Chapter 3

Circular motion e-Learning

Objectives

Describing circular motion In the same way, we can describe the position of any
Many things move in circles. Here are some object as it moves around a circle simply by stating the
examples: angle θ of the arc through which it has moved from its
• the wheels of a car or a bicycle starting position. This is shown in Figure 3.2.
• the Earth in its (approximately circular) orbit
round the Sun
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• the hands of a clock

destination

• a spinning DVD in a laptop

• the drum of a washing machine.
Sometimes, things move along a path that is part of a
circle. For example, a car may travel around a bend in
θ
the road which is an arc of a circle (Figure 3.1). θ=0

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destination

Figure 3.2 To know how far an object has moved

round the circle, we need to know the angle θ.

The angle θ through which the object has moved

Figure 3.1 Two examples of circular motion: the is known as its angular displacement. For an object
racing car’s wheels spin around the axles, and the car moving in a straight line, its position was defined by
follows a curved path as it speeds round the bend. its displacement x, the distance it has travelled from
its starting position. The corresponding quantity for
Circular motion is different from the straight- circular motion is angular displacement θ, the angle
line motion that we have discussed previously in of the arc through which the object has moved from
our study of kinematics and dynamics in Physics 1. its starting position.
However, we can extend these ideas of dynamics to
build up a picture of circular motion. SAQ
1 a By how many degrees does the angular
Around the clock displacement of the hour hand of a clock
The second hand of a clock moves steadily round the change each hour?
clock-face. It takes one minute for it to travel all the b A clock is showing 3.30. Calculate the
way round the circle. There are 360° in a complete angular displacements in degrees from
circle and 60 seconds in a minute. So the hand moves the 12.00 position of the clock to
6° every second. If we know the angle θ through which i the minute hand
the hand has moved from the vertical (12 o’clock) ii the hour hand. Answer
position, we can predict the position of the hand.
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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

Angles in radians hyperlink hyperlink

When dealing with circles and circular motion, it is more destination
a destination
b
convenient to measure angles and angular displacements 2s
in units called radians rather than in degrees. s θ
θ
If an object moves a distance s around a
r 2r
circular path of radius r (Figure 3.3a), its angular
displacement θ in radians is defined as follows:
length of arc
angle (in radians) =
radius
s
or θ= Figure 3.3 The size of an angle depends on the
r
radius and the length of the arc. Doubling both leaves
Since both s and r are distances measured in metres, the angle unchanged.
it follows that the angle θ is simply a ratio. It is a
dimensionless quantity. If the object moves twice as
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far around a circle of twice the radius (Figure 3.3b),
destination
its angular displacement θ will still be the same. r
r
length of arc 2s s
θ= = = 1 radian
radius 2r r
When we define θ in this way, its units are radians
rather than degrees. How are radians related to
degrees? If an object moves all the way round the
circumference of the circle, it moves a distance of 2πr.
We can calculate its angular displacement in radians:
circumference 2πr
θ= = = 2π Figure 3.4 The length of the arc is equal to the
radius r
radius when the angle is 1 radian.
Hence a complete circle contains 2π radians. But we
can also say that the object has moved through 360°. An angle of 360° is equivalent to an angle of 2π
Hence: radians. We can therefore determine what 1 radian
is equivalent to in degrees.
360° = 2π rad
360
Similarly, we have: 1 radian =
2π
π
180° = π rad    90° = rad
2 or 1 radian ≈ 57.3°
π
45° = rad    and so on
4 If you can remember that there are 2π rad in a full
circle, you will be able to convert between radians
Defining the radian and degrees:
An angle of one radian is defined as follows
(see Figure 3.4):
• to convert from degrees to radians, multiply
2π π
by or
360° 180°
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of • to convert from radians to degrees, multiply
360° 180°
a circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of by or .
the circle. 2π π
Now look at Worked example 1.
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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

hyperlink hyperlink
Worked
destination
example 1 destination
If θ = 60°, what is the value of θ in radians? B
v

θ = 60°
v
360° is equivalent to 2π radians. Therefore:

60 × 2π A
θ=
360
π
= = 1.05 rad
3
(Note that it is often useful to express an angle C
as a multiple of π radians.)

v
SAQ
2 a Convert the following angles from degrees into Figure 3.5 The velocity v of an object changes
radians: 30°, 90°, 105°. direction as it moves along a circular path.
b Convert these angles from radians to degrees:
π
0.5 rad, 0.75 rad, π rad, rad. SAQ
2
c Express the following angles as multiples 3 Explain why all the arrows in
of π radians: Figure 3.5 are drawn the same
Answer Answer
30°, 120°, 270°, 720°. length.

4 A toy train travels at a steady speed of 0.2 m s–1

Steady speed, changing velocity around a circular track (Figure 3.6).
If we are to use Newton’s laws of motion to explain
circular motion, we must consider the velocity of an
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object going round in a circle, rather than its speed.
destination
There is an important distinction between speed
0.2 m s–1
and velocity: speed is a scalar quantity, but velocity
is a vector quantity, with both magnitude and
direction. We need to think about the direction of
motion of an orbiting object.
A B
Figure 3.5 shows how we can represent the
velocity of an object at various points around its
circular path. The arrows are straight and show the
direction of motion at a particular instant. They are 0.2 m s–1
drawn as tangents to the circular path. As the object
travels through points A, B, C, etc., its speed remains
constant but its direction changes. Since the direction
of the velocity v is changing, it follows that v itself
(a vector quantity) is changing as the object moves in Figure 3.6 A toy train travelling around a
a circle. circular track.

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

A and B are two points diametrically opposite to

one another on the track.
• Consider a conker on the end of a string. Imagine
whirling it in a horizontal circle above your head
a Determine the change in the speed of the (Figure 3.7). To make it go round in a circle, you
train as it travels from A to B. have to pull on the string. The pull of the string
b Determine the change in the Hint on the conker is the unbalanced force, which is
velocity of the train as it constantly acting to change the conker’s velocity
Answer
travels from A to B. as it orbits your head. If you let go of the string,
suddenly there is no tension in the string and the
conker will fly off at a tangent to the circle.
Centripetal forces
When an object’s velocity is changing, it has
• Similarly, the Earth as it orbits the Sun has a
constantly changing velocity. Newton’s first law
acceleration. In the case of uniform circular motion, suggests that there must be an unbalanced force
the acceleration is rather unusual because, as we acting on it. That force is the gravitational pull of
have seen, the object’s speed does not change but its the Sun. If the force disappeared, we would travel
velocity does. How can an object accelerate and at the off in a straight line.
same time have a steady speed? In both of these cases, you should be able to see why
One way to understand this is to think about the direction of the force is as shown in Figure 3.8.
what Newton’s laws of motion can tell us about this The force on the object is directed towards the centre
situation. Newton’s first law states that an object of the circle. We describe each of these forces as a
remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion (at centripetal force – that is, directed towards the centre.
constant speed in a straight line) unless it is acted on It is important to note that the word centripetal is an
by an external force. In the case of an object moving adjective. We use it to describe a force that is making
at steady speed in a circle, we have a body whose something travel along a circular path. It does not tell
velocity is not constant; therefore, there must be a us what causes this force, which might be gravitational,
resultant (unbalanced) force acting on it. electrostatic, magnetic, frictional or whatever.
Now we can think about various situations where
objects are going round in a circle and try to find the
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force that is acting on them.
destination velocity

hyperlink Earth
destination
gravitational
tension pull of Sun
Sun

Figure 3.8 The gravitational pull of the Sun provides

the centripetal force that keeps the Earth in its orbit.
Figure 3.7 Whirling a conker.
J7249
CUP COAS Physics 2 SB iPDF
3.7
AW by HL Studios

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

SAQ Δv. Note that the change in the velocity of the object
5 In each of the following cases, state what provides is (more or less):
the centripetal force: • at right angles to the velocity at A
a the Moon orbiting the Earth
b a car going round a bend on a flat, rough road
• directed towards the centre of the circle.
The object is accelerating because its velocity
c the weight on the end of a changes. Since acceleration is the rate of change
Answer
swinging pendulum. of velocity
Δv
6 A car is travelling along a flat road. Explain why a = Δt
it cannot go around a bend if the road surface is
perfectly smooth. Suggest what might it follows that the acceleration of the object must be
happen if the driver tries turning in the same direction as the change in the velocity –
Answer
the steering wheel. towards the centre of the circle. This is not surprising
because, according to F = ma, the acceleration a of the
object is in the same direction as the centripetal force F.
Vector diagrams
Figure 3.9a shows an object travelling along a Acceleration at steady speed
circular path, at two positions in its orbit. It reaches Now that we know that the centripetal force F and
position B a short time after A. How has its velocity acceleration are always at right angles to the object’s
changed between these two positions? velocity, we can explain why its speed remains
constant. If the force is to make the object change its
hyperlink speed, it must have a component in the direction of
destination
a
the object’s velocity; it must provide a push in the
vB
direction in which the object is already travelling.
However, here we have a force at 90° to the velocity,
vA
B so it has no component in the required direction.
(Its component in the direction of the velocity is
A
F cos 90° = 0.) It acts to pull the object around the
circle, without ever making it speed up or slow down.
You can also use the idea of work done to show
hyperlink that the speed of the object moving in a circle remains
b vector representing the same. The work done by a force is equal to the
destination change in velocity (Δv)
Δv product of the force and the distance moved by the
object in the direction of the force. The distance
vB vA moved by the object in the direction of the centripetal
force is zero; hence the work done is zero. If no work
is done on the object, its kinetic energy must remain
the same and hence its speed is unchanged.
Figure 3.9 Changes in the velocity vector.
SAQ
The change in the velocity of the object can be 7 An object follows a circular path at a steady speed.
determined using a vector triangle. This vector Describe how each of the following quantities
triangle in Figure 3.9b shows the difference between changes as it follows this path: speed, velocity,
the final velocity vB and initial velocity vA. The kinetic energy, momentum, centripetal force,
change in the velocity of the object between the centripetal acceleration. (Refer to both
points B and A is shown by the smaller arrow labelled magnitude and direction,
Answer
as appropriate.)
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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

Thinking like Newton

Isaac Newton devised an ingenious ‘thought Now, if we try a bit faster than this, the object
experiment’ that allows us to think about circular will travel all the way round the Earth. We have to
motion, particularly in connection with objects get just the right speed to do this. As the object is
orbiting the Earth. Consider a large cannon on some pulled down towards the Earth, the curved surface
high point on the Earth’s surface, capable of firing of the Earth falls away beneath it. The object
objects horizontally. Figure 3.10 shows what will follows a circular path, constantly falling under
happen if we fire them at different speeds. gravity but never getting any closer to the surface.
If the object is fired too fast, it travels off into
hyperlink space, and fails to get into a circular orbit. So
destination too fast we can see that there is just one correct speed to
too slow
slow achieve a circular orbit under gravity.
just the
right speed Note that we have ignored the effects of
to orbit air resistance – that’s easy to do in a thought
experiment. The term ‘thought experiment’ (or
Gedankenexperiment in German) was first used by
Hans Christian Oersted in about 1812. Scientists
have often made use of such an approach when
developing their theories. The idea is to start with
a hypothesis (an idea to be tested). Then ask the
question, ‘If the hypothesis is true, what would
happen if we could do such-and-such…?’ The
experiment is not carried out, but the likely results
Figure 3.10 Newton’s ‘thought experiment’. show whether the hypothesis is possible or not.
Famous examples of thought experiments from
If the object is fired too slowly, gravity will pull physics include Galileo’s Leaning Tower of Pisa
it down towards the ground and it will land at some experiment and Schrödinger’s cat (an example from
distance from the cannon. A faster initial speed quantum physics). An internet search for ‘thought
results in the object landing further from the cannon. experiments’ will lead you to more examples.

Calculating force and acceleration greater mass will require a greater force. When it is
If an object having a particular mass m is to travel in moving faster you will also require a greater force.
an orbit of radius r and at speed v, there is a particular However, you may not find it obvious that to make it
value of centripetal force F needed to keep it in orbit. go at the same speed in a bigger circle will require a
The force F must depend on m, v and r. You can smaller force, but that is how it behaves.
investigate the relationship between these quantities
in the ‘whirling conker’ experiment. Newton’s second law of motion
Here is the equation for the centripetal force F: Now that we have an equation for centripetal force,
we can use Newton’s second law of motion to
mv 2
centripetal force, F = deduce an equation for centripetal acceleration. If
r
we write this law as a = F/m, we find:
If you think about whirling a conker on a string, you
v2
should be able to see that the relationships between centripetal acceleration, a =
r
force, mass and speed are reasonable. A conker of

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

Remembering that an object accelerates in the SAQ

direction of the resultant force on it, it follows that 8 Calculate how long it would take Hint
both F and a are in the same direction, towards the a ball to orbit the Earth once, just
centre of the circle. above the surface, at a speed of
Strictly speaking, it is more correct to think 7920 m s−1. (The radius of the
Answer
of the relationship between centripetal force and Earth is 6400 km.)
acceleration the other way round. We should say
that the acceleration is given by: 9 A stone of mass 0.20 kg is whirled round on
the end of a string of length 30 cm. The string
v2
a= will break when the tension in it exceeds 8.0 N.
r
Calculate the maximum speed at which the
and then use: stone can be whirled without
Answer
the string breaking.
F = ma
to deduce that: 10 Helen Sharman, the first Briton in space, worked
mv 2 in the Mir space station (Figure 3.11). This had
F=
r a mass of 20 900 kg, and orbited the Earth at an
average height of 350 km, where the gravitational
Extension acceleration is 8.8 m s−2. The radius of the Earth is
6400 km. Calculate:
a the centripetal force on the space station
hyperlink orbital speed hyperlink
Calculating b the speed at which it orbited
destination destination
We can use the equation for a to calculate the speed c the time taken for each orbit
that an object must have to orbit the Earth under d the number of times it orbited
Answer
gravity, as in Newton’s thought experiment. The the Earth each day.
necessary centripetal force mv2/r is provided by the
Earth’s gravitational pull mg.
hyperlink
Hence:
destination

mv 2
mg =
r
v2
g=
r
where g = 9.81 m s−2 is the acceleration of free fall
close to the Earth’s surface. The radius of its orbit is
equal to the Earth’s radius, approximately 6400 km. Figure 3.11 The Mir space station orbiting
Hence, we have: Earth over Australia.
v2
9.81 = 11 A stone of mass 0.40 kg is whirled round on
(6.4 × 106)
the end of a string 0.50 m long. It makes three
v = 9.81 × 6.4 × 106 = 7.92 × 103 m s−1 complete revolutions each second. Calculate:
a its speed Hint
Thus if you were to throw or hit a ball horizontally at b its centripetal acceleration
almost 8 km s–1, it would go into orbit around the Earth. c the tension in the string. Answer

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

12 Mars orbits the Sun once every 687 days at a 2 A car cornering on a banked road (Figure 3.13a).
distance of 2.3 × 1011 m. The mass of Mars is Here, the normal contact force N has a horizontal
6.4 × 1023 kg. Calculate: component which can provide the centripetal
a its orbital speed force. The vertical component of N balances
Hint
b its centripetal acceleration the car’s weight. Therefore:
c the gravitational force exerted
Answer vertically N cos θ = mg
on Mars by the Sun.
mv2
horizontally N sin θ =
r
The origins of centripetal forces where r is the radius of the circular corner and v is
It is useful to look at one or two situations where the the car’s speed.
physical origin of the centripetal force may not be If a car travels around the bend too slowly, it
immediately obvious. In each case, you will notice will tend to slide down the slope and friction will
that the forces acting on the moving object are not act up the slope to keep it on course (Figure 3.13b).
balanced – there is a net force. An object moving If it travels too fast, it will tend to slide up the
along a circular path is not in equilibrium and the slope. If friction is insufficient, it will move up
resultant force acting on it is the centripetal force. the slope and come off the road.
1 A car cornering on a level road (Figure 3.12).
Here, the road provides two forces. The force N
hyperlink
is the normal contact force which balances the
destination
a N
θ N vertical
weight mg of the car – the car has no acceleration component
in the vertical direction. The second force is the θ
road
force of friction F between the tyres and the road
surface. This is the unbalanced, centripetal force. horizontal
θ
If the road or tyres do not provide enough friction, mg component
the car will not go round the bend along the hyperlink
b N
desired path. The friction between the tyres and destination
the road provides the centripetal force necessary
for the car’s circular motion.
road
F
hyperlink
destination N θ
mg

Figure 3.13 a On a banked road, the horizontal

component of the normal contact force from the
F road road can provide the centripetal force needed for
cornering. b For a slow car, friction acts up the slope
mg to stop it from sliding down.

Figure 3.12 This car is moving away from us and

turning to the left. Friction provides the centripetal
force. N and F are the total normal contact and
friction forces (respectively) provided by the contact
of all four tyres with the road.

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

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a
destination L b
destination c
destination
T
θ θ F
N
mg

mg mg

Figure 3.14 Three more ways of providing a centripetal force.

3 An aircraft banking (Figure 3.14a). To change SAQ

direction, the pilot tips the aircraft’s wings. The 13 Explain why it is impossible to whirl a conker
vertical component of the lift force L on the wings around on the end of a string in such a way
balances the weight. The horizontal component of that the string remains perfectly
Answer
L provides the centripetal force. horizontal.
4 A stone being whirled in a horizontal circle on
the end of a string – this arrangement is known as 14 Explain why an aircraft will tend to lose height
a conical pendulum (Figure 3.14b). The vertical when banking, unless the pilot increases
component of the tension T is equal to the weight its speed to provide more lift.
Answer
of the stone. The horizontal component of the
tension provides the centripetal force for the
circular motion. 15 If you have ever been down a water-slide (a flume)
5 At the fairground (Figure 3.14c). As the cylinder (Figure 3.15) you will know that you tend to slide
spins, the floor drops away. Friction balances up the side as you go around a bend. Explain how
your weight. The normal contact force of the wall this provides the centripetal force needed to
provides the centripetal force. You feel as though push you around the bend. Explain why
you are being pushed back against the wall; what you slide higher if you are
Answer
you are feeling is the push of the wall on your back. going faster.
Note that the three situations shown in Figure 3.13a,
Figure 3.14a and Figure 3.14b are all equivalent. The
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moving object’s weight acts downwards. The second
destination
force has a vertical component, which balances the
weight, and a horizontal component, which provides
the centripetal force.

Figure 3.15 A water-slide is a good place to

experience centripetal forces.

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

Summary Glossary

• Angles can be measured in radians. An angle of 2π rad is equal to 360°.

• An object moving at a steady speed along a circular path has uniform circular motion.
• The angular displacement θ is a measure of the angle through which an object moves in a circle.
• An object moving in a circle is not in equilibrium; it has a net force acting on it.
• The net force acting on an object moving in a circle is called the centripetal force. This force is directed
towards the centre of the circle and is at right angles to the velocity of the object.

• radius
The magnitude of the centripetal force F acting on an object of mass m moving at a speed v in a circle of
r is given by:
mv 2
F=
r
• An object moving in a circle has a centripetal acceleration a given by:
v2
a=
r

Questions
1 The electric motor in a washing machine rotates the drum containing the clothes by means of a rubber
belt stretched around two pulleys, one on the motor shaft and the other on the drum shaft, as shown in
the diagram.

motor machine
casing

belt
drum

a The motor pulley of radius 15 mm rotates at 50 revolutions per second. Calculate:

iii the speed of the belt [2] Hint
iv the centripetal acceleration of the belt at point X. [2]
b When the motor speed is increased, the belt can start to slip on the motor
pulley. Explain why the belt slips. [2]
OCR Physics A2 (2824) January 2007 [Total 6]
Answer

continued

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 Chapter 3: Circular motion

2 a Describe what is meant by centripetal force. [1]

b The diagram shows a toy of mass 60 g placed on the edge of a
rotating turntable.

15.0 cm

turntable
toy

i The diameter of the turntable is 15.0 cm. The turntable rotates, making Hint
20 revolutions every minute. Calculate the centripetal force acting on the toy. [4]
ii Explain why the toy falls off when its speed is increased. [2]
[Total 7]
Answer

3 One end of a string is secured to the ceiling and a metal ball of mass 50 g is tied to its other end.
The ball is initially at rest in the vertical position. The ball is raised through a vertical height of
70 cm (see diagram). The ball is then released. It describes a circular arc as it passes through the
vertical position.

string

metal ball

70 cm

The length of the string is 1.50 m.

a Ignoring the effects of air resistance, determine the speed v of the ball as it Hint
passes through the vertical position. [3]
b Calculate the tension T in the string when the string is vertical. [4]
c Explain why your answer to b is not equal to the weight of the ball. [2]
[Total 9]

Answer

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