen at greater
pressures causes convulsions, which can be fatal during submersion.
Yves Le Prieur of France developed a manually controlled open-circuit scuba
system in the early 1920’s (year disputed); however, modern scuba diving was
launched with the development of a “demand” scuba system that was perfected
by Frenchmen Emile Gagnan and Jacques Cousteau in 1943. With this system,
a diver could demand compressed air from a steel cylinder by simply inhaling
from a pressure regulator held in the mouth. Scuba was introduced in the United
States in 1950 and has been popular ever since.
The military has continued to improve underwater breathing systems that
have found their way into use by recreational divers. The latest scuba systems
are semi-closed-circuit rebreathers. These systems use sophisticated electronics
to control the oxygen mixture that a diver breathes, periodically releasing only
a small amount of bubbles. High levels of training, frequent use, and dedicated
maintenance are required for the safe use of these expensive rebreathers.

3
Scuba Diving

The Diving Community

The recreational diving community consists of equipment manufacturers, diving
retailers, diving educators, diver training organizations, dive resorts, diving
supervisors, dive guides, dive clubs and associations, publishing companies, and
certified divers. Commercial, scientific, and professional diving are not consid-
ered recreational pursuits; separate communities are involved in these types of
diving. This book addresses only recreational skin diving and scuba diving. A
scuba diver breathes compressed air underwater, while a skin diver holds his or
her breath while submerged.
Few laws pertain to recreational scuba diving. The laws that exist do not
govern who may dive. The diving industry is self-regulating. The diving com-
munity realizes that it is dangerous when people who have not completed a
sanctioned course of instruction attempt scuba diving. Dive businesses require
proof of completion of training before they will allow you to have your scuba
tanks filled or allow you to participate in diving activities. Many dive operations
also require proof of recent experience documented in a diving logbook. If you
have not been diving for a year or more, you may be required to complete at
least one dive under the supervision of a diving professional. The supervised
dive requirement helps increase the safety of divers whose skills may need to
be refreshed.
When you complete your training requirements as a scuba diver, you receive
a certification card called a C-card. Most C-cards do not require renewal, but
the recreational diving community universally recommends the completion of
refresher training after periods of inactivity in excess of six months.
Certified divers may dive without supervision or may employ the services of
a diving guide. Just because a divemaster or diving supervisor is aboard a dive
boat, you should not assume that this person is a guide who will dive with you.
Guide services are not necessarily included with diving trips. If you want a guide
to lead you about underwater and show you the sights, you should arrange for
guide services in advance.
You will learn more about the community as your diving experience increases.
Many opportunities for adventure and enjoyment can be found within this
community. Get actively involved in the community when you complete your
training and officially qualify as a scuba diver.

Diver Training
A national diver training organization must sanction your training. The train-
ing organization establishes standards of training that you must meet before
the organization will issue a certification card. The appendix includes a list of
national diver training organizations. Your instructor should have credentials
that identify her as a qualified instructor. The instructor’s membership in the
training organization must be current in order for the person to be qualified to
teach and certify divers. Be sure to confirm your instructor’s qualifications.
An entry-level training course usually consists of a series of academic ses-
sions, pool or confined-water (pool-like conditions in open water) sessions, and
open-water training (in actual diving locations). You will learn theory in the
classroom, learn skills in controlled conditions, and then apply your skills in an

4
 Diving Into Scuba

actual diving environment. This logical progression is common for all approved
diver training courses.
The minimum requirements for your training are as follows: You should have
four or more academic sessions, four or more pool sessions, and at least four scuba
dives in open water. A skin dive in open water may also be part of your training.
Your initial training should involve a total of 30 to 40 hours of instruction.
The instruction should occur over a period of several weeks instead of a few
days. The time between class sessions allows you to reflect on your training and
helps you absorb and retain the knowledge and skills better than a concentrated
training schedule would.

Proficiency Testing
After you have learned and practiced the skills of skin and scuba diving, you
must demonstrate your competence at a level established by the agency spon-
soring your training. Proficiency testing may include diving exercises that are
challenging and fun. Examples include mask recovery and clearing for skin
diving, simulated boat exit for scuba diving, alternate air source breathing, buddy
breathing, equipment handling, and a sequence of surface entry and equipment
donning known as a bailout.

Diving Prerequisites
Scuba diving can be undertaken by anyone over 12 years of age who is in normal
health and has a reasonable degree of physical fitness. People younger than
this should not participate in scuba diving (even when supervised by adults)
because they do not have the mental and emotional maturity to deal with the
problems that might arise. Skin diving is a good activity for youngsters if they
are well supervised.
For scuba diving, you need to have swimming ability, but you do not need
to be a competitive swimmer. At the beginning of your training, you should be
able to swim 200 yards (183 m) nonstop at the surface using any combination
of strokes. There is no time requirement for the swim. Being comfortable in the
water is more important than being able to swim fast. You also need to be able
to swim 25 feet (7.6 m) underwater with no push-off. By the end of the course,
you should be able to swim 300 yards (274 m) nonstop at the surface using
any combination of strokes; you should also be able to swim 50 feet (15.2 m)
underwater with no push-off. The goal is to increase your aquatic proficiency
during the course.
Good health means your heart, lungs, and circulation are functional and
that you do not have any serious diseases. Any medical conditions—even if
controllable under normal conditions—that might incapacitate you in the water
could cause you to drown while scuba diving. Some individuals with asthma
or diabetes may be able to dive if they have obtained special medical approval.
People with physical disabilities may also dive if they have medical approval
from a physician. The air spaces in your body—sinuses, ears, and lungs—must
be normal because changes in pressure affect them. Other medical conditions,
such as seizure disorders, absolutely preclude a person’s involvement in diving;

5
Scuba Diving

a seizure while diving can be fatal. Women who are pregnant should not scuba
dive. Increased pressure can adversely affect an unborn child. Pregnant women
may choose to participate in snorkeling as an alternative to scuba diving. Many
women ask whether they may dive during menstruation. Menstruation does
not preclude a woman from diving if her health permits
participation in other sports during that time.
Scuba Wise You need to be emotionally fit as well as physically fit
I nearly drowned when I was 4 years for diving. If you are terrified of water or of feeling con-
old, and I became terrified of water. fined, diving is probably an activity you should avoid.
When I was 8, I spent a summer with Normal concerns are to be expected, but stark terror is
my uncle in Ohio. He would take me unacceptable.
to Lake Erie and give me pennies if I You should have a physical examination before you
would wade into water deep enough begin your training, especially if it has been more than a
to cover my navel. I learned to swim year since your last exam. Ask your instructor to recom-
as a Boy Scout at age 11. Although I mend a diving physician. Physicians who do not under-
completed a lifesaving class at age 16, stand the physiology of scuba diving sometimes inap-
I was still apprehensive about water. propriately grant approval to people who have medical
When I learned skin and scuba diving conditions that place them at great risk in and under the
and discovered that I could actu- water. Your instructor can likely recommend a physician
ally relax in water, the water became who understands medical issues related to scuba.
my ally. For the first time in my life, I
enjoyed water and was able to rid
myself of my childhood fears. Just Diving Risks
because someone feels anxiety about
All activities present some risk. There is risk involved in
water does not mean that the person
walking across the street or driving a car. To avoid injury
can’t enjoy scuba diving. If you can
while participating in an activity, people take precautions
swim 200 yards, you can learn to dive
for their safety. Precautions must be taken for scuba diving
and to love being in and under the
just as for any other pursuit. The level of risk in diving is
water.
similar to that of flying in an airplane. Both are low-risk
activities when done with well-maintained equipment
according to established rules and in good environmental conditions. Unfortu-
nately, both activities are unforgiving if you ignore the rules and recommenda-
tions designed to minimize the risks.
The following information (and the information throughout this book) will
make you aware of injuries that scuba divers can incur. This information alerts
you to potential hazards and, more important, helps you learn to avoid injury.
If you do what you are taught to do as a diver, your risk will be minimal, and
all of your diving experiences will likely be pleasant ones.
Pressure changes with depth. Changes in pressure can severely injure bodily
air spaces if you are not in good health or if you fail to equalize the pressure in
the bodily air spaces with the surrounding pressure. You will learn equalizing
techniques as part of your training. Gases are normally dissolved in the fluids and
tissues of your body. Increased pressure increases the amount of gas dissolved in
your body. If you ascend too rapidly from a dive, the gases in your system can
form bubbles and produce a serious illness known as decompression illness.
By regulating your depth, the duration of your dive, and your rate of ascent,
you can avoid decompression illness. Failure to heed depth and time schedules
and ascent rates can result in serious, permanent injuries.

6
 Diving Into Scuba

Diving can be strenuous at times. You

need sufficient physical fitness and stam-
ina to handle long swims, currents, and
other situations that may arise. If you
become winded from climbing a flight
of stairs, you may need to improve
your level of fitness before learning to
scuba dive. Exhaustion in and under
the water is hazardous. A good exer-
cise to improve fitness for diving is
swimming with fins while breathing
through a snorkel.
Diving takes place in water, an
alien environment. You use life-
support equipment to dive, but
you cannot depend entirely on
the equipment for your well-
being. Aquatic skills are essential
in and around water. People with very weak
aquatic ability can drown when minor equipment problems
occur—problems that could be handled easily by a person with good water
skills. To be a scuba diver, you must be comfortable in the water. Metridian
You should not be overly concerned with the potential risks of diving because anemones off
the possible injuries are preventable. Learning how to dive as safely as possible Camano Island,
is the purpose of your training. You will learn to minimize the risk of injury and Washington.
maximize your enjoyment of the underwater world.

Selecting a Dive Course

There are many diver training organizations and thousands of professional diving
educators.. Your phone book might list diving businesses that offer sanctioned
courses. Many universities, community colleges, and recreational departments
also offer scuba courses. (See appendix for a list of diver training organizations.)
Ask about the qualifications, experience, and reputation of several diving instruc-
tors in your area to select the course that can provide you with the best possible
training. Here are some questions you should ask:
>> Is this training sanctioned by a diver training agency?
>> How long has the instructor been teaching scuba diving?
>> Which levels of training is the instructor qualified to teach?
>> May I speak with the graduates of a recent class?
>> Why is this course better than others in the area?
>> Are assisting and rescue techniques taught in the course?
>> How many instructor-supervised open-water dives are included?
The tuition for diving instruction is usually between $200 and $300. The
lowest-priced course may not necessarily be a bargain. Find out what is included
with the course fee and, more important, what the total cost will be for you to

7
Scuba Diving

become certified as a scuba diver. You do not

have to purchase all the equipment needed
to scuba dive, but you need to have a mask,
snorkel, fins, and usually boots and gloves
for your training. Use of the additional
required equipment is typically part of the
course tuition.
You should find out whether the price of
the course includes the costs of educational
materials and certification. There may be additional
costs for travel, lodging, parking, boat fees, and equip-
ment rental for open-water training. Determine the

FPO
complete cost before enrolling in a course.
When you have selected the best program for you and have
enrolled in a course, you should receive a reading assignment for
your first session. If you are not given an assignment, speak with the
instructor; your learning will be enhanced if you read in advance about the
Snorkel gear, fins, and topics to be presented in class. Good diving instructors provide a handout with
boots are the basic reading assignments.
equipment needed for
training.
Diving Responsibilities
When you qualify as a scuba diver, you assume many responsibilities. You are
responsible for your safety, for the safety of those you dive with, for the image
of scuba divers, and for the preservation of the diving environment. The diving
community encourages divers to accept responsibility for their actions. To be
part of the diving community, you need to be a responsible diver. Learn what
you should do, then do what you learn.

Responsible Diver Code

✔✔ I will dive within the limits of my training and ability.
✔✔ I will evaluate the conditions before every dive and make sure they fit my personal
capabilities.
✔✔ I will be familiar with and check my equipment before and during every dive.
✔✔ I will respect the buddy system and its advantages.
✔✔ I will accept responsibility for my own safety on every dive.
✔✔ I will be environmentally conscious on every dive.
✔✔ I will be responsible to myself, the people with whom I dive, and the environment.

8
 Diving Into Scuba

Summary
Diving can be a source of great joy. Many exciting experiences await the trained
diver. You need dive credentials to participate in diving activities. You must
complete diver training to obtain your C-card and logbook. But diving is not for
everyone. You must have normal health, good swimming skills, and reasonable
physical fitness. Diving poses risks that a well-trained, wise, and fit diver can
minimize. Compare training programs and choose the best education, which may
not be the quickest or the least expensive. Remember that you accept a great
deal of responsibility when you become a diver. Do not assume that you can
transfer the responsibility for a dive accident to someone else. Ultimately, you
control your actions underwater. Become a competent, self-reliant diver who
adheres to recommended safety practices, and you will discover the joy of diving.

9
Chapter 2
Dive In and Discover
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
>> List three body air spaces of concern to divers.
>> Describe the process of hearing in air.
>> Describe the cardiorespiratory process.
>> Explain the effect of carbon dioxide on breathing.
>> Define the terms eardrum, middle ear, eustachian tube,
nitrogen narcosis, hyperventilation, hypoventilation, den-
sity, buoyancy, pressure, gauge pressure, absolute pres-
sure, Boyle’s law, Gay-Lussac’s law, Dalton’s law, squeeze,
reverse block, ingassing, outgassing, and partial pressure.
>> Explain the principle of buoyancy and the key to control-
ling buoyancy.
>> Explain the effects of pressure and temperature on a
volume of air in a flexible container.
>> Explain why it is important to vent your lungs when you
ascend in water.
>> Convert any temperature to absolute temperature.
>> Explain the process of ingassing and outgassing.
>> State the two primary factors that affect the air consump-
tion of a scuba diver.
>> List four methods of heat loss.
>> Describe three potential problems for scuba divers that
may be caused by humidity.
>> Describe the effects of water on vision and hearing.

Schooling fish, Catalina Island, California

 Diving
Science
 Your body is a marvelous
machine. It performs many com-
plex functions automatically.
Your body is well adapted to an
air environment, but it can also
adjust in many ways to the aquatic
environment. In this chapter, you
will become familiar with some of
the structures and functions of your
body that are important for scuba diving.
You will learn the differences between the
Clownfish, Saipan,
Northern Mariana Islands air and water environments and how changes in
pressure affect your body. As a diver, you face many
challenges in the underwater environment, but these
challenges can be managed.

Anatomy for the Diver

Inside your body are air-filled spaces that are affected by changes in pressure. The
three body air spaces of primary concern to you as a diver are the lungs, the ears,
and the sinuses. Understanding the function of your throat will also help you
as a diver. Figure 2.1 illustrates the functions of the sinuses, throat, and lungs.
>> Sinuses. The sinuses warm and humidify inspired air. They secrete mucus
to help protect the body by trapping airborne germs. The small airways that
connect the sinuses to the nasal passages are normally open. Congested sinuses
pose problems for divers. In the next chapter, you will learn more about sinus
problems and how to prevent them.
>> Throat. In addition to being the organ of voice, the throat and larynx help
prevent foreign matter from entering the lungs. If something foreign, such as
food or water, comes into contact with the larynx, a reflex action causes a spasm
of the larynx. Coughing expels the foreign substance. You have experienced
this sensation when something has “gone down the wrong pipe.” Review the
throat section of figure 2.1. During your scuba diving training, you will learn
how to keep water out of your larynx to avoid coughing and choking in and
under the water.
>> Lungs. Healthy lungs are essential for scuba diving. The lungs are large
organs that contain millions of microscopic air sacs. Your lungs have a maximum
capacity and a minimum capacity. When you exhale completely, your lungs are
not empty. They contain about 2 pints (1 L) of air. The air remaining in your

12
 Diving Science

Sinuses form air spaces that

Sinuses reduce the weight of the head.
The sinuses are connected to
Hard the nasal passages by small
palate
airways.
Soft
palate
Frontal sinuses

Maxillary sinuses
Epiglottis
Pharynx
The epiglottis and the soft
palate in the back of your
pharynx seal the airways to
your nasal passages and to Lung volume (liters) Small Average Large
your lungs when you 1. Total lung capacity 4.0 6.0 8.0
swallow. Larynx
2. Vital capacity 3.0 4.5 6.0
Epiglottis 3. Residual volume 1.0 1.5 3.0
4. Expiratory reserve—varies
Trachea (windpipe) 5. Tidal volume—varies
Lung 6. Inspiratory reserve—varies

Bronchioles Note: These items correspond to the numbered

Alveoli arrows below
6

5
The alveolar walls are 6

Liters of air (average person)

very thin to allow gas
to diffuse from the 4
lungs into the blood
and from the blood
2 1
into the lungs. 3
Pleural 5
lining
2
Bronchi 4
The pleural lining is a
slippery layer of tissue 1
that helps maintain
lung inflation and keeps The lungs are more like sponges than 3
the constant motion of balloons. Air traveling down the trachea 0
the chest from irritating passes into the bronchi, which rebranch
the chest walls. over 20 times into airways called
bronchioles. The bronchioles end in
microscopic respiratory air sacs
called alveoli.

Figure 2.1
Functions of the sinuses,
E4676/Graver/fig 2.01/350330/kh/r3-alw
throat, and lungs.
lungs after you have exhaled completely is your residual volume. The amount
of air you move in and out of your lungs is your tidal volume. When you are
at rest, your tidal volume is small. When you exert yourself, your tidal volume
increases until you reach both your maximum lung volume and your residual
volume with each breath. Your vital capacity is the difference between the
volume of air for a maximum inhalation and the volume of air for a maximum

13
Scuba Diving

exhalation—typically about 6 to 8 pints (2.8 to 3.8 L). In the next chapter, you
will learn several reasons why your lungs are the most critical air spaces when
diving.
>> Ears. Behind your eardrum is an air space called the middle ear, which
is illustrated in figure 2.2. The pressure in the middle ear must equal the pressure
in the outer ear; otherwise, the eardrum cannot move freely. The next chapter
explains how to keep pressure
inside your ears equal to exter-
Three tiny bones Semicircular The semicircular canals nal pressure. Your eustachian
couple vibrations canals sense motions and help
from the eardrum the brain maintain body tube allows the equalization of
to the inner ear. balance. pressure in the middle ear. The
Oval window liquid-filled cochlea contains
Middle ear hairlike projections called cilia,
cavity Round window
which convert mechanical
movement to electrical signals
Ear canal Oval window for the brain. The movement
of the oval window by the tiny
Fluid- bones of the middle ear causes
filled
the liquid and the cilia in the
Cochlea
Eardrum Round window cochlea to move back and
The eardrum (a flexible, To couple sound to the forth. The oval window move-
airtight barrier) separates cochlea, the round and oval
windows move in opposite ment could not take place
the outer ear from the
middle ear. directions. without a second window
in the hearing organ—the
Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear round window. When the
oval window moves inward,
the round window moves out-
Eustachian tube ward, and vice versa.
If the motion sensed by
your semicircular canals and
Ai r The eustachian tube is an the visual cues received by
airway between the middle your eyes are not in harmony,
Three main parts of the ear ear and the throat.
motion sickness can result.
Sudden changes in tempera-
E4676/Graver/fig 2.02/350331/kh/r2 ture or pressure in the middle
Figure 2.2 ear can affect your semicircular canals and cause temporary disorientation. (The
Process of hearing next chapter presents potential ear problems for divers, how to avoid them, and
in air. how to handle them if they happen.)
>> Teeth. You may be surprised to learn that there are dental concerns for
divers. Pressure can affect air pockets in improperly filled teeth and can cause
tooth pain. If a tooth hurts only under pressure or only after a dive, see your
dentist and tell him what you suspect. The roots of some upper molars extend
into the sinus cavities. You should postpone diving for several weeks after you
have had a tooth extracted.
Your mouth and jaws are designed for an even bite. If you bite hard on a
mouthpiece with only your front teeth for prolonged periods, your jaws will
become sore. Special mouthpieces designed for a proper bite can help reduce the
problem. You should not have to bite hard on a mouthpiece to hold it in place.
If you find biting necessary, get lighter equipment. Prolonged, improper biting
that irritates your jaws can lead to serious inflammation of your jaws and ears.

14
 Diving Science

Abbreviations
✔✔ ATA atmospheres absolute ✔✔ FSW feet of seawater
✔✔ atm atmospheres ✔✔ ft feet
✔✔ CO carbon monoxide ✔✔ m meters
✔✔ CO2 carbon dioxide ✔✔ O2 oxygen
✔✔ °C degrees Celsius ✔✔ psia pounds per square inch absolute
✔✔ °F degrees Fahrenheit ✔✔ psig pounds per square inch gauge
✔✔ FFW feet of freshwater

Respiration and Circulation

One of the fascinating processes within the human body is your ability to breathe
in air and circulate oxygen to the tissues with no conscious effort. As your level
of exertion increases, your heart and lungs automatically adjust to meet the
increased demands for oxygen and nourishment. An understanding of the gases
involved in respiration and the basics of respiration and circulation can help
you understand the effects and the demands of diving on your lungs and heart.

Gases We Breathe
Several gases affect recreational divers. You need to know about their effects
on your body. About 80 percent of air is nitrogen (N2). At sea-level pressures,
nitrogen has no effect on your body. At a depth of about 100 feet (30 m), the
increased pressure of the gas has a detrimental effect, which is called nitrogen
narcosis. Excessive nitrogen in your body at the end of a dive can produce a
serious illness known as decompression sickness. You will learn more about
nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness in the next chapter.
Oxygen (O2) is the gas that supports human life. Any other gas mixed with
oxygen serves only as a vehicle for oxygen to be inspired. Approximately 21
percent of air is oxygen (see figure 2.3). You
need to breathe at least 10 percent oxygen Trace elements 0.04%
to remain conscious. However, oxygen Carbon dioxide 0.03%
breathed under high pressure is poisonous Argon 0.93%
and causes convulsions because oxygen
at increased pressure affects your nervous Oxygen 21%

system. You usually have compressed air—not

pure oxygen—in your scuba tanks. A specialty Nitrogen 78%

form of diving uses a nitrogen and oxygen

mixture with a higher percentage of oxygen
than is found in air. The mixture, which
reduces the effects of nitrogen at depth,
is called nitrox. The use of special mixed
gases, including nitrox, requires special Figure 2.3
training, equipment, and procedures. Composition of air.

15

E4676/Graver/fig 2.03/350332/kh/r2-alw
Scuba Diving

As your tissues use oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon
dioxide is the primary stimulus for respiration. The greater the level of carbon
dioxide in your body, the greater your urge to breathe will become. If the level
of carbon dioxide in your body becomes too great, unconsciousness will result.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas produced by the incomplete com-
bustion of gas or oil. The exhaust from an internal combustion engine contains
carbon monoxide. An oil-lubricated air compressor that overheats can produce
carbon monoxide. Even a minute amount of carbon monoxide in your scuba
tank can poison you and lead to unconsciousness or death. Air filling stations
must take care to avoid contamination of air with carbon monoxide.

Breathing and Circulation Mechanics

When you need to breathe, sensors at the base of your brain send a signal that
stimulates your diaphragm to contract. This draws air into your lungs in the
same way that an old-fashioned bellows draws in air when you expand it. Your
diaphragm and the muscles of your chest expand your chest cavity to inspire
air. Figure 2.4 illustrates how the heart, lungs, and circulatory system work in
the process of respiration.
Blood consists of plasma (which is a colorless liquid) and a variety of cells.
Hemoglobin, a blood component, is the primary oxygen-carrying mechanism in
the blood. Approximately 45 percent of the blood is hemoglobin. Hemoglobin
releases oxygen when it reaches tissues that need oxygen.
When the tissues use oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
diffuses into the venous system and into the lungs in exchange for oxygen. This
completes a circulatory cycle, which takes about 30 seconds.
Carotid sinuses on each side of the neck sense blood pressure within the cir-
culatory system. Excessive pressure on the carotid sinuses during exercise causes
the heart to slow when it should be working hard to meet the oxygen demands
of the body. Decreased output from the heart can lead to insufficient oxygen for
the brain, which can cause unconsciousness. A blackout caused by pressure on
the carotid sinuses (see figure 2.5, page 18) is a carotid sinus reflex. Therefore,
beware of diving equipment that is tight around your neck.
Exhalation is usually a passive process. To exhale carbon-dioxide-laden air
from the lungs, the diaphragm relaxes, and the elasticity of the chest cavity forces
air from the lungs. You ventilate your lungs approximately 12 to 20 times per
minute when at rest. Respiration functions automatically. The key to respira-
tion is the level of carbon dioxide in your circulatory system. When the carbon
dioxide in your body reaches a certain level, your brain stimulates respiration.
When you voluntarily hold your breath, the buildup of carbon dioxide within
your body urges you to breathe. Many people believe that the amount of oxygen
in the body controls respiration, but it is primarily the level of carbon dioxide
that regulates breathing.
Hyperventilation is rapid, deep breathing in excess of the body’s needs.
Limited hyperventilation—three or four breaths—enhances breath holding (see
figure 2.6a, page 18). But if you hold your breath after excessive hyperventilation,
you may lose consciousness without warning before being stimulated to breathe
(see figure 2.6b, page 18). A breath-holding diver who loses consciousness from
lack of oxygen usually blacks out near the surface during ascent. The sudden

16
 Air, composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, moves
into the alveolar sacs throughout the lungs. Oxygen
diffuses through the alveolar walls into the capillaries and
oxygenates the blood.

Aorta Pulmonary
Right Left artery
atrium atrium
Body Lung
capillaries capillaries

Pulmonary
vein

Right ventricle Left ventricle

The left side of the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to the
body through arteries. When the tissues use oxygen, they
produce carbon dioxide (CO2), which enters the venous
system. Venous blood enters the right side of the heart,
which pumps it to the lungs. The CO2 diffuses into the
lungs in exchange for oxygen.

Capillary

Vein

Artery

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, in which the

arterial and venous circulations join. Gas exchange takes
place in capillaries in the lungs and in the body tissues.

Venule
Small vein
Large vein
Vena cava

Aorta Large artery

Arteriole
Small artery Capillary

Arteries are large near the heart and become smaller as

they extend to the extremities. The smallest arteries are
called arterioles. Capillaries branch from the arterioles.
Blood from the capillaries is fed into veins through small
venules. Veins are small in the extremities and become
larger as they approach the lungs and heart.

Figure 2.4
E4676/Graves/fig 2.04/350333/kh/r3-alw
The cardiorespiratory
system.

17
Scuba Diving

loss of consciousness near the surface is

called shallow-water blackout. Loss
of consciousness while in the water can
cause drowning. You should avoid exces-
sive hyperventilation.
If you breathe rapidly and shallowly,
carbon dioxide continues to build in
Too tight your system, but you do not expel it
from your lungs. Inadequate breathing
is hypoventilation. Shallow breathing
is dangerous, especially when you exert
Figure 2.5
yourself, because you can lose conscious-
Excessive
pressure on ness from lack of oxygen. You need to
the carotid breathe sufficiently to exchange the air
sinuses in your lungs.
can lead
to uncon-
sciousness.

E4676/Graver/fig 2.05/350334/kh/r1
Limited hyperventilation Excessive hyperventilation

Ox Ox
yge yge
n n
Blood gasses
Blood gasses

Figure 2.6 Urge to breathe

Charts show- Loss of consciousness Loss of consciousness Urge to breathe
ing (a) limited
de
hyperventila- nd ioxi
rbo n dioxide
tion and (b) Ca Carbo
excessive
hyperventila- Time Time
tion. a b

E4676/Graver/fig 2.06a/kh/r1 E4676/Graver/fig 2.06b/350336/kh/r2-alw

Contrasts in Air and Water Environments

We live immersed in air, which is a fluid. Air has weight and takes up space.
We don’t pay much attention to our immersion in air because we are adapted
to this environment. We have lived in it all of our lives, and we cannot see the
air. The weight of the atmosphere does affect us, however.
Air weighs about 0.08 pounds per cubic foot (1.28 mg per cubic cm) at sea
level. As altitude increases, air becomes thinner, so its weight per volume is less
in the mountains than it is at the seashore (see figure 2.7). The change in the
weight of air affects the air spaces in our ears when we fly or when we drive in
the mountains.

18
 Diving Science

Decreases

Air
pressure

Increases

Air is less dense at Figure 2.7

altitude, so pressure
decreases as Air density and pres-
altitude increases sure are affected by
altitude.

Density E4676/Graveg/fig 2.07/350337/kh/r1

Density is weight per unit volume (for example, pounds per cubic foot). Water
is a fluid, but it is much heavier than air. Seawater weighs about 64 pounds per
cubic foot (1.025 g per cubic cm), which makes it about 800 times denser than
air. Freshwater, because it does not contain salt, weighs a little less than seawater:
62.4 pounds per cubic foot (1 g per cubic cm). Temperature affects the density
of water, air, and all fluids; cold water is slightly denser than warm water.
Air can be compressed, but water is essentially incompressible. Air becomes
thinner as altitude increases, whereas water density remains constant through-
out the water column.
Drag is a force that retards movement. Resistance to movement is much greater
in water than in air. Factors affecting drag include the viscosity of the fluid, the
speed of motion, and the size and shape of the object moving through the fluid.
Drag is greater when the fluid is denser, the motion is faster, the object is larger,
or the surface of the object is more irregular (see figure 3.9 in chapter 3).
Because of water’s higher density, the molecules of water are much closer
together than those of air. The tightly packed molecules affect the transmission
of light, sound, and heat (see table 2.1). Light travels about 27 percent slower
in water than in air. Sound travels about 4 times faster in water than in air. Still
water conducts heat nearly 25 times faster than air does. Moving water can
conduct heat hundreds of times faster than air. Water has an enormous capacity
for absorbing heat with little change in its temperature. The higher density of
water affects you in many ways when you dive. The next chapter explains how
to deal with the effects of water density.

19
Scuba Diving

Table 2.1 Water Compared With Air

Property Air Water Comparison Effects
Density 0.08 lb/ft
3
62.4 to 64 lb/ft Water is 800
3
Resistance to
(1.3 kg/m3) (1,000 kg/m3) times denser movement
than air.
Compressibility Yes No Air density Affects body
varies; water & attached
density is air spaces
constant
(at dive
pressures).
Speed 186,000 mi/s 140,000 mi/s Light travels Affects vision
of light (300,000 km/s) (225,400 km/s) 27% more
slowly in
water.
Light Low High Water Light & color
absorption absorbs loss
color quickly.
Speed 1,125 ft/s 4,900 ft/s Sound travels Unable to
of sound (340 m/s) (1,400 m/s) 4 times faster determine
in water. source
Conductivity 0.17 3.86 to 4.12 Heat loss Rapid loss of
is 22 to 24 body heat
times faster
in water than
in air.
Heat 0.24 0.94 to 1.0 The heat Absorbs heat
capacity capacity of quickly
water is 4
times greater
than air.

Buoyancy
An object’s ability to float in a liquid depends on the density of the object com-
pared with the density of the fluid in which the object is immersed. Water exerts
pressure equally in all directions, even upward. You can feel the upward force
(buoyancy) of water when you try to push something under the water. Buoy-
ancy results from the difference in pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of
an object. The weight of an object plus the weight of the fluid (air, water, or both)
above the object exert a downward force. Fluid pressure pushes upward from
below. The difference between these two forces is the buoyancy of the object.
Archimedes, an ancient Greek scientist, discovered that the force of buoyancy
acting on a submerged object equals the weight of the water displaced (this is
known as Archimedes’ principle). A hot-air balloon floats in air because the
hot air inside the balloon weighs less than the volume of cooler air the balloon
occupies. A diver is buoyed upward with a force equal to the weight of the water
that the diver displaces (see figure 2.8). If you and your equipment weigh less
than the weight of the water you displace, you will float, or have positive buoy-
ancy. If you and your equipment weigh more than the water being displaced,

20
 Diving Science

An object immersed in a fluid

is buoyed up by a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Volume
of water
displaced

Diver +
Buoyancy equipment
192 lb 192 lb
(87 kg) (87 kg)

Positive +

Neutral
Negative –

Three states
of buoyancy
Figure 2.8
Principles of buoyancy.

you will sink. An object that sinks has negative

E4676/Graveg/fig buoyancy. If you and your equip-
2.08/350338/kh/r2-alw
ment weigh exactly the same as the water displaced, you neither float nor sink.
Instead, you remain at the depth where you are; you have neutral buoyancy.
As a diver, you can float at the surface, sink to the bottom, or hang suspended
between the bottom and the surface. If the volume of an object increases with
very little change in its weight, buoyancy increases. This happens when you add
air to an inflatable jacket or vest. The next chapter addresses the factors affecting
buoyancy and the principles of buoyancy control.

Pressure Measurement
Force (often weight) per unit area—such as pounds per square inch or grams per
square centimeter—is pressure. The envelope of air surrounding the earth is
the atmosphere. The weight of one square inch of the atmosphere at sea level is
14.7 pounds (1.03 kg per square cm), or 1 atmosphere (atm) of pressure. As you
descend in water, the weight of the fluid—the pressure—exerted on each square
inch of your body increases. One square inch of saltwater that is 33 feet (10.1 m)
in height weighs 14.7 pounds, 1 atm, or 1.01 bar. One square inch of freshwater
34 feet (10.36 m) in height also exerts a pressure equivalent to 1 atm. Because 1
bar is almost equal to 1 atm, we’ll consider them identical in this book. Because
water does not compress (at the pressures involved with recreational diving),
it follows that water pressure increases by 1 atm for every 33 feet of saltwater
(33 FSW) and for every 34 feet of freshwater (34 FFW). Figure 2.9 shows how
atmospheric pressure and water pressure are measured.

21
Scuba Diving

The reference for pressure is either the atmo-

Pressure measurement spheric pressure at sea level or zero pressure (outer
space). A pressure gauge that reads zero at sea
level displays only the pressure in excess of one
atmosphere. Tire gauges and depth gauges are
good examples of instruments that indicate gauge
1 in.2
1 atm 2 atm 3 atm 4 atm pressure, which may be measured in pounds per
gauge absolute absolute absolute square inch gauge (psig), feet or meters of seawa-
pressure pressure pressure pressure
ter, or bars of pressure.
The total pressure exerted is what matters to
Each divers. The pressures of both the atmosphere and
33 ft of 33 ft
water 2 atm gauge the water apply to diving. The reference for the
equals 1 pressure
atm of 66 ft total pressure is zero, as in a vacuum. The total
pressure Absolute pressure equals 3 atm pressure is called absolute pressure, which is
gauge pressure plus gauge
99 ft atmospheric pressure pressure measured in pounds per square inch absolute
Depth Gauge pressure Absolute pressure (psia). When people express absolute pressure
FSW FFW In atm In psig In ATA In psia increments in atmospheres, they use atmospheres
0 0 0 = 0.0 1 ATA = 14.7
33 34 1 = 14.7 2 ATA = 29.4 absolute (ATA).
66 68 2 = 29.4 3 ATA = 44.1 You obtain absolute pressure by adding atmo-
99 102 3 = 44.1 4 ATA = 58.8
132 136 4 = 58.8 5 ATA = 73.5 spheric pressure to gauge pressure. Be sure you
Gauge pressure compared to absolute understand the concept because we’ll use absolute
pressure in fresh and salt water.
pressure when dealing with the effects of pressure
in this and later chapters.

Pressure
Gas Laws
E4676/Graver/fig 2.09a/350339/kh/r2-alw

1 atm of When you compress a quantity of gas, you reduce

1 atm of Air water pressure
1 in.  1 in.
its volume and increase its density and tem-
air pressure (14.7 psi)
(14.7 psi)  perature. Allowing a quantity of gas to expand
100 miles
Salt water increases its volume, decreases its density, and
= 1 in.  1 in. decreases its temperature. Because divers use
 33 ft gases, you need to understand the relationships
between these properties (pressure, volume, den-
sity, and temperature) of gases.
Figure 2.9
Principles ofe4676/Graver/fig
pressure Boyle’s Law
2.09b/350340/kh/r2-alw
measurement.
Boyle’s law states that for any gas at a constant temperature, the volume varies
inversely with the absolute pressure, while the density varies directly with the
absolute pressure. If you compress a closed, flexible air space (such as a balloon),
you reduce its volume in proportion to the increase in pressure. When you double
the pressure, a closed, flexible air space occupies only half the volume that it did
originally. No air is lost. The molecules compress into a smaller area. The density
of the air is twice as great as it was originally. When you return the compressed
air space to its original pressure, the air inside expands until the object reaches
its original volume. You compress your lungs during a breath-hold descent, and
they return to normal volume when you return to the surface, provided that
you do not expel air underwater.

22
 Diving Science

Scuba equipment provides air to you at the exact pressure of the surrounding
water. This allows you to expand your lungs to their normal volume regardless
of the depth. The density of the air inside the lungs increases in proportion to
the water pressure. If the water pressure doubles, the density of the air in your
lungs also doubles. Figure 2.10 shows
the relationships between pressure,
volume, and density for a gas-filled, Depth Pressure Volume Density
flexible-walled container.
Boyle’s law also applies when you
reduce the surrounding pressure. As 0 ft 1 atm 1.0 x1
(0 m)
outside pressure decreases, compressed
air in a closed, gas-filled, flexible con- 33 ft 2 atm 1/2 x2
tainer expands in proportion to the (10 m)
reduction in pressure; for instance, if
66 ft 3 atm 1/3 x3
the pressure halves, the volume doubles. (20 m)
If a container filled with compressed
99 ft 4 atm 1/4 x4
air at depth is vented correctly during (30 m)
ascent, expanding air escapes through
the vent, and the container remains full
throughout the ascent. If the container
is not vented, pressure inside increases when the container reaches its maxi- Figure 2.10
mum volume. If the container is weak, the increase in pressure will rupture the Pressure, volume, and
container. This concept is important to scuba divers, who have many density relationships.
air spaces 2.10/350341/kh/r1
e4676/Graver/fig
filled with compressed air. Vented air spaces do not pose a hazard. But if your
lungs are not vented during ascent, life-threatening injuries will result. If you
do not vent air from a flotation jacket during ascent, control of buoyancy will
be lost as air expands and the jacket volume increases.
Figure 2.10 shows an interesting point about the rate of change of pressure
(and volume) in water. The pressure doubles from 1 atm to 2 atm in 33 feet
(10 m) of seawater. Doubling the pressure again requires a depth of 99 FSW
(30 m). Note that you must ascend from 99 feet to a depth of 33 feet—a distance
of 66 feet (20 m)—to experience the same rate of change of pressure that you
experience when you ascend from 33 feet to the surface. In other words, the
closer you get to the surface, the greater the rate of change of pressure (and of
the volume of an air space). You must be more attentive to compressed air in
air spaces the nearer you are to the surface.
The change in pressure that you experience during descents and ascents in
water is perhaps the most significant challenge of diving. Changes in pressure
have direct, mechanical effects on your body. Pressure imbalance in your body air
spaces can cause discomfort. In the air environment, you feel pressure changes
as a result of changes in altitude, but pressure changes in water occur at a much
greater rate than in air. You can sustain serious injury unless you keep the pres-
sure in air spaces inside and attached to you equalized with the surrounding water
pressure. Boyle’s law causes squeezes and reverse blocks, which figure 2.11
illustrates. Knowledgeable and experienced divers routinely equalize pressures
to avoid squeezes and blocks. Keeping pressure in air spaces equalized with the
surrounding pressure is one of the main subjects of the next chapter.

23
Scuba Diving

If the pressure inside an air space is less

than the surrounding water pressure, the
Squeeze Gay-Lussac’s Law
outside pressure attempts to compress Boyle’s law addresses gas at a constant tem-
the air space. This condition is a “squeeze.”
perature because the temperature affects
During descent, squeezes may occur in the pressure and volume of a gas. Jacques
ears, sinuses, the mask, and other air
spaces in or attached to the body. Charles, a French chemist, discovered that
Descent
the volume of gas at a constant pressure
changes with temperature. Joseph-Louis
Block During ascent, the pressure surrounding an
air space decreases. If the air inside the Gay-Lussac, a French scientist, defined the
space, which was equalized to a higher effect of temperature: For any gas at a con-
pressure during descent, cannot escape, a
situation that is the reverse of a squeeze stant volume, the pressure of the gas varies
occurs. When the pressure inside an air directly with the absolute temperature.
space is greater than the surrounding
pressure, the condition is a “reverse block.”
Just as absolute pressure must be used for
Ascent pressure calculations, absolute temperature
A “block” describes a situation where some
form of blockage prevents compressed air from entering.
must be used for temperature computations.
The absolute temperature scale for Fahren-
heit temperatures is Rankine. To convert a
Prevention of both squeezes and
Fahrenheit temperature to Rankine, add 460
blocks involves keeping the pressure degrees. The absolute temperature scale for
within an air space equalized with the a Celsius temperature is Kelvin. To convert
surrounding pressure.
a Celsius temperature to Kelvin, add 273
Equalization degrees.
You can observe the effect of Gay-
Figure 2.11 Lussac’s law with a scuba tank, which has a constant volume. Decreasing the
An explanation of E4676/Graver/fig temperature of the air in a tank causes the pressure to decrease. Increasing the
2.11/350342/kh/r2-alw
squeezes and blocks temperature of the air in a tank causes the pressure to increase. A scuba tank
when equalizing taken from the trunk of a hot car and cooled in water experiences a drop in
pressure. pressure, although no air leaves the cylinder. Pressure increases or decreases in
a standard 80-cubic-foot (2,265 L) aluminum scuba cylinder at a rate of about 6
psig per degree Fahrenheit temperature change. Pressure increases or decreases
in a standard 71.2-cubic-foot (2,016 L) steel scuba cylinder at a rate of about 5
psig per degree Fahrenheit temperature change.

Dalton’s and Henry’s Laws

A gas can diffuse into or out of a substance. When a gas comes into contact
with a liquid, the gas dissolves into the liquid. The amount of gas that diffuses
into the liquid depends on the density and temperature of the liquid, the pres-
sure of the gas in contact with the liquid, and the length of time that the gas is
in contact with the liquid. Another term for the process of gas diffusion into a
liquid is ingassing. Because the human body is primarily liquid, the gases you
breathe diffuse into your body tissues.
In a mixture of gases, such as air, the percentage of the total pressure exerted
by each gas is the partial pressure of that gas. Dalton’s law states that the total
pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures that would be
exerted by each gas if it alone were present and occupied the total volume. The
partial pressure of a gas determines the amount of that gas that dissolves into a
liquid. Henry’s law expresses gas absorption: The amount of a gas that dissolves
in a liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to the partial pressure
of that gas. Table 2.2 shows the partial pressures of gases in the air at 1 ATA.
The partial pressure of a gas is the percentage of the gas in the mixture times
the absolute pressure of the mixture. The partial pressure of a gas at depth has
24
 Diving Science

the same effect as a higher percentage of that gas at the surface. If a mixture of
gas contains 2 percent carbon dioxide (CO2) at sea level (14.7 psia, or 1.03 kg
per square cm), the partial pressure of the CO2 is 0.294 psia (0.021 kg per square
cm). If the absolute pressure of the same mixture of gases increases to the pres-
sure found at a depth of 99 feet (30 m) in the ocean (58.8 psia, or 4.12 kg per
square cm), the partial pressure of the CO2 is 1.176 psia (0.082 kg per square
cm). The amount of CO2 sensed by the body at 99 feet is four times greater than
the amount that is sensed at the surface. Breathing 2 percent CO2 at a depth
of 99 feet is the same as breathing 8 percent CO2 at the surface! A high level of
CO2 has a profound effect on respiration. The surface-equivalent effect of partial
pressures makes minute amounts of contaminants in breathing gases unsafe at
depth. Table 2.3 shows the surface-equivalent effect of partial pressures at vari-
ous depths.
When a liquid has absorbed all of a gas that it can hold, the liquid is saturated.
When you reduce the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the liquid, gas
diffuses out of the liquid. This process is outgassing. Ingassing and outgassing
provide a foundation for the dive computers and tables used to prevent decom-
pression sickness; these tables are presented in chapter 7.

Table 2.2 Partial Pressures of Gases in Air at 1 ATA

Partial pressure
Partial pressure of gas at 1 ATA
Percentage at 1 ATA (metric)
Nitrogen 78% 11.466 psia 0.803 kg/cm2
Oxygen 21% 3.087 psia 0.2163 kg/cm2
Argon 0.93% 0.137 psia 0.0095 kg/cm2
Trace gases 0.04% 0.006 psia 0.0004 kg/cm2
Carbon 0.03% 0.004 psia 0.0003 kg/cm2
dioxide
Totals 100% 14.7 psia 1.03 kg/cm2

Table 2.3 Surface-Equivalent Effect of Partial Pressures

Depth Pressure O2a COb CO2c
0 ft (0 m) 1 ATA 20% 20 ppm 2%
33 ft (10 m) 2 ATA 40% 40 ppm 4%
66 ft (20 m) 3 ATA 60% 60 ppm 6%
99 ft (30 m) 4 ATA 80% 80 ppm 8%
132 ft (40 m) 5 ATA 100% 100 ppm 10%
a
Breathing 20% oxygen at 132 ft (40 m) has the same effect as breathing 100% oxygen at the sur-
face.
b
Breathing a mixture containing 40 ppm CO at 66 ft (20 m) is the same as breathing 120 ppm CO at
the surface!
c
Breathing a mixture containing 2% CO2 at 99 ft (30 m) is the same as breathing 8% CO2 at the sur-
face and causes shortness of breath, rapid breathing, and headache.

25
 Additional Information About Gas Laws
The following gas formulas can be used to make precise mathematical calculations of pressure, volume,
and temperature.
Boyle’s law: P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = Initial pressure (psia or ATA)
P2 = Final pressure (psia or ATA)
V1 = Initial volume
V2 = Final volume
Example: A balloon with 2 pints of air floats from 2 ATA to the surface (1 ATA). What is the volume
of the balloon at the surface?
P1 = 2 ATA
P2 = 1 ATA
V1 = 2 pints
V2 = Unknown
Rearranging the formula to solve for V2, we find that
P1V1 (2  2)
V2 = = = 4 pints
P2 1

Partial pressure = absolute pressure  percentage of gas

Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen if the gas constitutes 20 percent of a gas mixture that
has an absolute pressure of 58.8 psi?
PP = 58.8  0.2 = 11.76 psia
P1 P2
Gay-Lussac’s law: =
T1 T2
P1 = Initial pressure (psia or ATA)
P2 = Final pressure (psia or ATA)
T1 = Initial temperature (°R or °K)
T2 = Final temperature (°R or °K)
Example: A scuba tank with a pressure of 2,250 psig and a temperature of 70 °F is heated to a tem-
perature of 150 °F. What is the pressure of the scuba tank at the higher temperature? First, convert
readings for pressure and temperature to absolute measures.
P1 = 2,250 psig + 14.7 psia = 2,265 psia
P2 = Unknown
T1 = 70 °F + 460 = 530 °R
T2 = 150 °F + 460 = 610 °R
Rearranging the formula to solve for P2, we find that

P1T2
P2 = = 2,265  610 = 2,607 psia
T1 530
2,607 psia – 14.7 psia = 2,592 psig
26
 Diving Science

Air Consumption
The volume of air you breathe per minute during exertion is much more than
the volume you breathe at rest—up to 17 times more on land and about 14 times
more in the water. In the water, pressure on the torso allows only 85 percent
of normal inhalation.
Because the density of the air breathed increases with depth, depth signifi-
cantly affects the rate at which you consume air. For a given level of exertion, a
supply of air lasts only half as long at a pressure of 2 ATA as it does at a pressure
of 1 ATA. With heavy exertion at a pressure of 4 ATA (at a depth of 99 feet, or
30 m), you exhaust an air supply over 40 times faster than you would when at
rest at the surface! The rapid depletion of your air supply is one reason that you
must avoid heavy exertion while diving.
The rate of air consumption is expressed in cubic feet per minute (or liters
per minute) or psig (or atmospheres or bars) per minute. By knowing your con-
sumption rate for various levels of activity, you can plan your dives. When you
know your consumption rate and the amount of air available, you can calculate
air supply duration for future dives.

Heat, Humidity, Light, and Sound

You experience many changes when you enter water. You lose body heat faster,
and you lose body moisture when you use scuba equipment. In addition, what
you see is deceiving, and what you hear can cause confusion. When you under-
stand what happens to you in water (and why it happens), you can better manage
the differences between the water and air environments.

Heat Transfer
The net effect of the various forms of heat transfer is that you can chill quickly
while diving. Radiation, convection, and conduction transfer heat from one
medium to another (see figure 2.12, page 30). Heat waves radiate from exposed
surfaces, heat travels upward through fluids by convection, and heat is transferred
directly via conduction between substances in contact with each other. Metals
are good conductors. Water is a poor conductor compared with metal, but water
conducts heat about 25 times faster than air (depending on density). Conduc-
tion and convection are the primary means by which heat is transferred from a
diver to the surrounding water. Heat rises from the skin, and water carries the
heat away. You also lose body heat through the process of evaporation. Moisture
evaporates from your lungs when you are breathing underwater and from the
surface of your skin when you perspire above water. Scuba equipment expands
high-pressure air and cools it. Your body heat warms the air you breathe, and
you lose the heat with each exhalation.

27
 Additional Information About Air Consumption
The following air consumption formulas can be used to calculate consumption rates and air supply
duration. To calculate the rate of air consumption, you need three items of information: the depth at
which you have remained for a period of time, the length of time you have remained at that depth,
and the amount of air you have used during that time.
1. Determine your depth air consumption rate (DACR). This is simply the amount of air used
divided by the time at depth. For example, the DACR for a diver who uses 1,000 psi (68 atm)
in 10 minutes is 100 psi (6.8 atm) per minute.

DACR = Air used

Time at depth
2. Convert the DACR to the surface air consumption rate (SACR). You need to express the rate in
terms of volume rather than pressure. After you do this, you can apply the air consumption rate
to any depth and to a cylinder of a different size from the one used initially to calculate the air
consumption rate. Obtain the surface consumption rate by multiplying the DACR by the ratio of
the pressure at the surface to the pressure at depth. Because you can express pressure in terms
of depth, you can use the following formula:

SACR = DACR  33 ft (or 10 m)

Diving depth + 33 ft (or 10 m)
If, for example, your depth consumption rate for a depth of 33 feet (10 m) is 30 psi (2 atm)
per minute, your SACR is 30 (33/66) = 15 psi per minute, or 2 (10/20) = 1.0 atm per minute.
3. Convert the rate to volume, establish a ratio of the tank volume and pressure (when the tank is
full) to the breathing rate volume and pressure, then solve for the breathing rate volume (BRV)
as follows:
V1 V2
=
P1 P2
where
V1 = Full tank volume
V2 = Breathing rate volume (BRV)
P1 = Full tank pressure
P2 = Breathing rate pressure

so BRV = V1  P2
P1

For example, the breathing rate volume (BRV) for a diver with an 80-cubic-foot (2,265 L),
3,000 psi (204 atm) tank and an SACR of 30 psig (2.04 atm) per minute is
BRV = 80 ft3  30 psi/min/3,000 psi = 0.8 ft3/min

Metric BRV = 2,265 L  2.04 atm/min/204 atm = 22.65 L/min

4. For the same level of activity, you can calculate the approximate duration (in minutes) of any
amount of air from a tank of any size used at any depth. Here is an example: How long will
1,750 psi (119 atm) of air from a 71.2-cubic-foot (2,016 L), 2,475 psi (168 atm) tank last at a
depth of 70 feet (21.3 m) for a diver with a breathing rate volume (BRV) of 0.8 cubic feet (22.7 L)
per minute?

28
 First, determine the volume of air in the tank at a pressure of 1,750 psi (119 atm). The formula
for determining the volume of air in the tank is
V2 = V1  P2
 P1
where
V1 = Full tank volume
V2 = Partially filled tank volume
P1 = Full tank pressure
P2 = Partially filled tank pressure

The air supply volume for the partially filled tank is therefore
71.2  1,750 psi
V2 = = 50.3 ft3, or
2,475 psi

2,016 L  119 atm

V2 = = 1,428 L
168 atm
The formula for air supply duration (ASD) is
Air supply volume Diving depth + 33 ft (or 10 m)
ASD = ÷
BRV 33 ft (or 10 m)
The air supply duration (ASD) for the question posed earlier is
50.3 ft3 70 ft + 33 ft
ASD = ÷ = 20 min
0.8 ft /min
3
33 ft
1,428 L 21.3 m + 10 m
Metric ASD = ÷ = 20 min
22.7 L/min 10 m
These calculations may seem complicated at first, but the ideas are simple. The calculations become
easy with practice. Let’s review the four steps of air consumption calculations: (1) Determine your
depth air consumption rate (DACR); (2) determine your surface air consumption rate (SACR); (3)
determine your breathing rate volume (BRV); and (4) determine the air supply duration (ASD) for
a quantity of air. The abbreviated formulas for the calculations are as follows:
Air used
DACR =
Time at depth
33 ft (or 10 m)
SACR = DACR 
Diving depth + 33 ft (or 10 m)

BRV = V1  P2
P1
Air supply volume Diving depth + 33 ft (or 10 m)
ASD = ÷
BRV 33 ft (or 10 m)

29
Scuba Diving

Radiation Convection
Heat waves radiate to Heat warms surrounding
surrounding objects fluid, which rises and
without physical is replaced by
contact. cooler fluid.

Conduction
Heat lost through
direct physical
contact. Water
conducts 25
times faster
than air!

Evaporation (in air) Respiration

Perspiration cools when it Heat added to air in the
changes from a liquid to a vapor. lungs is lost with exhalation.
Figure 2.12 Losing or retaining excessive heat is dangerous!
Heat transfer and loss.

You can slow the transfer of heat by insulating yourself with a material that
is a poor conductor of heat. Exposure suits
E4676/Graver/fig help insulate you from the environ-
2.12/350343/kh/r1
ment, but insulation does not help reduce heat lost through respiration. The
next chapter presents ways to manage the problems of heat loss.

Humidity
Scuba divers must be aware of the effects of humidity, or the amount of water
vapor present in a gas. The temperature of the gas determines the amount of
water vapor a gas can absorb and retain. The warmer the gas, the more humid-
ity the gas can contain.
You humidify inspired air. The process of compressing the air that is put into
scuba tanks dehumidifies the air in the cylinder. You lose moisture from body
tissues when you breathe dry scuba air. The resulting fluid loss can cause partial
dehydration, an undesirable condition, especially for a scuba diver. In the next
chapter, you will learn how to avoid the problems of dehydration.
Diving poses other humidity challenges that you must manage. Moisture in
the air inside your mask condenses on the faceplate as the air cools. Unless you
thoroughly clean your mask lens in advance so that the condensation runs off in
a thin sheet, foggy beads of condensation will form and blur your vision. Chapter
6 presents the process for cleaning, or defogging, your mask.
In freezing temperatures, moisture from your exhaled breath can cause a scuba
regulator to freeze. Water in other items of diving equipment can also freeze. If
you intend to dive in a cold environment, you should complete special training
and should know how to prepare and use your equipment in those conditions.

30
 Diving Science

Light and Vision External reflection

All light reflected
The density of water makes it challenging for from the surface
divers to interpret what they see and hear. of smooth water
Light rays
Light travels faster in air than in water. When Angle 48.5° Reflection
rays of light traveling in water pass through or less
the lens of your mask, they accelerate and Angle 48.5°
bend (refract). The effect is that what you see or less
Internal
underwater is magnified. Objects appear to be reflection Refraction
at three-fourths of their actual distance (25 Diffusion
All light reflected
Color absorption
percent closer) and four-thirds of their actual from the underside
of the surface
size (33 percent larger). The visual distortion 0 ft
requires adjustments, and you will learn to Reflection, refraction, diffusion, 15 ft

Greens

Greys
30 ft

Blues
and absorption are factors

Reds
make these with experience. An object that

Oranges
affecting light in water. Refraction 45 ft

Yellows
is 12 feet (3.7 m) away appears to be only 9 has the most effect on underwater 60 ft
75 ft
feet (2.7 m) away. A fish that appears to be vision.
100 ft
about 2 feet (0.6 m) long is actually only 1.5
feet (0.5 m) in length. Many new divers dis-
cover that items they bring back from diving Refraction
are much smaller than they perceived them
to be underwater. Figure 2.13 illustrates how
Fish looks closer Actual fish
light is perceived differently in water. Air and larger
One difficulty caused by the refraction of
light is that distant objects appear closer than
they are. This can create a hazard in clear
water when you look downward from a drop-off. You may be tempted to Figure 2.13
to go 2.13/350344/kh/r2-alw
E4676/Graver/fig
a point that appears to be at a safe distance but might actually take you beyond Visual perception is
your planned maximum depth. You must realize that distance perception is inac- distorted underwater.
curate, and you must rely on your depth gauge instead of your vision.
You have two types of vision: day vision and night vision. You use different
parts of your eyes for each type. When you move from a brightly lit area into
a dimly lit area, your vision needs 15 to 30 minutes to adapt to the lower level
of light. Even after the adaptation, your ability to see fine details is much less
than your ability with day vision. In addition, particles in water diffuse, scatter,
and attenuate light. The deeper you go, the less light there is. In turbid water,
the amount of light decreases very quickly with depth. A dive in turbid water
involves a change from day vision to night vision.
Water affects light in many ways. The surface of water reflects light. When
light strikes the surface of calm water at an angle less than 48 degrees, the water
reflects all the light. Early morning and late afternoon sunlight do not penetrate
calm water. Light rays going toward the surface from underwater also reflect
from the interface, making the underside of the surface appear like a mirror
when viewed at the proper angle.
Objects you view underwater often lack their natural colors. White light, such
as sunlight, comprises all the colors of the spectrum. Increasing depth absorbs
various colors. The water absorbs warm colors, such as red and orange, with
only 30 feet (9 m) of depth. Cooler colors, such as blue, penetrate deepest. This

31
Scuba Diving

is why deep, clear water is blue. The underwater scene

Scuba Wise appears drab at depths below 100 feet (30 m). Fortunately,
There is an old joke about a young you can restore all the colors of the spectrum underwater
woman who returned home from her by using an artificial light at close range.
first session of scuba diving training Another visual challenge is disorientation. When you
and was unenthusiastic when asked are weightless in water and do not have a visual refer-
whether she enjoyed the class. Her ence, vertigo can result. Vertigo is the feeling of move-
reply was “First the instructor told us all ment perceived as a spinning sensation. This problem can
the ways that we could die, then he occur when the water is turbid and visibility is poor, when
worked us in the water until I thought the water is crystal clear but there are no visual clues for
that I was going to die.” Fortunately, orientation, and when waters of different densities mix
instructors do not teach classes that together. You will learn how to manage the challenges of
way today. The reason for learning disorientation in the next chapter.
about potential injuries is to under- A final visual problem is poor visibility in water com-
stand how to prevent them. Armed pared to air. In air environments, visibility is measured
with knowledge that you can convert in miles, but in water it is measured only in feet. Par-
to wisdom through proper applica- ticles suspended in water cause turbidity, which hampers
tion, you can avoid all of the potential vision. Reduced visibility makes it difficult to locate objects
problems identified in this chapter. The underwater, to maintain contact with your buddy, and to
use of scuba diving instruction for fit- find your way. You must develop skills to cope with these
ness training is also outdated. Reason- challenges, including search techniques, buddy system
able physical fitness is a prerequisite for techniques, and underwater navigation skills.
scuba diving. Any healthy person who
can swim 200 yards (61 m) continuously Sound and Hearing
is fit enough to dive. The objective of
Sound travels well in water. You can hear many sounds
modern scuba training is to help you
while diving. On land you can determine the direction of
learn to relax in and under the water,
a sound by the difference in the time it takes the sound
not to whip you into shape.
to reach one ear and then the other. This interval is brief
but sufficient for your brain to discern it. Underwater, you
hear sound conducted through water and the bones of your head to your inner
ears. Sound travels about four times faster in water than in air. The time delay
between a sound reaching one ear and then the other is so small that directional
discernment is difficult underwater.
Sound does not transfer well from air to water. Only 0.01 percent of sound
can travel directly between air and water. You must use special devices to make
voice communications effective underwater.

32
 Diving Science

Summary
The aquatic environment affects your body in several ways. Pressure affects
your air spaces: your ears, sinuses, and lungs. The rate of change of pressure in
water is many times greater than in air and increases as you approach the surface
during ascent. Changing pressures also affect the diffusion of gas into and out
of liquids. The level of carbon dioxide in your body controls your respiration,
and the partial pressure of the carbon dioxide is affected by depth. Temperature
also affects the pressure of a constant volume of gas. Depth and activity have
the greatest effect on air consumption. Water absorbs heat from the body, so
divers need insulation to help prevent excessive heat loss. Humidity can cause
several problems for scuba divers. The difference in density between air and
water affects your buoyancy, mobility, heat loss, vision, and hearing. Now that
you are aware of the effects of the aquatic environment on your body, you are
prepared to learn to adjust to the underwater environment.

33
Chapter 3
Dive In and Discover
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
>> Define the terms hypothermia, hyperthermia, vasocon-
striction, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, equalization, Toyn-
bee maneuver, Valsalva maneuver, trapdoor effect, skip
breathing, barotrauma, pulmonary barotrauma, arterial
gas embolism, mediastinal emphysema, subcutaneous
emphysema, pneumothorax, vertigo, perfusion, ambient
pressure, half-time, compartment, controlling compart-
ment, decompression illness, dehydration, and nitrogen
narcosis.
>> State the cause, effect, signs and symptoms, first aid treat-
ment, and prevention of hyperthermia, hypothermia,
squeezes, reverse blocks, respiratory distress, pulmonary
barotrauma, vertigo, seasickness, decompression illness,
and nitrogen narcosis.
>> Explain three ways to control buoyancy while scuba diving.
>> Explain when to equalize pressure in your ears during
descent and what to do if the pressure does not equalize.
>> Explain how to minimize resistance to movement for under-
water swimming.

Orange ball anemone, Barbados, British West Indies

 Diving
Adjustments
 In chapter 2, you learned about
the effects of water on your
body. In this chapter, you will
learn how to deal with those
effects. Most people with aver-
age intelligence and normal
health can make adjustments to
the aquatic environment, such
as buoyancy control and the
equalization of pressure. You
make many adjustments automati-
cally, but some you must make consciously.
Simnia on gorgonian branch,
Palos Verdes, California Learning to make the transition from an air environ-
ment to an underwater environment requires profes-
sional instruction and guidance. You need to learn
what to do, then do what you have learned.
To function effectively underwater, you need specific attitudes, equipment,
knowledge, and skills. This chapter provides the fundamental knowledge and
begins shaping the attitudes required to minimize the risk of injury. You will
apply the basic aspects of anatomy, physiology, and physics you have learned to
a typical person descending into the depths and ascending back to the surface.

Thermal Adjustments
Maintaining your body’s core temperature within a few degrees of normal is
challenging in water. When you are immersed in water, you lose body heat
rapidly. A water temperature of 50 °F (10 °C) can incapacitate an unprotected
diver within 15 minutes. Even water at a temperature of 80 °F (27 °C), which
feels relatively warm, can chill a diver within an hour. Wearing only a bathing
suit in 80 °F (27 °C) water is the same as being without any clothing in air that
is 42 °F (6 °C).
Your brain regulates your body functions to maintain your body tempera-
ture. If your core temperature is less than 95 °F (35 °C), you will suffer from
hypothermia. You need to guard against mild and severe hypothermia, both
of which can be dangerous. If your core temperature is higher than normal, you
experience the effects of hyperthermia. You need to understand the effects of
two types of hyperthermia—heat exhaustion and heatstroke—and you must try
to prevent them. They both can be dangerous.

36
 Diving Adjustments

Heat Loss
Your body has a variety of physiological responses to the loss of heat. Respira-
tion increases automatically when you get chilled. This is undesirable because
you heat and moisturize inspired air, but you lose the heat and moisture with
each exhalation. The more you breathe, the more heat and moisture you lose
to the environment. Water depth compounds the problem because the greater
the surrounding pressure, the greater the density of the air that you breathe.
Denser air absorbs more heat than air that is less dense. The deeper you dive,
the quicker you get cold.
Anything that affects the function of your body—excite-
ment, fear, seasickness, and other forms of illness—can
increase heat loss. This is why good health and a confident
state of mind are safety recommendations. Head and
One way your body responds to cold is to shunt blood neck
from the extremities through vasoconstriction. The cir-
culatory shunting reduces heat loss because it keeps warm
blood from passing through areas of your body that have
little insulation. Your head, underarms and sides, groin, Underarms
hands, and feet are the areas of your body most prone to
heat loss underwater (see figure 3.1). Fortunately, you can
insulate these areas easily. In cold water, you can lose con- Torso
siderable heat from your head because the head receives
a large supply of blood and lacks natural insulation. Your Abdomen
body does not shunt blood from your head as it does from and groin
Hands
other body extremities. In water at a temperature of 70 °F
(21 °C) or less, you must be sure to insulate your head.
Hands have large surface areas relative to their volume.
To prevent excessive heat loss from your hands when you
get cold, your body shunts blood from them until they reach
a temperature of 50 °F (10 °C). At this temperature, your
body restores circulation to your hands to partially rewarm
them. Hands quickly lose their warmth to the water. If you
dive without hand protection in cold water, you lose body
heat through your hands. Because your hands may become
numb and lack strength when they get cold, you should
Feet
insulate them to keep them functioning and to conserve
body heat.
Small people chill more quickly in water than large people
do. Small people have less muscle mass to generate and
heat loss Figure
store heat. Insulation is important for all divers, but protection againstE4676/Graver/fig 3.1
3.01/350345/kh/r2-alw
is more critical for those of smaller stature. Areas prone to high
Failure to wear adequate insulation leads to hypothermia. Hypothermia heat loss.
also results from repeated or prolonged exposure. Slow chilling of your body is
undesirable. You lose muscle strength and feeling, and your muscles may cramp.
Severe heat loss also affects your ability to reason. Another body response to
heat loss is shivering, which restores heat through muscular activity. Shivering
generates about five times as much heat as your body produces at rest. Shiver-
ing is helpful on land, but it is not beneficial in water. Water conducts away the
heat you produce by shivering, and you get colder. Uncontrollable shivering

37
Scuba Diving

indicates that you have lost too much heat from the core of your body and that
you cannot rewarm yourself without getting out of the water. When you are
shivering, you should terminate the dive. Rewarm yourself thoroughly before
diving again. To help your body temperature return to normal, you should put on
clothes that are warm and dry, stay in warm surroundings, and consume warm
nonalcoholic drinks. You can become so cold that shivering ceases. This occurs
because severe hypothermia has incapacitated the body’s ability to produce heat.
A cold person who is not shivering requires medical care.
You must understand that warming the surface of your body is different from
warming the core of your body. You may feel warm, but your deep core tempera-
ture may remain below normal. If you return to the water in this condition, you
will quickly become chilled. The only way to be sure that you are thoroughly
warmed is to keep warming yourself until you begin to perspire. Perspiration
occurs when the core temperature begins to rise above normal.

Overheating
You can prevent excessive loss of body heat by insulating your body with an
exposure suit, but insulation can cause another problem. When you insulate your
Figure 3.2
Take precautions
body to reduce heat loss in water, you reduce your body’s ability to rid itself of
against overheating excess heat above water. The evaporation of perspiration helps cool your body,
by learning the but if you cover your body, perspiration cannot evaporate. You may become
symptoms of overheated in warm climates when you are preparing to dive. Maintaining your
heat stroke and body temperature within acceptable limits before, during, and after dives can be
exhaustion. a challenge. Figure 3.2 describes some of the causes and effects of overheating.
When a person is unable to stop the
rise of core temperature, heat exhaus-
tion occurs. This condition is serious.
A person affected by heat exhaustion
Minimize exertion and
exposure to direct sunlight.
becomes weak and may collapse. The
victim looks pale and feels sweaty. Place a
person with this condition in a cool place,
remove the exposure suit, and take steps
to lower the person’s body temperature.
A more serious form of hyperthermia
is heatstroke, which occurs when the
Insulation reduces your body temperature becomes so high that
ability to get rid of excess
body heat. the body’s temperature-regulating abil-
ity shuts down. A victim of heatstroke
looks flushed and has hot, dry skin. This
Unfit and overweight people
condition is extremely serious. Cool the
are more susceptible to patient’s body immediately and summon
overheating. medical assistance.
Preventing hyperthermia is much
better than treating it after it occurs.
Heat exhaustion Heatstroke
(a medical emergency) You should avoid prolonged exposure
• Collapse • Collapse to warm temperatures when wearing
• Pale appearance • Flushed appearance insulation. If the air temperature is
• Skin cool and clammy • Skin hot and dry warm, douse yourself with water after
donning your exposure suit and before

E4676/Graver/fig 3.02/350346/kh/r2-alw

38
 Diving Adjustments

donning the remainder of your diving equipment. Stay out of direct sunlight if
possible. All thermal considerations for diving are especially important for divers
whose physical fitness is marginal.

Buoyancy Adjustments
Exposure suits and other equipment affect your buoyancy. You must adjust your
weight to control your depth in the aquatic environment. When you are too
buoyant, you must fight to remain submerged; when you carry excess weight,
you must work hard to keep from sinking or to stay off the bottom. You need
to maintain neutral buoyancy underwater and positive buoyancy at the sur-
face. In chapter 2, you learned the principle of buoyancy and the three states
of buoyancy: positive, negative, and neutral. Now you will learn some practical
applications of buoyancy.
Your body—which is composed of solids, liquids, and air spaces—has an
average density nearly the same as water. A typical human body immersed and
relaxed in water has a positive buoyancy of a few pounds when the lungs are
filled with air; it has a negative buoyancy of a couple of pounds when the lungs
contain the minimum amount of air.

Factors Affecting Buoyancy

People usually wear some type of exposure suit when diving. Most exposure
suits increase buoyancy, so divers wear weights to offset the buoyancy of the suit
and achieve neutral buoyancy. These weights are made of lead, which is about
12 times denser than water.
Your initial state of buoyancy in water will depend on the volume of water
you and your equipment displace. You can vary your volume—with a negligible
increase or decrease in your weight—by adding air to or venting air from your
buoyancy compensator (BC). Increasing BC volume increases buoyancy, while
decreasing BC volume decreases buoyancy.

Table 3.1 Factors Affecting Buoyancy

Factor Effect
Size and weight of diver Obese divers are more buoyant.
Type and amount of equipment Larger equipment is more buoyant
(because of increased volume).
Amount of weight worn Weights decrease buoyancy.
Amount of air in BC Increasing volume increases
buoyancy.
Amount of air in tank Buoyancy increases as air decreases.
Amount of air in lungs Exertion or excitement increases
volume and buoyancy.
Suit compression Pressure decreases volume and
buoyancy.
Items carried Added weight decreases buoyancy.
Type of water (Salt or Fresh) Denser water increases buoyancy.

39
Scuba Diving

Your buoyancy is affected by your physical size and weight, your lung capac-
ity, the equipment you wear, and the items you carry (see table 3.1). Exposure
suits use air or small bubbles of gas for insulation. When you descend while
wearing an exposure suit, pressure compresses your suit and reduces its volume,
so you become less buoyant. You must add air to your BC to compensate for
buoyancy lost from suit compression. On the other hand, buoyancy increases
as you consume air from your scuba cylinder. Air weighs 0.08 pounds per cubic
foot (1.3 g per L). A typical scuba tank contains 80 cubic feet (2,265 L) of air. A
full tank weighs 6 pounds (2.7 kg) more than an empty tank. As you consume
air from your scuba tank, you must vent some of the air that you added to your
BC to compensate for suit compression. The trade-off helps you keep buoyancy
constant during a dive.
Inflating your lungs increases your buoyancy, while deflating them reduces
buoyancy. A high average lung volume makes you float; a low average volume
makes you sink. When you become excited or begin
Scuba Wise moving quickly, your respiration increases, which affects
your buoyancy. For optimal control of buoyancy, you
At some point, many divers discover a should maintain a calm, relaxed state.
special feeling of becoming part of the The density of water also affects buoyancy. Saltwater is
underwater world. I remember vividly denser than freshwater, so you are more buoyant in the
an overwhelming feeling—a strange ocean than in a lake. This means that if you are weighted
combination of peace and exhilara- for neutral buoyancy in the ocean, you must remove some
tion—that I experienced during a dive weight to achieve neutral buoyancy for freshwater diving.
in the Red Sea. The goal of training is The amount of weight you remove is about 3 percent of
to help you adjust to a new environ- the combined dry weight of you and your equipment. For
ment. When you adjust, you can relax, example, if a neutrally weighted 160-pound (73 kg) diver
and when you can relax, you can with 60 pounds (27 kg) of equipment, including 16 pounds
focus more on your exciting new sur- (7 kg) of weights, wants to dive in freshwater instead of
roundings than on yourself. Meeting seawater, the diver must remove about 7 pounds (3 kg)
the demands of diving is challenging, of weight in order to be weighted correctly.
but when you succeed, the exuber-
ance is worth every adjustment you
have to make. People can adjust well Ways to Control Buoyancy
to new situations. Training helps people As a diver, you can control buoyancy in three ways: by
adjust more quickly, easily, and safely the amount of weight you wear and carry, by the amount
than they can by trial and error. Study of air in your BC, and by the amount of air in your lungs.
the remaining chapters carefully to These means of control are coarse, medium, and fine
learn how to adjust to the subaquatic adjustments, respectively. The skills you need to learn
environment. I want you to feel what I in order to adjust to the aquatic environment include
felt in the Red Sea and have felt many determining the correct amount of weight to be worn,
times since while diving. The feeling regulating the amount of air in your BC, and varying your
of being one with the sea is powerful, breathing for minor buoyancy adjustments. Chapter 6
moving, and unforgettable. describes these skills.

Pressure Equalization
One of the most important adjustments you must learn is how to handle the
effects of pressure changes in water. Pressure changes rapidly as you descend
and ascend. To avoid discomfort and injury, you must keep the pressure in the

40
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G. soldati mercenari, 122; guerra con Roma (225-222 a. C.), 141 sgg.;
durante la seconda punica, passano dalla parte dei Cartaginesi, 152, 154;
arrolati da Asdrubale, 167; da Magone, 169; continuano la guerra con
Roma, 179, 182; razzie nel territorio di Marsiglia, 260; e nuova guerra con
Roma, 260; i G. nella valle del Danubio, 281; i G. d’Asia Minore. V. Galati;
Arverni; Edui; Insubri.
Gallia Cisalpina, occupata da Roma (224-222 a. C.), 141-142; causa della
seconda punica, 147-48; guerra nella C., (216 sgg.), 158, 179, 187, 190;
progressi economici, 302; e la Guerra sociale, 302; ammessa alla
cittadinanza latina (89 a. C.), 305; insurrezione dopo la morte di Silla, 340;
e repressione, 341. Narbonese, provincia romana, 260; invasa dai Tigurini
(107 a. C.), 274; insurrezione contro i Romani, 271, 275; pacificata, 275,
279. Transalpina, invasa dai Cimbri (109 a. C.), 268. V. Arverni; Edui.
Gaziura, città del Ponto, 357.
Gellio Egnazio, 92; muore a Sentino, 93.
Gellio (L.), censore (70 a. C.), 354.
Gempsale. V. Iempsale.
Genova, presa da Magone (205 a. C.), 169.
Genti, 14; composizione, 14-15; le g. e l’esercito romano, 15.
Gerone, tiranno, poi re di Siracusa, 116, 122; alleato di Roma, 122, 128,
154; sua morte, 162.
Geronimo, nipote di Gerone, 162; si allea con Cartagine, 162; ucciso, 162-
163.
Gerusalemme, assediata e presa da Pompeo, 363.
Getuli, alleati di Giugurta, 269.
Giudea, indipendente dai Seleucidi, 362; guerre civili, 362-363; annessa
alla provincia di Siria, 363.
Giugurta, figlio naturale di Massinissa, 261; in Spagna, 261, 262; amico di
Scipione Emiliano, 261-62; uccide Iempsale e scaccia Aderbale, 261;
corrompe il Senato romano? 261-62, 263; nuova guerra ad Aderbale, 263;
protetto dalla nobiltà senatoria, 263-264; attaccato dai democratici, 264;
guerra giugurtina, (117-106 a. C.), 264 sgg.; chiede pace ai Romani, 264-
65; i comizi rifiutano la pace, 265; invitato a Roma, 265-266; fa uccidere
Massiva, 268; espulso da Roma, 267; sconfigge Sp. Postumio Albino, 267;
è sconfitto da Metello, 269; la guerra e i partiti in Roma, 269-72; sconfitto
da Mario, si rifugia in Mauretania, 274; consegnato a Mario (105 a. C.),
276; è fatto morire nel carcere Tulliano, 278.
Giulio (L. Cesare) (cons. 90 a. C.), contro gli Italici, 303; sua legge per la
cittadinanza agli Italici, 304.
Giulio (C. Cesare) (100-44 a. C.), famiglia e carriera, 347; un Mariano,
347; discorde dai Mariani di Spagna, 347; e la legge Manilia, 360.
Giunio (M. Silano) (cons. 109 a. C.), spedito contro i Cimbri e sconfitto,
268.
Giunio (L. Pullo) (cons. 259 a. C.), 128.
Giunio (M. Penno) (trib. pl. 126 a. C.), propone di espellere da Roma i
Latini, 247.
Giunio (L. Bruto), console nel 510 o 509 a. C., 43.
Giunio (M. Bruto), un nobile, complice di Lepido, 339, 341.
Giunonia, colonia romana a Cartagine, 253; abrogazione della legge
relativa a questa colonia, 256.
Gladiatori, scuola di gl. a Capua, 350.
Gordiana, 356.
Graccani, dispersi dalla reazione, 243; ricostituzione del partito, 247;
nuova reazione dopo il 121 a. C., 257.
Gracco. V. Sempronio.
Grecia, e Roma, dopo la prima Guerra illirica, 135-36; indipendente dalla
Macedonia (196 a. C.), 186; città greche asiatiche liberate dopo la Guerra
siriaca (189 a. C.), 192; persecuzioni dopo la terza macedonica, 208;
incorporata alla provincia di Macedonia (146 a. C.), 224; e Mitridate, 307,
308, 309; invasa da Traci e Galli, 310; molestata dai barbari del nord, 342;
mercenari greci, 126, 307.
Guerre: Cimbrica. V. Cimbri e Teutoni. Civile (Prima) (85-83 a. C.), 326
sgg. In Italia, V. Roma. Giugurtina, V. Numidia; Giugurta. Macedoniche, V.
Roma; Macedonia. Mitridatiche. V. Mitridate, Puniche, V. Roma; Cartagine.
Siriaca, V. Roma; Antioco IIIº. Sociale (90-88 a. C.), 302 sgg., 305. In
Spagna, V. Spagna.

Hadria (Atri), colonia (290 a. C.), 94.

Hadrumetum, 174.
Hostis publicus, 315, 318, 329.
Iberia (Georgia), conquistata da Tigrane, 253; invasa da Pompeo (65 a.
C.), 361.
Illiria (Dalmazia), principato indipendente, 134; guerra con Roma, 135;
durante la seconda punica, 162, 163; i Romani occupano l’I. (200 sgg. a.
C.), 183; possessi macedoni in I., 185; perduti dopo la seconda
macedonica, 185-186; durante la terza macedonica, 206; gli Illirî alleati di
Mitridate, 281.
Illiri, V. Illiria.
Iempsale figlio di Micipsa e re di Numidia, 261; fatto uccidere da Giugurta,
261.
Imperium, 32.
Industria, nel Lazio primitivo, 8, 12, 19, 21; la seconda sannitica e l’i.
romana, 82.
Insubri, 142; assalgono Piacenza e Cremona (218 a. C.), 150.
Interamna sul Liri (Teramo), colonizzata dai Romani, 80.
Ippona, 223.
Ircano, pretendente al trono di Giudea, 363.
Italia, nell’VIII sec. a. C., 1 sgg.; forze militari nella seconda metà del III
sec. a. C., 149; durante la seconda punica, 165-66; Italia e Macedonia,
dopo la seconda punica, 179-81. V. Roma.
Italici, 2-3; nell’esercito romano, 187; e l’ager publicus, 195; e il
commercio nei primi del sec. II a. C., 195; a Delo, in Asia, in Egitto, 226; e
la legge agraria sempronia, 236-237, 245, 246-47; proposta di
cittadinanza agli I. (125 a. C.), 247; la legge sempronia sulla cittadinanza
agli I., 254-55; Livio Druso e gli I., 255; legge livia sulla cittadinanza agli
I., 300-01; inchiesta contro gli I., 301; la Guerra sociale e suo carattere,
301-02; concessione della cittadinanza agli I. (90 e 89 a. C.), 304-05;
massacrati in Asia, 308; distribuiti in solo 8 o 10 tribù, 308; nell’esercito di
Mitridate, 309; e la legge sulpicia (88 a. C.), 312; e Cinna, 318; distribuiti
in tutte le 35 tribù, 318, 327.
Ius commercii, 113.
Ius connubii, 113.

Lacinio (C.), 99; altare a Giunone presso, 171.

Lagidi (=Tolomei) re d’Egitto, 178.
Lanuvio, 70.
Latini, 2, 3; antichi L., 8; Prisci Latini, 16; insurrezione e autonomia
(....493 a. C.), 29-30; i L. e Roma dopo l’incendio gallico, 62; Lega latina e
insurrezione contro Roma (340-38 a. C.), 68 sgg.; assoggettamento a
Roma, 70-71; e l’ager publicus, 195; e la legge agraria sempronia, 236-
237, 245, 246-47; e la cittadinanza romana, 246; minacciati di espulsione
da Roma, 247; e la Guerra sociale, 302; insurrezione alla morte di Silla. V.
Lazio.
Laurento, 28.
Lautule, battaglia (315 a. C.), 80.
Lavori pubblici, in Roma nell’età regia, 19; in sulla fine del IV sec. a. C.,
83; in Italia, nella prima metà del II sec. a. C., 184; in Roma nella prima
metà del II sec. a. C., 196; e C. Gracco, 251.
Lazio, 3, 7; economia del L. primitivo, 8, 24, n. 1, V. Latini.
Leggi: Acilia de repetundis (123 a. C.), 250. Agrarie: licinio-sestia (367 a.
C.), 56-58, 59, n. 4; flaminia (233 a. C.), 140; proposta di C. Licinio
Crasso, 230; di C. Lelio, 231; sempronia (133 a. C.), 236 sgg., 253-260;
Apuleia (100 a. C.), 288. Apuleiae, V. Apuleio. Aurelia, v. Aurelio (C.
Cotta). Canuleia (444 a. C.), 40. Claudia (218). Didia Cibaria (143 a. C.),
227. Cornelia Pompeia unciaria (88 a. C.), 315. Cornelia Pompeia de
sponsu (88 a. C.), 315. de coloniis, di C. Gracco, 253-254; di Saturnino
(100 a. C.), 288-89; di Livio Druso (121 a. C.), 255; di Druso il giovane (91
a. C.), 299. de maiestate, 289, 290. Domitia de sacerdotibus (103 a. C.),
1; abolita da Silla, 335. Fannia, 227. Frumentariae, sempronia (123 a. C.),
251, 253; livia (91 a. C.), 299. Gabinia (67 a. C.), 358. Hortensia (287 a.
C.), 93, 95. Iudiciariae Sempronia (123 a. C.), 250; Livia (91 a. C.), 299;
Plautia (89 a C.), 304-05. Iulia de civitate sociis danda (90 a. C.), 304.
Licinio-Sestie (367), 56-58, 59, n. 4; conseguenze, 81. Manilia (67 a. C.),
360. Militaris sempronia (123 a. C.), 251-52. Oppia, 197; abolita (125 a.
C.), 197. Plautia-Papiria de civitate (89 a. C.), 304; Plautia iudiciaria (89 a.
C.), 304-5; Publilia (334 a. C.), 95. Servilia iudiciaria, 275. Sulpicie, 311-
12, 315, 317-18. Terentilia (462 a. C.), 36. Valeria-Horatia (444 a. C.), 95.
Valeria sui debiti (86 a. C.), 320. Viaria, Sempronia (121 a. C.), 251.
Legione, 15; riforme di Mario, 279-80.
Lelio (C.), amico e legato di Scipione Emiliano, 231; sua proposta di legge
agraria, 231; sopranominato Sapiens, 231.
Leptis Magna, 223.
Lesbo, alleata di Roma nella Guerra siriaca, 191.
Leucopetra, battaglia (146 a. C.), 223.
Liberti, in Senato, 84; esclusi dalle tribù (115 a. C.), 312; arrolati per la
Guerra sociale, 303; e la legge sulpicia (88 a. C.), 312; nella prima Guerra
civile, 333-34.
Libî, 111; e Cartagine, 111, 112.
Libo-Fenici, 111; e Cartagine, 111, 112.
Licia, Lega licia, 191; alleata di Antiochio, 191; ai Rodii (189 a. C.), 197.
Lidia, assediata ad Eumene, re di Pergamo (189 a. C.), 192.
Licinio (C. Stolone), le leggi Licinio-Sestie, 56 sgg.
Licinio (L. Lucullo) (cons. 151), assale i Vaccei, 213.
Licinio (C. Crasso) (trib. pl. 145 a. C.), e sua legge agraria, 230.
Licinio (L. Crasso) (censore, 91 a. C.), suo editto sulle scuole di retorica,
298.
Licinio (M. Crasso), un ricco sillano, 329, 351; vince a Porta Collina (1 nov.
82 a. C.), 332; pretore (71 a. C.), incaricato della guerra contro Spartaco,
350, 351; vince gli eserciti di Spartaco, 351; si presenta al consolato del
70 a. C., 352; opposizione del Senato, 352; accordo con Pompeo e coi
democratici, 352; console (70 a. C.), 352; demolisce le riforme di Silla,
354; discordia con Pompeo, 355.
Licinio (L. Lucullo), famiglia e carriera, 344; ufficiale di Silla, 319, 344-45;
raccoglie una potente flotta, 324; durante la prima Guerra civile, 345;
pretore in Africa, 345; cons. (74 a. C.), 345; proconsole della Cilicia, 345;
al comando della nuova guerra contro Mitridate, 345; sua strategia, 346;
vince al Rindaco e sull’Edepo, 346; invade il Ponto (73 a. C.), 349;
sconfigge definitivamente Mitridate (72 a. C.), 350; e i pubblicani di Asia,
351; invade l’Armenia (primavera 69 a. C.), 353, 355; assedia e prende
Tigranocerta, 355; ridona ad Antioco la Siria, 355; suoi disegni, 356;
privato della provincia d’Asia, 356; vince Tigrane all’Arsaniade, 357;
privato della provincia di Cilicia, 357; destituito, 359.
Licinio (M. Lucullo), fratello di Lucio, nella seconda Guerra mitridatica,
348; proconsole in Macedonia, conquista la Tracia (72 a. C.), 350.
Liguri, 3; soldati mercenari, 122, 169; infestano le vie marittime tra Italia
e Spagna, 179.
Lilibeo (Marsala), fortezza cartaginese in Sicilia, 106, 128, 129.
Livio Andronico, 119.
Livio (M. Salinatore) (cons. 207 a. C.), 167; contro Asdrubale, 167; vince
Asdrubale, 168.
Livio (Druso) (trib. pl. 122 a. C.), 255; contro C. Gracco, 255; sue leggi,
255.
Livio (M. Druso) (trib. pl. 91 a. C.), forse figliuolo del Druso avversario di
C. Gracco, 298; suo programma, 298; sue leggi, 299-300, 300-301;
giudizio su L., 300; e gli Italici, 300; sua morte (91 a. C.), 301.
Locresi (gli abitanti della Locride, nella Grecia centrale), alleati della Lega
achea, 223.
Locri, nella Magna Grecia, 2; e Roma, 98; occupata da Roma durante la
Guerra tarantina, 105.
Lucani, 3; combattuti da Alessandro il Molosso, 72; nella seconda
Sannitica, 74, 76; attaccati dai Sanniti (299 a. C.), 91; alleati dei Sanniti
(296 a. C.), 92; L. e Greci, dopo la seconda sannitica, 95; contro Roma
(285 a. C.), 96-97, 98, 99; alleati di Pirro, 103; perdono parte del territorio
dopo la Guerra tarantina, 108; passano ad Annibale, 160; Annibale
sgombra il paese dei L. (207 a. C.), 169; e Mitridate, 308; insurrezione
durante la prima Guerra civile, 330; marciano su Roma (82 a. C.), 331-32;
sconfitti da Appio Claudio e da Silla a Porta Collina (1 nov. 82 a. C.), 332.
Lucania. V. Lucani.
Lucera, occupata dai Romani (320 a. C.), 78; scaccia la guarnigione
romana (315 a. C.), 80; colonizzata (314 a. C.), 80.
Luceres, 9.
Lucrezia, 22-23.
Lucullo. V. Licinio.
Lucumoni, 4.
Lucca, colonia latina, 195.
Luni, colonia romana, 195.
Lusitani (in Spagna), insurrezione (152 a. C.), 213, 221; domata, 232;
trapiantati a Valenza, 232; e Sertorio, 340.
Lutazio (C. Catulo) (cons. 242 a. C.), vince alle Egadi, 129.
Lutazio (Q. Catulo), sconfitto dai Cimbri (101 a. C.), 285.
Lutazio (A. Catulo) (cons. 78 a. C.), 340; incaricato della repressione della
insurrezione di Lepido, 340.
Lyssos (Alessio), 135.
Macare, figlio di Mitridate e vicerè della Tauride.
Macedonia, Pirro e la M., 101; prima Guerra macedonica (215-05 a. C.),
162, 164, 167, 169; seconda Guerra macedonica (200-196 a. C.), 179
sgg.; la M. e l’Italia dopo la seconda punica, 179, 181; guerra in M. (198
a. C. sgg.), 183, 184; dopo Cinocefale, 185-86; smembrata in quattro
principati con divieto di commercio e di connubio, 207-08; imposte, 208;
miniere d’oro, 208; conseguenze dello smembramento, 218; insorge (149
a. C.), 218; è domata, 219, 221; provincia romana (147 a. C.), 221;
pubblicani in M., 226; popolazioni barbariche della M., alleate di Mitridate,
307; molestata dai barbari del nord, 342. V. Filippo. V. Perseo; Andrisco.
Magistrature, della Repubblica romana, 31, 32; intervallo biennale, 335;
plebei alle m., V. Plebei; Silla aumenta il numero dei magistrati, 335; e
fissa la successione e gl’intervalli fra le magistrature, 335.
Magna Grecia, città della M. G., 2; e Roma regia, 18-19; e i Lucani, 95-96;
nel III sec. a. C., 97; passa in parte ad Annibale, 160; e la Guerra sociale,
302.
Magnesia ad Sypilum, battaglia (190 a. C.), 191.
Magone, generale punico, in Italia (206-5 a. C.), 169; prende Genova,
169.
Maleventum, antico nome di Benevento, 107.
Mamertini e Agatocle, 115-16; occupano Messina, 116; sconfitti da
Gerone, 116; i Romani e i M., 116, 120, 121.
Manilio (M.’) (cons. 149 a. C.), generale contro Cartagine, 216.
Manilio (G.) (tribuno della pl. 67 a. C.), 359; legge Manilia, 360.
Manipolo, 79, 279-80.
Manlio (A.), ambasciatore in Grecia, 36.
Manlio (M. Capitolino), difensore del Campidoglio durante l’invasione
gallica, 54; agitazione, da lui promossa in Roma, 54-55; processo e
condanna, 55.
Manlio (L. Volsone) (cons. 256 a. C.), 125.
Manlio (Cn. Massimo) (cons. 105 a. C.), 277; sconfitto ad Arausium (105
a. C.), 277.
Mantova, città etrusca, 4.
Manubiae, 31.
Marcio (C. Rutilo) (cons. 310 a. C.), sconfitto nel Sannio, 87.
Marcio (L. Censorino) (cons. 149 a. C.), generale contro Cartagine, 216.
Mario (C.), pubblicano impoverito, 234; ufficiale in Spagna, 235; sua
carriera, 269; cons. I (108 a. C.), e generale nella Guerra giugurtina, 269-
270, 272; sua riforma militare, 272-273; vince Giugurta; cons. II (104 a.
C.), 278; trionfa (1 genn. 104 a. C.), 278; destinato alla guerra contro
Cimbri e Teutoni, 278; nella Narbonese, 279; cons. III (103 a. C.), 282;
cons. IV (102 a. C.), 283-84; vince i Teutoni e gli Ambroni, 284; cons. V
(101 a. C.), vince i Cimbri, 285; proclamato terzo fondatore di Roma;
cons. VI (100 a. C.), 287, 288; e il partito democratico, 288, 290-291;
dirige la repressione contro i democratici (dic. 100 a. C.), 291-92; in
Oriente, 292; nella Guerra sociale, 303; candidato al comando della
Guerra mitridatica, 311-12; hostis publicus, 315; sua fuga in Africa, 315;
torna a Roma, 318; cons. VII (86 a. C.), 319: sua morte, 320.
Mario, il giovane, figliuolo del preced., 327; cons. (82 a. C.), 329; sconfitto
e assediato in Preneste da Silla, 329; si uccide, 332-333.
Mario (M.), rappresentante di Sertorio, 344; segue gli eserciti di Mitridate
in Asia, 344.
Marrucini, 3; spedizione romana contro i M., 81.
Marsi, 3; insurrezione contro Roma (308 a. C.), 88; e la Guerra sociale,
302.
Marsiglia, razzie dei Galli sul territorio di M., 260.
Massinissa, uno dei capi numidi, 170; in Spagna, alleato dei Cartaginesi,
170; alleato di Scipione, 170; invade e occupa il regno di Siface, 171; re di
Numidia, 174; M. e Cartagine, 214, 215; muore (149 a. C.), 261.
Massiva, nipote di Massinissa, fatto uccidere da Giugurta, 266.
Mauri, alleati di Giugurta, 269.
Mediolanum (Milano), capoluogo della Gallia Transpadana, 147.
Memmio (C.) (trib. pl.), attacca il Senato sulla questione giugurtina, 264;
fa respingere dai comizi la pace con Giugurta, 265; candidato dei cavalieri
al consolato pel 99 a. C., 291; ucciso (dicembre 100 a. C.), 291.
Mercatores, italici, a Cirta, 264.
Messina, occupata dai Mamertini, 116; nella prima punica, 121-22;
occupata dai Romani, 122.
Metaponto, 2.
Metauro (Fl.), battaglia (207 a. C.), 168; conseguenze, 169.
Metello V. Cecilio.
Micipsa, figlio di Massinissa e re di Numidia, 261; muore (118 a. C.), 261.
Minervia, 253.
Minucio (Rufo) (trib. pl. 121 a. C.), propone l’abrogazione della legge sulla
colonizzazione di Cartagine, 256.
Mitridate, dinastia regnante nel Ponto, 281.
Mitridate VI Eupatore, re del Ponto (111-64 a. C.), 281; e le colonie
greche del M. Nero, 281; sue conquiste e alleanze, 281; conquista la
Cappadocia, 293; ne è scacciato (92 a. C.), 305; caccia dal trono
Nicomede III, 303, 305; occupa di nuovo la Cappadocia, 305-306; prima
Guerra con Roma (88-85 a. C.), 307 sgg.; e la Grecia e l’Asia ellenizzata,
307; sua alleanza coi barbari di Tracia e Macedonia, 307; invade la
provincia d’Asia, 307; e massacra 100.000 Italici, 308; perde la Grecia,
322; pace di Dardano (85 a. C.), 323-24; e Sertorio, 342, 344; nuovi
maneggi e preparativi, 343-44; nuova Guerra mitridatica (74 sgg. a. C.),
344 sgg.; sconfitto da Lucullo (72 a. C.), 350; rientra nel Ponto, (68 a. C.),
357; vinto da Pompeo, 360; si rifugia in Colchide, 360; ultimi tentativi,
361, 363; sua morte (63 a. C.), 363.
Mitrobarzane, generale di Tigrane, 355.
Monarchia, V. Re.
Moneta, origini della moneta d’argento in Roma, 83, 119; rinvilio nella
seconda metà del II sec. a. C., 229.
Mummio (L.) (cons. 146 a. C.), vince a Leucopetra gli Achei, 223.
Municipi, 114; cum suffragio, 115; sine suffragio, 114; altri diritti, 115.
Mutina (Modena), colonia romana, 147, 150, 195.
Mylae (Milazzo), battaglia (260 a. C.), 124.

Napoli, 73, 74, 75; guerra con Roma (327-26 a. C.), 73 sgg.; Odeon, 75;
Stadio, 75; ginnasi, 75; fratrie, 75; nella seconda punica, 161.
Narni, 90.
Nepi, colonia (381 a. C.), 55.
Nerula, 79.
Nettunia, 253.
Nexum, 77. V. Debiti.
Nicodeme II, re di Bitinia, 273; sua morte (90 a. C.), 305; Nicodeme III,
invade il Ponto, 306; cacciato dal trono da Mitridate, 303, 305.
Nocera, 88; presa da Annibale, 161.
Nola, 80; nella seconda punica, 161.
Nomento, 70.
Norbano (C.) (cons. 85 a. C.), 377; capo del partito democratico, 377;
sconfitto da Silla, 328; respinge l’offerta di pace di Silla, 329; recluta
nuove milizie in Cisalpina, 330; sconfitto da Metello a Faenza, 331; fugge
in Oriente, 331.
Norcia, battaglia (113 a. C.), 263.
Norico, 263.
Numa Pompilio, 11, 16.
Numanzia, 213; i N. sconfiggono Q. Pompeo, 232; concludono la pace,
233; ripresa della guerra, 233; sconfiggono il console Mancino (137 a. C.),
234; fanno pace, 234; la pace è respinta dai comizi, 234; N. distrutta (133
a. C.), 244.
Numidia, i Numidi e Cartagine, 112; insurrezione del 260 a. C., 126;
durante la seconda punica, 161; tra la seconda e la terza punica, 214,
215; acquisti dopo la terza punica, 223; spartita fra Aderbale e Giugurta
(117 a. C.), 262; Guerra di Roma contro Giugurta (110-7 a. C.), 264, 267
sgg.; nuovo ordinamento, 278.
Numitore, 7.

Oea, 223.
Ofanto (Fl.), 158.
Opimio (L.) (cons. 121 a. C.), 256.
Orazio (M.), console nel 510 o 509 a. C., 43.
Orcomeno, battaglia (86 a. C.), 322.
Oriente, Paesi dell’O., 240; suoi prodotti, 240.
Ortensio (Q.), dittatore (287 a. C.), 94-95; sua legge, 94-95.
Osci, 3; in Campania, 64.
Ostia, colonia, dedotta da Anco Marzio, 16.
Ostilio (C. Mancino) (cons. 137 a. C.), disfatto dai Numantini, 234; fa pace
coi Numantini, 234.
Ottavio (M. Cecina) (trib. pl. 133 a. C.), si oppone alla legge agraria
sempronia, 238; deposto, 238-39.
Ottavio (Cn.) (cons. 87 a. C.), si oppone alle leggi sulpicie.

Pacuvio, 197.
Paflagonia, alleata di Antioco, 171; il re di P. battuto da Aristonico, 245; i
P. chiedono aiuto a Roma contro il re del Ponto, 280; invasa da Mitridate,
281; dichiarata libera dai Romani, 293; Pompeo (64 a. C.), 362, 364.
Palatino, nucleo della primitiva Roma, 7, 19.
Palepoli, 90, n. 4.
Palermo, 127; battaglia (251 a. C.), 128.
Palestina, invasa da Antioco III (202 a. C.), 178.
Paludi Pontine, prosciugate (181 a. C.), 194.
Pandosia, battaglia, 102.
Papio Mutilo, generale degli Italici nella Guerra sociale, 303.
Papirio Cursore, dittatore nel 309 a. C., 87; vittorie sui Sanniti, 87, 88.
Papirio (Cn. Carbone) (cons. 113 a. C.), sconfitto dai Cimbri, 263.
Papirio (C. Carbone) (trib. pl. 89 a. C.), sua legge sulla cittadinanza agli
Italici, 304.
Papirio (Cn. Carbone) (cons. 85 e 84 a. C.), 377; cons. 82 a. C., 329;
sconfitto da Metello, 329; combatte con Silla a Chiusi, 330; fugge in Africa,
331.
Parma, colonia romana, 195.
Parti, Regno dei, 353; la Parzia invasa da Tigrane, 353; disegni di Lucullo
sulla Persia, 356.
Parzia, V. Parti.
Patrizi, 14; lotta tra p. e plebei, 31 sgg.; divieto di matrimonii patrizio-
plebei, 38; e la legge Canuleia, 40; nelle magistrature e in Senato, dal 312
al 216 a. C., 181-182.
Pedo, 70.
Peligni, 3; insurrezione del 308 a. C., 88; e la Guerra sociale, 302.
Pentri (nel Sannio), indipendenti, 108; fedeli a Roma, nella seconda
punica, 160.
Pergamo (Regno di). V. Attalo; in alleanza con Roma nella Guerra siriaca,
191; in eredità a Roma, 239; sua ricchezza, 240; sua coltura, 240.
Perpenna, un ufficiale di Lepido; contro Sertorio, 348; uccide Sertorio (72
a. C.), 350.
Perseo, re di Macedonia (179-168 a. C.), figlio di Filippo V, 205; sposa una
figlia del re di Siria, 205; sua politica in Grecia e in Oriente, 205; vinto e
fatto prigioniero a Pidna (168 a. C.), 207.
Persia. V. Parti.
Perugia, città etrusca, 4, 87; battaglia (309 a. C.), 88.
Pesto, V. Posidonia.
Phasys (Rioni) (Fl.), 361.
Piacenza, v. Placentia.
Piceno, 3; occupato dai Romani (290 a. C.), 94; i Piceni e la Guerra
sociale, 302.
Pidna, battaglia (168 a C.), 207.
Pirati, origini della pirateria, 324; potenza, 342; uno Stato di pirati in
Cilicia, 342; i P. e la carestia del 68-67, 358; disfatti da Pompeo, 358-59.
Pirenei, 149.
Pirro, re d’Epiro, carriera politica, 100, 102; in Italia (280 a. C.), 101; in
Sicilia (278-75 a. C.), 105 sgg.; partenza dall’Italia, 107; sua morte (273 o
272 a. C.), 108.
Placentia (Piacenza), colonia romana (218 a. C.), 142.
Plauto, 197.
Plauzio (M. Silvano) (trib. 89 a. C.), sua legge sulla cittadinanza agli Italici,
304; sua legge giudiziaria, 304-5.
Plebei, lotta col patrizi, 31 sgg.; nel secondo decemvirato, 38; nella
questura, 42; divieto di matrimonii patrizio-plebei, 38; e la legge Canuleia,
40; scissione tra pl. dopo la distruzione di Veio, 49-50; agitazione guidata
da M. Manlio Capitolino, 54-55; agitazioni dal 384 al 377 a. C., 56;
conquistano il consolato, 58; Appio Claudio e i pl., 85; nelle magistrature o
in Senato, tra il 312 e il 216 a. C., 181-82.
Polibio, 208.
Pompedio Silone, amico di Druso e generale degli Italici nella Guerra
sociale, 303.
Pompeo (Cn. Strabone) (cons. 89 a. C.), sua legge per la cittadinanza
latina alla Cisalpina, 305; prende Ascoli del Piceno, 305; proconsole nella
Cisalpina, 316; in difesa del Senato contro Cinna, 318.
Pompeo (Q.) (procons. 140 a. C.), sconfitto dai Numantini, 237; fa pace
coi Numantini, 233; smentisce di aver trattato, 233; processato, 233.
Pompeo (Q. Rufo) (cons. 88 a. C.), 312; fugge da Roma, 313; nella Gallia
Cisalpina, 316; assassinato, 316.
Pompeo (Cn. Strabone) il Grande, figlio del cons. dell’89 a. C., 327; legato
di Silla, 340; sconfigge a Chiusi l’esercito di Carbone, 331; riceve il titolo di
Grande, 341; incaricato della repressione della rivolta di Lepido, 340-41;
contro Sertorio in Spagna, 341, 347, 350; vince i resti degli eserciti di
Spartaco (71 a. C.), 351; si presenta al consolato pel 70 a. C., 351;
opposizione del Senato, 352; accordi con Crasso e coi democratici, 352;
(cons. 70 a. C.), 352, 354; demolisce le riforme di Silla, 353; entra in
discordia con Crasso, 355; intriga contro Lucullo, 356; e la guerra piratica
(67-66 a. C.), 358 sgg.; e la legge Manilia, 360; e la guerra di Oriente (66-
63 a. C.), 360 sgg.; riordina l’Oriente, 362; conquista la Siria, 362, 364;
suo ritorno trionfale in Italia, 364.
Pontefici, 14; V. Sacerdoti.
Pontine (Isole), colonizzate dai Romani, 80.
Ponto (regno del P.), sue origini, 280-81. V. Mitridate; invaso da Lucullo
(73 a. C.), 349; provincia romana, 359; riordinamento per opera di
Pompeo, 362; fusione del P. con la Bitinia, 364.
Ponzio (C. Telesino), generale sannita, 78.
Popilio (M. Lena) (cons. 139 a. C.), ripiglia la guerra coi Numantini, 233.
Popolazione dello Stato romano, nell’età regia, 25-26, n. 11; dopo l’ultima
Guerra latina, 171; dopo la prima punica, 130; ai primi del II sec. a. C.,
187; dopo l’applicazione della legge agraria sempronia, 244.
Populonia, città etrusca, 4.
Porta Collina, battaglia (1 nov. 82 a. C.), 332.
Porzio (M. Catone), carriera politica, 198; idee politico-sociali, 198-99;
accusatore degli Scipioni, 202; si oppone all’annessione della Macedonia,
207; salva Rodi, 208; studioso dell’ellenismo, 211; latifondista e
speculatore, 212; protesta contro le crudeltà romane in Spagna, 213-14;
contro i generali romani in Africa, 220.
Posidonia (Pesto), in Lucania, 2; colonia, 108.
Postumio (Sp. Albino) (cons. 110 a. C.), generale contro Giugurta, 267.
Postumio (Aulo), fratello del precedente, 267; vinto da Giugurta, 267.
Postumio (Sp. Albino) ambasciatore in Grecia, 36.
Postumio (Sp. Albino) (console del 321 a. C.) alle Forche Caudine, 77-78.
Praefectus juri dicundo, 114.
Praetuttii, 94.
Preneste, 70; Mario il giovane assediato a Pr., 329; sua capitolazione, 332.
Pretori, antico nome dei consoli, 32; magistrati romani con poteri giudiziari
(367 a. C.), 58; quattro pretori (227 a. C.), 133; otto pretori, 335;
magistrati delle colonie romane, 113.
Pretura, v. Pretori.
Prezzi, delle derrate nella Cisalpina, 229.
Procida, origine del suo nome, 6.
Promagistrature, origine, 335.
Proconsolato, origine, 75.
Provincia, 284. V. Gallia Narbonese.
Province, organizzazione, 133; dopo Silla, 335.
Provocatio, 247; proposta dal cons. Flacco per gli Italici, 247.
Pubblicani, 226; nell’ordine dei cavalieri, 228-229; in Sicilia, Macedonia e
Spagna, 226; nel Paese dei Salassi, 231; a Efeso, 306; i p. e Nicomede III,
306; e la provincia d’Asia, 250, 307; e Lucullo, 352. V. Cavalieri.
Publilio (Q. Filone) (console 327 a. C.), assedia Napoli, 73.
Quaestio de pecuniis repetundis, 228, 259.
Quaestiones perpetuae e i senatori, 249, 275, 300, 334, 342; e i cavalieri,
250, 275, 300, 342; riforma del 70 a. C., 354; aumentate di numero da
Silla, 335.
Questori, aiutanti dei re e dei consoli, 32; numero, 42; i plebei nella
questura, 42; nuove competenze, 42.
Questura. V. Questori.
Quindecemviri sacris faciundis, 282.
Quinzio (T. Flaminino) (cons. 198 a. C.), generale contro Filippo V, 184
sgg.; in Macedonia, 184; ha prolungato il comando pel 197 a. C., 185;
vince a Cinocefale (197 a. C.), 185.
Quirina, tribù, 131.
Quirinale, 17.

Ramnes, 9.
Ravenna, città etrusca, 4.
Re di Roma; nomi etruschi, 9, 11; poteri, 13, 14; nomina, 14; l’opera
militare e politica, 16; durata della monarchia. 23; caduta della monarchia,
23 sgg.; sua importanza storica, 23, 24, n. 7. V. Tarquinii.
Rea Silvia, 7.
Reggio, 2; e Roma, 98.
Remo, 11.
Rex sacrorum, 32.
Rimini. V. Ariminum.
Rindaco (Fl.), battaglia (73 a. C.), 346.
Rodano (Fl.), 149.
Rodi, si difende contro Filippo V, 178; invoca Roma contro Filippo V (202
a. C.), 178; alleata con Roma, 182; nella seconda macedonica, 183; nella
Guerra siriaca, 191; durante la terza macedonica, 206; privata dei
possedimenti continentali, 208; decadenza, 208.
Roma, origini, 5 sgg.; città etrusca?, 7 sgg.; etimologia del nome, 9; arte
primitiva, 9; cultura primitiva, 9, 19; storia primitiva, 11 sgg., 18; vita
economica di R. primitiva, 12-13, 18, 19; ordinamento politico di R. regia,
15; ordinamento militare, 15; commercio di R. regia, 18-19; ampliamento
sotto Servio Tullio, 19; monumenti antichissimi, 19; quartieri, 19;
costituzione di Servio Tullio, 19 sgg.; popolazione dello Stato romano
nell’età regia, 28-26, n. 11; primo trattato con Cartagine, 27 sgg.; prime
guerre con gli Etruschi, 29; sotto il dominio etrusco, 29; guerre coi Volsci,
27; coi Sabini, 29; riconosce l’indipendenza del Lazio (493 a. C.), 30;
conseguenze delle guerre della prima metà del sec. V a. C., lotta patrizio-
plebea, 31 sgg.; prime guerre con Veio, 46 sgg.; ultima guerra contro
Veio, 48; l’incendio gallico, 49 sgg.; ricostruzione, 52-53; conseguenze
economiche, 53-54; annessione dell’Etruria meridionale, 49, 54;
l’agitazione di M. Manlio Capitolino, 54 sgg.; secondo trattato con
Cartagine (348 a. C.), 62-63; prima Guerra sannitica (342 a. C.), 64 sgg.;
ultima Guerra latina, 68; estensione del territorio romano dopo la Guerra
latina, 71; popolazione, 71; capacità militare, 71; guerra contro Napoli
(327-326 a. C.), 73 sgg.; seconda Guerra sannitica (327-304 a. C.), 73
sgg.; conseguenze sociali ed economiche della seconda sannitica, 81-83;
guerra etrusco-romano-sannitica (311-10 a. C.), 86-87, 88; estensione del
territorio romano dopo la seconda sannitica, 89; terza guerra sannitica
(299-90 a. C.), 91 sgg.; nuovo ampliamento del territorio romano, 94;
guerra tarantina (280-70 a. C.), 97 sgg.; conquista dell’Italia meridionale,
107-08; confini dello Stato romano dopo la guerra tarantina, 109; sua
estensione alla metà del III sec. a. C., 112-13; distribuzione del territorio,
112-113, 115; territorio delle città alleate: estensione e ordinamento, 115;
l’economia romana dopo la guerra tarantina, 116-17; l’ellenismo in R.,
118-19; la prima Guerra punica (264-41 a. C.), 115 sgg., 121 sgg.;
diminuzione della popolazione dopo la prima punica, 130; commercio
nell’Adriatico, 134-35; prima Guerra illirica, 133 sgg.; crisi della piccola
proprietà, 137-39; conquista della valle padana (225-22 a. C.), 141 sgg.;
seconda Guerra punica (218-201 a. C.), 147 sgg.; strettezze dello Stato
romano durante la seconda punica, 165-66; prima Guerra macedonica
(215-205), 162, 164, 167, 169; potenza dopo la seconda punica, 177;
Guerra siriaca (191-89 a. C.), 188 sgg.; progressi economici nei secc. III-II
a. C., 193-94, 227; origini del capitalismo e del mercantilismo romano,
194-195; progressi dell’agricoltura, 194-95; diffusione della pastorizia,
195-196; nuovi costumi, 196; progressi della coltura greca in R. nel II sec.
a. C., 197; principio della corruzione, 201-202; R. e l’Oriente dopo la
Guerra siriaca, 203-04, 205; terza Guerra macedonica (171-168 a. C.), 206
sgg.; prosperità economica dopo la terza macedonica, 211; la terza
Guerra punica (149-46 a. C.), 214 sgg.; la coltura in R., nella seconda
metà del II sec. a. C., 226-27; crisi economica della società romana nella
seconda metà del II sec., 227-229; guerre in Spagna, 154, 213, 221, 230,
232 sgg.; le agitazioni dei Gracchi, 235 sgg.; guerra giugurtina, 264 sgg.;
Guerra cimbrica, 263, 268, 274 sgg.; progresso e decadenza nell’età di
Mario e Silla, 294-95, 296; Guerra sociale (90-88 a. C.), 302 sgg.; prima
Guerra mitridatica (88-85 a. C.), 307 sgg.; prima Guerra civile (83-82 a.
C.), 326 sgg.; nuova guerra mitridatica (74-72 a. C.), 345 sgg.
Romo, 6.
Romolo, leggenda, 6, 7, 11, 16; e Veio, 46.
Rubicone (Fl.), 97.
Rufrio, 74.
Ruma, 9.
Rutilio (P. Rufo) (cons. 105 a. C.), sua carriera, 297-98; reprime gli abusi
dei pubblicani, 298; accusato di concussione e condannato (93 a. C.), 298;
in esilio, 298.
Rutilio (P. Rufo) (cons. 90 a. C.), contro gli Italici, 303.

Sabatina, tribù romana, 54.

Sabini, 3; immigranti in Roma, 12; guerre con Roma, 18, 29; invadono il
territorio romano (449 a. C.) 39; il territorio dei S. occupato dai Romani
(290 a. C.), 94.
Sabrata, 223.
Sacerdoti, romani, 12-13; elettivi (103 a. C.), 282, 335; v. Lex Domitia.
Sadducei, 363.
Sagunto, alleata di Roma, 146; presa da Annibale (219 a. C.), 147;
ricostruita dai Romani, 162.
Salassi, territorio aurifero dei S. 231; conquistato dai Romani (143 a. C.),
231; concesso ai pubblicani, 231.
Samo, alleata di Roma nella Guerra siriaca, 191.
Sanniti, 3; confederazione e territorio, 62; alleanza con Roma (354 a. C.),
62; in Campania, 65; guerra coi Sidicini e con Capua, 66-67; prima Guerra
sannitica (342 a. C.) 64, sgg.; contro Alessandro il Molosso, 72; e la
Guerra di Napoli (327 a. C.), 73; seconda Guerra sannitica (327-304 a. C.),
73 sgg.; il Sannio dopo la seconda sannitica, 89; i S. attaccano i Lucani
(299 a. C.), 91; con Lucani e Galli contro Roma (285-80 a. C.), 96; alleati
di Pirro, 103; durante la Guerra tarantina, 105; annessione allo Stato
romano, 108; passano ad Annibale, 160; e la Guerra sociale, 302, 303; e
la prima mitridatica, 308; insurrezione durante la prima Guerra civile 330;
marciano su Roma, 331-32, sconfitti da Appio Claudio e da Silla (1 nov. 82
a. C.), 332; distrutti da Silla, 333; colonie militari nel Sannio, 333.
Santippo, 126, 127.
Sardegna, e Roma regia, 18; nel primo trattato romano-cartaginese, 27-
28; divieto di commercio romano in S., 63; possesso cartaginese, 110,
117; Guerra romano-cartaginese in S. (259-57 a. C.), 125; conquistata dai
Romani, 132-133; durante la seconda punica, 154, 161; commercio
cartaginese in S., 214.
Sarmati, 281; mercenari, 307.
Saticula (S. Agata dal Goti), 79.
Schiavi, primo affluire in Roma, 82; Epiroti venduti schiavi, 208;
commercio, 226; abbondanza nella prima metà del II sec. a. C., 194, 226;
loro grande prezzo, 196; rivolta in Sicilia, 280; arrotati per la Guerra
sociale, 303; insurrezione in Italia (73-71 a. C.). V. Spartaco.
Scipione. V. Cornelio.
Sciti, e le colonie greche del Mar Nero, 281; scacciati dalla Tauride, 281;
chiedono aiuto a Roma contro Mitridate, 281; richiesti d’aiuto da Mitridate,
349; mercenari, 307.
Scordisci, e Mitridate, 347.
Scuole di retorica, in Roma, 295; fatte chiudere dai censori del 92 a. C.,
298.
Seleucidi, monarchia dei S., nel III sec. a. C., 110.
Seleuco IV, re di Siria, 204.
Selva Arsia, 46.
Sempronio (T. Longo) (cons. 218 a. C.), inviato in Sicilia, 150; richiamato,
151; a Rimini, 151; si congiunge con P. Cornelio Scipione, 152; battuto alla
Trebbia, 153-54.
Sempronio (T. Gracco) (cons. 172 e 163), 234; sua buona amministrazione
in Spagna, 234.
Sempronio (T. Gracco), 229: questore in Spagna, 237; figlio del console
del 177; cognato di Scipione Emiliano e genero di Appio Claudio (il cons.
del 143 a. C.), 234; trib. pl. (133 a. C.), 235; sua legge agraria, 236 sgg.;
sua proposta relativa al tesoro del morto re Attalo e alla provincia di Asia,
241; si ripresenta al tribunato del 132 a. C., 242; sua morte (133 a. C.),
242-243.
Sempronio (C. Gracco), uno dei tresviri agris adsignandis, 269; questore e
proquestore in Sardegna, 248; accusato per la insurrezione di Fregellae,
248; trib. pl. (123 a. C.), 248 sgg.; suo programma, 248 sgg.; e i cavalieri,
249-250; rieletto trib. pl. (122 a. C.), 252; sua legge per la cittadinanza
agli Italici, 254-55; a Cartagine, 255; sua morte (121 a. C.), 256-57.
Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia), colonia dei Romani, 97.
Senato, nell’età regia, 14; riforma di Tarquinio Prisco, 22; dopo la caduta
della monarchia, 32; liberti nel Senato, 84; e comizi tributi, 95; divieto ai
senatori di commerciare (218 a. C.), 136; politica senatoria dopo la
seconda punica, 179-81; accrescimento di potere, 181-82; i senatori e la
legge agraria sempronia, 237; giurisdizione penale, 249; i senatori
governatori di province, 250; contro C. Gracco, 255; coalizione coi cavalieri
dopo il 100 a. C., 289 sgg.; nelle leggi di Livio Druso, 299, 300; nuovi
screzii coi cavalieri, 310 sgg.; e le leggi sulpicie (88 a. C.), 312; i senatori
riacquistano il potere giudiziario, 334; fatti inamovibili da Silla, 335;
numero dei senatori fissato da Silla, 336.
Senatus consultum ultimum, 242, 256-57.
Senoni. V. Galli.
Sentino, battaglia (295 a. C.), 92-93.
Senzio (C. Saturnino), governatore della Macedonia, 320; batte un
esercito di Mitridate, 320.
Septemviri epulonum, 282.
Sequani, amici dei Romani, 268.
Sertorio (Q.), un democratico, 327; solleva la Spagna contro il governo
romano, 340; e Mitridate, 342; malcontento contro S., in Roma e in
Spagna, 346-47; ucciso da Perpenna (72 a. C.), 350; i seguaci di S.
amnistiati, 354.
Servilio (C. Glaucia), un democratico, 287; pretore (100 a. C.), 288;
candidato al consolato pel 99 a. C., 291; trucidato (100 a. C.), 292.
Servilio (C. Gemino) (cons. 217 a. C.), 154; a Rimini, 154; in Apulia, 157.
Servilio (Q. Cepione), pontefice massimo, 275; cons. (106 a. C.), 275; sua
lex iudiciaria, 275; attacca i Volchi; riconquista e saccheggia Tolosa, 275;
accusato di essersi appropriato il bottino, 275; sconfitto ad Aurausium
(105 a. C), 277.
Servilio (Q. Cepione) (cons. 140 a. C.), fratello di Q. Fabio Massimo
Serviliano, 232; ricomincia la guerra contro Viriato, 232; che fa
assassinare, 232.
Servio Tullio, 11; l’ampliamento e la divisione di Roma 17; sua
costituzione, 19 sgg.
Sestio (L. Laterano), leggi licinio-sestie, 56 sgg.
Setia, colonia (382 a. C.), 55.
Sibari, 2.
Sicilia, e Roma regia, 18; e il primo trattato romano-cartaginese, 28; e il
secondo trattato romano-cartaginese, 63; e Pirro, 104, 105 sgg.;
possedimenti cartaginesi in S., 110; provincia romana, 130, 133; nella
seconda punica, 154, 162, 163; sgombrata dai Cartaginesi (210 a. C.),
165; pubblicani in S., 226; rivolta di schiavi, 280.
Sidicini, 67; guerra con i Sanniti (343 a. C.), 67; invocano l’aiuto di Roma,
67; in lega coi Latini contro Roma, 68.
Siface, re dei Numidi, ribelle a Cartagine, 161; rivale di Massinissa, 170;
sconfitto e prigioniero, 170-71.
Sila, i boschi della S. appaltati, 196.
Silla. V. Cornelio.
Sinope, città del Ponto, 351.
Siracusa, sua importanza, 104, 110; e Pirro, 104; e Cartagine, 104, 110;
alleata di Cartagine, 121; battuta da Roma (261 a. C.), 122; alleata di
Roma, 122; rivoluzione repubblicana alla morte di Geronimo, 162-63; si
allea con Cartagine, 163; assediata e presa da Marcello (214-202), 163-
164; saccheggiata, 167.
Siria, invasa da Tigrane, 342, 353.
Siria, Regno di Siria, 178; si rafforza sotto Antioco il Grande, 178. V.
Antioco III il Grande; smembrato da Tigrane, 353; ad Antioco l’Asiatico,
353; conquistata da Pompeo, 362; provincia romana, 362. V. Celesiria.
Sora, 91.
Spagna, prodotti del suolo, 146; miniere, 193; Sp. meridionale colonizzata
da Cartagine, 110, 117; nuove conquiste cartaginesi dopo il 241 a. C.,
146; nella seconda punica, 151, 154, 161; principio della conquista
romana in Sp., 161, 162, 163; i Romani ricacciati al di là dell’Ebro (211 a.
C.), 165, 166; la Sp. riconquistata dai Romani (206 a. C.), 169, 177;
guerre romane in Sp., 179, 190; insurrezione della Celtiberia (154 a. C.
segg.), 154; della Lusitania (152 a. C. sgg.), 213, 221, 232; carattere della
insurrezione e della guerra in Spagna, 213; pubblicani in Sp., 226;
prosecuzione della guerra, 230, 232 sgg.; costo della guerra, 227;
ordinamento dopo il 133 a. C., 244; Citeriore e Ulteriore, 244; nuova
insurrezione, 293.
Spagnoli, mercenari cartaginesi, 122. V. Spagna.
Sparta, competizioni con la Lega Achea, 219; assalita dalla Lega achea,
219-220.
Spartaco, un trace, capo di una rivolta di schiavi in Italia, (73-71 a. C.),
347; sconfigge parecchi eserciti romani, 350; vinto da Crasso e da
Pompeo (71 a. C.), 351.
Stellatina, tribù romana, 54.
Stipendium, 223.
Sulpicio (P. Camerino), ambasciatore in Grecia, 36.
Sulpicio (P. Galba) (cons. 200 a. C.), 182; in Illiria, 182-83; invade la
Macedonia (199 a. C.), 183.
Sulpicio (P. Rufo) trib. pl., (88 a. C.); sue leggi, 311-12, 313; sua
agitazione, 312-13; S. e Silla, 313; annullamento delle leggi sulpicie, 315;
dichiarato hostis publicus, 315; trucidato, 315.
Sutrium (Sutri), colonizzata dai Romani (383 a. C.), 55; assediata dagli
Etruschi (311 a. C.), 86; liberata, 87.

Taranto, 2, 98-99; antico trattato con Roma, 99; durante la seconda

sannitica, 74; Guerra contro Roma (280-71 a. C.), 97 sgg.; forze militari,
101; presa da Annibale (212 a. C.); ripresa dai Romani (209 a. C.) e
saccheggiata, 167.
Tarquinii, I T. nella storia di Roma, 17; carattere delle riforme dei T., 22.
Tarquinii, città etrusca, 4.
Tarquinio I (Prisco), 11; tradizione e storia, 17-18; e il Senato, 22.
Tarquinio II (il Superbo), 11.
Tassilo, generale di Mitridate, 344.
Tauride (Crimea), abitata dagli Sciti, 281; possesso di Mitridate, 349;
centro dei suoi rifornimenti, 307, 346; Mitridate si rifugia in T., 361;
bloccata da Pompeo, 361; regno di Farnace, 364.
Taurisci, abitanti nel Norico, assaliti dai Cimbri, 263.
Tavole (Le Dodici), 37-38.
Teano, 70.
Telamone (C.), battaglia (255 a. C.), 141.
Telesia (nel Sannio), distrutta, 333.
Temiscira, città del Ponto, 349; assediata da Lucullo, 349, 350.
Tempio della Fede, 242, 243.
Tempio di Giove (sul Campidoglio), 19.
Terentilio (C. Arsa), tribuno della plebe; sua legge circa il potere dei
consoli, 36; opposizione dei patrizi, 36.
Terenzio (C. Varrone) (cons. 216 a. C.), 158; battuto a Canne (2 agosto
216 a. C.), 159-60.
Termopili (Le), battaglia (191 a. C.), 190.
Terracina, assediata dai Sanniti (315 a. C.), 80.
Tessaglia, guerra in T. durante la seconda macedonica, 184; invasa da
Antioco il Grande (192 a. C.), 190.
Teuta, regina degli Illirii, 134.
Teutoni, 274; invadono la Gallia, 279, 284; sono disfatti e distrutti ai
Campi Putridi presso Aquae Sextiae (102 a. C.), 284.
Thurii, e i Lucani, 95-96; e Roma, 98, 99.
Ticino, battaglia (218 a. C.), 151-52.
Tigrane, re di Armenia, amplia i confini del suo regno, 353; alleato di
Mitridate VI, 294, 349; invade la Siria, 342; e la Grande Cappadocia, 342;
assume il titolo di Re dei Re, 342; Lucullo e Tigrane, 353; si arrende a
Pompeo, 360-61.
Tigranocerta, capoluogo della Armenia, 355; assediata da Lucullo (69 a.
C.), 355; sua capitolazione, 355.
Tigurini, 274; invadono la Narbonese (107 a. C.), 274; si ritirano, 275;
invadono di nuovo la Gallia, 276-277; sconfiggono un generale romano ad
Arausium (6 ottobre 105 a. C.), 277.
Timoleone, tiranno di Siracusa, 110.
Tities, 9.
Titti, 213, 232.
Tivoli, 70.
Tolomei (dinastia regnante in Egitto), nel III sec. a. C., 110. V. Lagidi.
Tolomeo IV, re d’Egitto (morto nel 201 a. C.), 178.
Tolomeo V, Epifane (204 a. C. sgg.), 178.
Tolomeo Apione, re d’Egitto, lascia ai Romani la Cirenaica, 294.
Tolosa, nella Narbonese, 274.
Tracia, terre della T. soggette ai Tolomei, 110; passano alla Macedonia,
che le perde dopo la terza macedonica, 185; i Traci alleati di Mitridate,
281, 312; invadono la Grecia, 310, 342; la T. conquistata da M. Lucullo
(72 a. C.), 350.
Trapani (Drepanum), fortezza cartaginese, 128; battaglia (250 a. C.), 128;
bloccata (242 a. C.), 129.
Trasimeno (L.), battaglia (217 a. C.), 155-56.
Trebbia (Fl.), battaglia (218 a. C.), 152-54.
Tresviri agria iudicandis adsignandis, 237, 239; loro lavoro, 243-44.
Triario (C.), ammiraglio di Lucullo, 357; disfatto da Mitridate (67 a. C.),
359.
Tribù, numero e ufficio, 32; nuove tribù (387 a. C.), 54; riforma di Appio
Claudio, 84-85; due nuove tribù istituite nel 242 a. C., 131; 35 tribù, 131;
e la riforma del 241 a. C., 131-32; e la scelta dei giudici, 304-5; gli Italici e
le tribù, 308.
Tribunali penali, V. Quaestiones perpetuae.
Tribuni aerarii, nei tribunali, 353.
Tribuni della plebe, 35; numero, 75; eletti prima dai comizi curiati, poi dai
tributi, 35, 43, n. 3; poteri, 35-36; agitazioni tribunizie dopo il 334 a. C.,
56 sgg.; destituibili, 238-39; il tribunato è iterabile?, 241-42; e la riforma
di Silla, 334; abolizione della riforma di Silla, 342-43, 353.
Tribuni militari, 41; in parte elettivi, 85; consulari potestate, 40-41.
Trifano, battaglia, 69.
Trifilia, 186.
Tromentina, tribù romana, 54.
Tullio (M. Cicerone), e la legge Manilia, 360.
Tullo Ostilio, 11, 16.
Tuscolo, 70, 198.
Tyrii, nel secondo trattato romano-cartaginese, 63.
Umbri, 3; e Celti, 47; insurrezione (308 a. C.), 88; nella terza Guerra
sannitica, 92; nella Guerra sociale, 302, 303.
Utica, nel secondo trattato romano-cartaginese, 63; indipendente dopo la
terza punica, 223.

Vaccei (in Spagna), 213.

Vadimone (L.), battaglia (283 a. C.), 97.
Valenza, 232.
Valerio (M. Levino), contro Filippo V (214 a. C.), 162.
Valerio (L. Flacco), protettore di Catone, 198.
Valerio (L. Flacco) (cons. 86 a. C.), sua legge sui debiti, 320; inviato
contro Silla, 320, 321-22, 337, n. 2; in Macedonia e in Asia contro
Mitridate (86 a. C.), 322.
Vario (Q.), (trib. pl. 98 a. C.), 301; esiliato per lesa maestà, 304.
Veio, città etrusca, 4; prime guerre e paci con Roma, 46 sgg.; ultima
guerra con Roma, 47 sgg.; distruzione, 49.
Velina, tribù romana, 131.
Veneti, 3; e Celti, 47; alleati di Roma nella Grande guerra gallica, 141.
Venusia (Venosa), colonia di, (291 a. C.), 93.
Vestali, collegio sacerdotale, 14; Rea Silvia vestale, 7.
Vestini, 3; alleati dei Sanniti nella seconda guerra sannitica, 76.
Vetulonia, città etrusca, 4.
Veterani, I v. e la legge de coloniis di Saturnino, 289; e la cittadinanza,
289; colonie di v. nel Sannio e in Etruria, 333.
Veturio (T. Calvino) (cons. 321 a. C.), alle Forche Caudine, 77-78.
Victumulae (nel Vercellese), 151; centro del commercio dell’oro, 231.
Vie: Appia, 83; Cassia (187 a. C.), 96, 194; Emilia (187 a. C.), 194;
Flaminia (187 a. C.), 194; lex viaria sempronia (123 a. C.), 251; le vie
d’Italia e C. Gracco, 251, 252.
Villio (P.) (cons. 198), generale romano contro Filippo V, 183-84.
Viminale, 17.
Viriato, capo dei Lusitani, 221; suoi successi, 223, 230, 232; ucciso, 232.
Volsci, 3; guerre con Roma, 29, 30; incursioni a mezzo il sec. V a. C., 36;
dopo l’incendio gallico, 53.
Volterra, città etrusca, 4.

Zama (in Numidia), battaglia (202 a C.), 171 sgg.

 INDICE DEI CAPITOLI.

Prefazione Pag. v

La Monarchia e il primo tentativo mercantile di

Roma (754?-510? a. C.) 1
I primi passi della repubblica (sec. VI-V a. C.) 27
La distruzione di Veio e l’incendio di Roma
(fine del V sec.-367 a. C.) 45
I Sanniti 61
La guerra con Taranto e la conquista dell’Italia 91
Roma e Cartagine 109
La prima guerra punica e il secondo tentativo
mercantile di Roma 121
La seconda guerra punica (218-201) 145
L’egemonia mediterranea 177
Il crepuscolo dell’antica Roma 193
La crisi dell’egemonia 211
I Gracchi 225
Verso la rivoluzione 259
Mitridate 287
La prima guerra civile 317
Le grandi guerre in oriente 339

Indice alfabetico analitico 367

Errata Corrige
P. 142, r. 4. Insurbi Insubri
P. 268, r. 3. E qui Edni
P. 339, r. 25. legato legato di
 FINITO DI STAMPARE A FIRENZE
NELLA TIPOGRAFIA «ENRICO ARIANI»
IL XXXI MARZO MCMXXI.
 Nota del Trascrittore

Ortografia e punteggiatura originali sono state

mantenute, correggendo senza annotazione minimi errori
tipografici. Le correzioni indicate a pag. 401 (Errata
Corrige) sono state riportate nel testo.
Copertina creata dal trascrittore e posta nel pubblico
dominio.