UNIT-I

1. Evolution of Programming & Languages

Explanation: Programming languages have evolved to make coding easier and more powerful,
moving from machine language to high-level languages like C, which is easier to understand and
write.

2. Problem Solving through Programming

Explanation: Programming is used to create solutions to real-world problems by breaking down

complex tasks into simpler steps and implementing them as code.

3. Writing Algorithms & Pseudo Code

Definition: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem. Pseudo code is a high-level

description of an algorithm written in a simple, language-like form.

Example (Pseudo code to add two numbers):

Start

Input num1, num2

sum = num1 + num2

Print sum

End

Explanation: Pseudo code helps plan the logic of the code in simple steps before actual coding.

4. Comments in C

Single-line Comment

Syntax:

// This is a single-line comment

Explanation: Used for short notes about the code; C ignores the comment during compilation.

Multi-line Comment

Syntax:

/* This is a multi-line comment */

Explanation: Used for longer explanations or to temporarily remove code during debugging.

5. Structure of a C Program

Explanation: A basic C program consists of headers, the main() function, and statements within { }.
Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("Hello, World!");

return 0;

Explanation: #include imports libraries, and main() is where execution starts.

6. Input and Output Statements

Input (scanf) and Output (printf)

Example:

int age;

printf("Enter your age: ");

scanf("%d", &age);

printf("Your age is %d", age);

Explanation: scanf reads user input, and printf displays text to the screen.

7. Variables and Identifiers

Definition: A variable is a named location in memory to store data. An identifier is the name given to a
variable.

Syntax:

int age;

Explanation: int declares an integer variable age that can store a whole number.

8. Constants, Keywords

Constants: Fixed values that do not change during program execution.

Keywords: Reserved words in C, like int, float, return, which cannot be used as variable names.

Example:

const int MAX = 100;

Explanation: const defines a constant integer MAX.

9. Values, Names, Scope, Binding

Scope

Example:

int main() {

int x = 5; // x has local scope within main

Explanation: Variables declared inside a function have a local scope, accessible only within that
function.

Binding - Explanation: Binding is the association of variables with values, such as int x = 5;, where x
is bound to 5.

10. Storage Classes

Definition: Storage classes determine the scope, lifetime, and visibility of variables.

Example:

static int count = 0;

Explanation: static preserves a variable’s value even after the function in which it’s declared ends.

11. Numeric Data Types

Integer

Example:

int age = 21;

Explanation: Declares an integer age to store whole numbers.

Floating Point

Example:

float price = 19.99;

Explanation: Declares a floating-point variable price for decimal values.

12. Non-Numeric Data Types

Char

Example:

char grade = 'A';

Explanation: Declares a character variable grade to store single characters.

String

Example:

char name[] = "John";

Explanation: Declares a character array name to store a string.

13. L-value and R-value in Expressions

Example:

int x = 5; // x is L-value, 5 is R-value

Explanation: L-value is a variable on the left of =, R-value is a value on the right.

14. Increment and Decrement Operators

Syntax:

int x = 5;

x++; // Post-increment

++x; // Pre-increment

Explanation: ++ increases x by 1; -- decreases it by 1.

15. Comma, Arrow, and Assignment Operators

Comma Operator

Example:

int a = 1, b = 2;

Explanation: Allows multiple expressions to be evaluated in a single line.

Arrow Operator (For Pointers to Structs)

Example:

struct Point { int x, y; };

struct Point *p = &point;

p->x = 10;

Explanation: Accesses members of a struct through a pointer.

Assignment Operator

Example:
int x = 5;

Explanation: Assigns a value to a variable.

16. Bitwise and Size-of Operators

Bitwise Operator

Example:

int x = 5 & 3;

Explanation: Performs bitwise operations, here & for bitwise AND.

Size-of Operator

Example:

printf("%lu", sizeof(int));

Explanation: Returns the size of a data type in bytes.

17. Arithmetic, Relational, and Logical Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Example:

int sum = 5 + 3;

Explanation: +, -, *, / for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Relational Operators

Example:

int x = 5, y = 3;

if (x > y) { printf("x is greater"); }

Explanation: >, <, >=, <= compare two values.

Logical Operators

Example:

if (x > 0 && y < 5) { printf("Condition met"); }

Explanation: &&, ||, ! are used to combine logical expressions.

18. Conditional (Ternary) Operator

Syntax:

int x = (y > 0) ? 1 : 0;
Explanation: Returns 1 if y is positive, otherwise 0.

19. Operator Precedence

Explanation: Determines the order in which operators are evaluated. Multiplication * and division /
have higher precedence than addition + and subtraction -.

20. Expressions with Pre/Post-Increment Operators

Example:

int x = 5;

int y = x++;

Explanation: y is assigned 5, then x is incremented to 6.

UNIT-II

1. Conditional Control Statements

Simple if Statement

Definition: Executes a block of code if a specified condition is true.

Syntax:

if (condition) {

// code to execute if condition is true

Example:

int age = 18;

if (age >= 18) {

printf("You are eligible to vote.\n");

Explanation: This program checks if the age is 18 or older. If true, it prints a message indicating
eligibility to vote.

if...else Statement

Definition: Provides an alternative set of code to execute if the condition is false.

Syntax:
if (condition) {

// code if true

} else {

// code if false

Example:

int age = 16;

if (age >= 18) {

printf("Eligible to vote.\n");

} else {

printf("Not eligible to vote.\n");

Explanation: If age is less than 18, it will print "Not eligible to vote"; otherwise, it prints "Eligible to
vote."

else if and Nested if Statements

Definition: else if provides multiple conditions, and a nested if contains an if within another if.

Syntax:

if (condition1) {

// code if condition1 is true

} else if (condition2) {

// code if condition2 is true

} else {

// code if both conditions are false

Example:

int marks = 85;

if (marks >= 90) {

printf("Grade: A\n");

} else if (marks >= 80) {

printf("Grade: B\n");

} else {
 printf("Grade: C\n");

Explanation: This code assigns grades based on marks, demonstrating both else if and

conditional branches.

2. Switch Case

Definition: The switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against multiple values.

Syntax:

switch (expression) {

case constant1:

// code

break;

case constant2:

// code

break;

default:

// code

Example:

int day = 3;

switch (day) {

case 1: printf("Monday\n"); break;

case 2: printf("Tuesday\n"); break;

case 3: printf("Wednesday\n"); break;

default: printf("Invalid day\n");

Explanation: The code displays the day based on the value of day. Each case provides a different
message.

3. Unconditional Control Statements

break Statement

Definition: Exits a loop or switch statement.

Example:

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

if (i == 3) break;

printf("%d ", i);

Explanation: The loop stops when i equals 3, so only 1 2 are printed.

continue Statement

Definition: Skips the current loop iteration and continues with the next.

Example:

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

if (i == 3) continue;

printf("%d ", i);

Explanation: The code skips 3 and prints 1 2 4 5.

goto Statement

Definition: Transfers control to a labeled statement.

Example:

int x = 1;

if (x == 1) goto label;

printf("This won't print.\n");

label:

printf("Jumped to label!\n");

Explanation: If x equals 1, it jumps to label.

4. Looping Control Statements

for Loop

Syntax:

for (initialization; condition; update) {

// code

Example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

printf("%d ", i);

Explanation: Prints numbers from 1 to 5.

while Loop

Syntax:

while (condition) {

// code

Example:

int i = 1;

while (i <= 5) {

printf("%d ", i);

i++;

Explanation: Prints numbers from 1 to 5 while the condition is true.

do...while Loop

Syntax:

do {

// code

} while (condition);

Example:

int i = 1;

do {

printf("%d ", i);

i++;

} while (i <= 5);

Explanation: Executes the code at least once, then checks the condition.

Nested Loops

Example:

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {

 for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {

printf("%d ", j);

printf("\n");

Explanation: Uses a for loop inside another for loop to print a matrix.

5. Introduction to Arrays

1D Array Declaration and Initialization

Syntax:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Explanation: Declares an array of 5 integers.

Accessing and Indexing 1D Arrays

Example:

printf("First element: %d\n", arr[0]);

Explanation: Accesses the first element using index 0.

2D Array Declaration and Initialization

Syntax:

int arr[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};

Explanation: Declares a 2x3 array.

Accessing Elements in 2D Arrays

Example:

printf("Element at [1][2]: %d\n", arr[1][2]);

Explanation: Accesses the element at row 1, column 2.

6. Pointers

Pointer Declaration and Dereferencing

Syntax:

int x = 10;

int *ptr = &x;

printf("Value at ptr: %d\n", *ptr);

Explanation: Declares a pointer to x and uses * to access the value.

Void Pointers

Definition: A pointer with no specific data type; can point to any data type.

Example:

void *ptr;

int x = 10;

ptr = &x;

printf("Void pointer points to: %d\n", *(int*)ptr);

Explanation: A void pointer points to x, cast to an int.

Pointer-based Array Manipulation

Example:

int arr[3] = {1, 2, 3};

int *ptr = arr;

for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

printf("%d ", *(ptr + i));

Explanation: Uses a pointer to iterate through an array.

UNIT-III

1. String Basics

String Declaration and Initialization

Syntax:

char str[20] = "Hello, world!";

Explanation: Declares a character array str and initializes it with the string "Hello, world!".

2. String Functions

gets() and puts()

Example:

char str[50];

printf("Enter a string: ");

gets(str);
puts("You entered:");

puts(str);

Explanation: gets() takes a string input from the user, and puts() outputs it.

getchar() and putchar()

Example:

char ch;

printf("Enter a character: ");

ch = getchar();

printf("You entered: ");

putchar(ch);

Explanation: getchar() reads a single character, and putchar() prints it.

printf()

Example:

printf("Hello, %s!", "world");

Explanation: printf() outputs formatted text; %s is used to print strings.

3. Built-in String Functions

atoi

Example:

char str[] = "123";

int num = atoi(str);

printf("Converted number: %d", num);

Explanation: atoi() converts a string to an integer.

strlen

Example:

char str[] = "Hello";

printf("Length: %lu", strlen(str));

Explanation: strlen() returns the length of the string.

strcat

Example:

char str1[20] = "Hello, ";

char str2[] = "world!";

strcat(str1, str2);

printf("%s", str1);

Explanation: strcat() appends str2 to str1.

strcmp

Example:

char str1[] = "apple";

char str2[] = "orange";

if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) {

printf("Strings are equal");

} else {

printf("Strings are not equal");

Explanation: strcmp() compares two strings lexicographically.

4. Additional String Functions

sprintf

Example:

char buffer[50];

int num = 123;

sprintf(buffer, "Number: %d", num);

puts(buffer);

Explanation: sprintf() formats data into a string stored in buffer.

sscanf

Example:

char str[] = "123 456";

int a, b;

sscanf(str, "%d %d", &a, &b);

printf("a = %d, b = %d", a, b);

Explanation: sscanf() reads formatted data from a string.

strrev (if available in your compiler)

Example:

char str[] = "Hello";

strrev(str);

printf("%s", str);

Explanation: strrev() reverses the string in place.

strcpy

Example:

char src[] = "Hello";

char dest[20];

strcpy(dest, src);

printf("%s", dest);

Explanation: strcpy() copies src into dest.

strstr

Example:

char str[] = "Hello, world!";

char *pos = strstr(str, "world");

printf("Found at position: %s", pos);

Explanation: strstr() finds a substring within a string.

strtok

Example:

char str[] = "apple,banana,orange";

char *token = strtok(str, ",");

while (token != NULL) {

printf("%s\n", token);

token = strtok(NULL, ",");

Explanation: strtok() splits a string into tokens based on a delimiter.

5. Operations on Strings

Example:

char str1[20] = "Hello";

char str2[20] = "World";

printf("Concatenated: %s", strcat(str1, str2));

Explanation: Demonstrates concatenation as one of the common string operations.

6. Function Basics

Function Prototype Declaration and Definition

Example:

void greet(); // Prototype

void greet() { // Definition

printf("Hello, student!");

Explanation: Defines a function greet and its prototype.

Actual and Formal Parameters

Example:

void display(int num) { // Formal parameter

printf("Number: %d", num);

int main() {

int n = 5;

display(n); // Actual parameter

Explanation: Shows how n is the actual parameter passed to display.

Function with and without Arguments

Example:

void greet() { printf("Hello!"); }

void greetUser(char *name) { printf("Hello, %s!", name); }

Explanation: greet() has no arguments; greetUser takes a string as an argument.

Function with and without Return Values

Example:

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

void display() { printf("Hello"); }

Explanation: add returns an integer, while display has no return value.

7. Call by Value and Call by Reference

Call by Value

Example:

void increment(int x) { x++; }

Explanation: Call by value passes a copy; changes in the function do not affect the original variable.

Call by Reference

Example:

void increment(int *x) { (*x)++; }

Explanation: Call by reference passes an address, so changes affect the original variable.

8. Passing Array to Function

Example:

void printArray(int arr[], int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {

printf("%d ", arr[i]);

Explanation: The entire array arr is passed to the function to print each element.

Passing Array Elements to Function

Example:

void displayElement(int element) {

printf("Element: %d", element);

Explanation: Passes individual elements instead of the entire array.

9. Function Pointers

Example:

void greet() { printf("Hello!\n"); }

int main() {
 void (*ptr)() = greet;

ptr();

Explanation: ptr is a function pointer that stores the address of greet, which is then called.