Computer Software

COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
Software refers to the various programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform
a no. of specific functions.
Software instructs the computer on what to do and how to do it.
All programs (software) are written using programming languages.
Programmers usually write programs in Source Language (a language that is like broken
English). The Source language is then converted into Machine language; the language that the
computer can understand.
Machine language is usually in form of bits (series of 0’s & 1’s).

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE.

Computer software can be broadly classified/ divided into 2 categories: -
(1).System Software (programs).
(2).Application software (programs).
Note. Programming languages can also be considered part of software, because they form the
basis of grammar on which the program’s development is based.
The following figure illustrates the computer software family tree.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE.
This is a set of programs, which is developed & installed in a computer system for the purpose of
developing other programs, and to enhance the functional capabilities of the computer system.
System programs control the operation of the various hardware parts & make them available to
the user. They also enable users make efficient use of the computing facilities in order to solve
their problems.
System programs manage the computer resources such as Printers, Memory, disks, etc, automate
its operations & make easier the writing, testing and debugging of users’ programs.
They also control the various application programs that we use to achieve a particular kind of
work.
Notes.
 System software are developed & installed by the manufacturer of the computer hardware.
This is because to write them, a programmer needs in-depth knowledge of the hardware
details of the specific computer.
 Some of the system software are supposed to put initial ‘life’ into the computer hardware and
are therefore, held permanently in the ROM.
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Program routines that are permanently maintained in the computer’s memory are called
Resident software/ routines.
 System programs dictate how the programs relate to the hardware, and are therefore said to be
Hardware-oriented.
System programs consist of Operating Systems, Language translators (Assemblers, Compilers),
System utilities, and Device drivers.
System software is further sub-classified as:
(a). Operating system.
(b). System utilities.
EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM PROGRAMS.
(a). FIRMWARE (or Microprogram).
Firmware is fixed into the ROM, and cannot be changed.
Firmware is usually a combination of hardware and software. It deals with very low-level
machine operations, such as moving data, making comparison, etc, and thus acts as an
essential substitute for additional hardware.
(b). OPERATING SYSTEMS.
An Operating System is a set of programs designed to ensure the smooth running of the
computer system.
They are developed to manage all parts of the basic computer hardware & provide a more
hospitable interface to users and their programs.
It controls the way the way the software uses the hardware. This control ensures that the
computer system operates in a systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the
user.

(c). UTILITY SOFTWARE (Service programs).

Modern OS does a lot more than manage the hardware efficiently. It normally provides the
user with facilities that make the job of developing programs or doing something useful on
the computer much easier.
A Utility program is a program, which performs a generally useful task.
Utility programs are used by end-users to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, sorting, merging, program debugging, manage computer files, diagnose
and repair computer problems that occur, etc. They are normally supplied the
manufacturers to enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
 Searching.
They help to search for a file from one or more specified records. For example, in a
Sales record, the Search facility assists in finding the salesperson with the highest sales.
 Moving data from one medium to another.
For example, from CD to disk & vice versa, or from a flash disk to hard disk.
 Spell-checking of words.
After a document is typed, the words in the document are checked against those in a
‘custom dictionary’ in secondary storage. If any word used is not found in the
dictionary, a warning is given indicating a possible spelling error.
 Formatting programs.
Before a floppy disk can be used, it must be ‘initialized’ or formatted. This means that,
the system must put certain information on the disk, which helps with the storing and
retrieving user’s programs & data at a later time.

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Therefore, a computer system that uses disks would have a utility program for
initializing or formatting these disks.
 Debugging (removing program errors).
The programming process usually includes debugging (removing errors from) a
program. Statements of the program are studied to determine the cause of an error.
Again, useful information can be obtained by studying the contents of memory at the
time the program failed.
Examples of the common Service programs.
(i). Text Editors.
(ii). Language Translators.
(iii). Diagnostic Tools/ Programs.
(iv). Sort utility.
(v). Merge utility.
(vi). Copy utility.
(vii). Core/ Dump utility.
(viii). Linker.
(ix). Loader.
(x). Library Program.
(xi). Database management system (DBMS) – a utility program that manages data contents.

Text Editor.
This is a utility program that enables/ allows users to create files in which they can store any
textual information they desire using the computer.
Once the files are created, the Text editor provides facilities which allow the user modify
(make changes to) the files; such as adding, deleting, or changing information in the file.
Data can be copied from one file to another. When a file is no longer needed, it can be
deleted from the system.
The operations of the Text editor are controlled by an interactive OS that provides a
‘dialogue’ between the user and the Operating system.
There are 3 major classes of Text editors:
(i). Character text editors – deals with 1 character at a time.
(ii). Line text editors – deals with a whole line at a time.
(iii). Page text editors - deals with a whole screen full of text at a time.
Note. The Text Editor is probably the most often used utility program of an OS.
Sort utility.
The Sort utility is used to arrange the records within a file according to some predetermined
sequence. The arrangement can either be in Ascending or Descending order of the alphabets
or numerals.
For example, a user may wish to sort data into some desired sequence, such as; sort a student
file into ascending order by name or into descending order by average grade or sort a mailing
list by postal code, etc.
Merge utility.
Merging is the process by which the records in two or more sorted files are brought together
into one larger file in such a way that, the resulting file is also sorted.
The Merge utility is used to influence the combining of the contents of 2 or more input files
to produce one output file.

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Copy utility.
It is usually advisable to maintain duplicate copies of the operational files so that in case
something goes wrong with the original files, then their contents can be recreated from the
duplicate/ backup copy or copies.
The duplication process, i.e. copying the contents of one file to another is done through the
influence of the Copy utility. The copying can be from one media to a different media or
from one media to another media of the same make, e.g. from diskette to hard disk or from a
diskette to another diskette.
Dump utility.
The term Dumping is used to describe the copying of the contents of the main memory. The
Dump utility is therefore, used to transfer (copy) the contents of the computer’s internal
memory into a storage media, e.g. the disk or through the Printer (to get a Hard copy output).
The result of dumping is that the main memory ‘image’ is reflected by the stored or the
printed contents.
Language Translator.
Programs written in high-level languages have to be translated into binary code (Machine
language), before the computer can run these programs.
A Translator is a utility program written & supplied by the computer manufacturers, used to
convert the Source Codes (the program statements written in any of the computer
programming languages) to Object Codes (their computer language equivalents).
Each language needs its own translator. Most OS provide users with Compilers or
Interpreters for the common high-level languages. In addition, an Assembler is usually
available for those wishing to write programs in the Assembly language of the particular
machine.
Note. These translators are not part of the OS, but they are designed to be used under the
operating system & are accessible to it.
Linker.
Computer programs are usually developed in Modules or Subroutines (i.e. program
segments meant to carry out the specific relevant tasks).
During the program translation into their machine code, these modules are translated
separately into their object code equivalents.
The Linker is a utility software that accepts the separately translated program modules as its
input and logically combines them into one logical module, known as the Load Module that
has got all the required bits & pieces for the translated program to be obeyed by the computer
hardware.
Loader.
The Loader is a utility program that transfers the load module (i.e. the linker output) into the
computer memory, ready for it to be executed by the computer hardware.
The transfer process is from the backing store, e.g. magnetic disk into the computer’s main
memory. This is because some systems generate object codes for the program, but instead of
being obeyed straight away, they store them into the media.
Diagnostic Tools (Programs).
Diagnostic tools/programs usually come with the translators and are used to detect &
correct system faults –both hardware and software.
They provide facilities which help users to debug (remove errors from) their programs more
easily.

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APPLICATION SOFTWARE.
Application programs are written to solve specific problems (or to handle the needs) of the end-
user in particular areas.
They interface between the user & system programs to allow the user to perform specific tasks.
Application software helps to solve the problems of the computer user, and are therefore said to
be user-oriented.
They are designed specifically to carry out particular tasks. For example, they can be used to
type & create professional documents such as letters, solve mathematical equations, draw
pictures, etc.
Notes.
 Application programs can be written by the user, programmers employed by the user, or by a
Software house (a company specializing in writing software).
 Application programs can be written with very little knowledge of the hardware details of a
specific computer, and can run on several different computers with little or no modification.
Application software falls into 2 main categories/groups: -
(i). General-purpose packages (Application packages).
(ii). Special-purpose applications (User programs).
General-purpose packages (Application packages).
They are usually pre-written programs made for non-specialists, in the home or business, and
may be used for a wide variety of purposes.
They are off-shelf programs that are developed & supplied by manufacturers, Bureaux &
software houses at a price.
They provide a general set of facilities that are used in dealing with similar types of tasks, which
arise in a wide variety of different application problems.
The range, quality and variety of the packages are continuously changing.
Examples of Application packages are: -
* Word processors * Spreadsheets.
* Databases * Graphic packages, etc.
Package - a set of fully described & related programs stored together to perform a specific task.
They are developed to solve particular problems in one or more organizations with little or no
alterations.
Advantages of Application packages as compared to other forms of applications.
(i). Packages save a lot time & programming effort, because the company buys the software
when it is ready-made.
(ii). Are relatively cheap to the user. These programs are usually sold in large numbers. Again,
the cost of developing the programs is effectively shared between the purchases.
(iii). They are appropriate for a large variety of applications.
(iv). Most packages are menu-driven, i.e., the user is provided with a set of options displayed on
the screen; hence, they are easy to learn & use, making them suitable for people with little
or no computing knowledge.
(v). Packages are extensively/thoroughly tested & debugged (has all errors corrected), i.e. if it
is a popular package, it is usually tried & approved by a large no. of people. The testing is
done by a pool of professional programmers and analysts.
(vi). Are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
(vii). Relatively quick results are obtained.
(viii). The packages are generally portable. In addition, there is usually a maintenance agreement
between the supplier & the buyer.
(ix). Application packages can be rented, especially by users who might require to use them
only periodically, hence cutting on costs, e.g. maintenance.
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Disadvantages (drawbacks) of Application packages.

(i). The package is produced to meet general needs (a wide variety of user’s needs) &
therefore, may not be ideal for a particular customer/ company.
(ii). The purchaser has no direct control over the package, because he/she is not involved in
developing it.
(iii). Packages cannot be modified.
The user may not be free to correct any routines/ functions of the package, because there is
always a maintenance guarantee & the application of the developer’s copyright acts.
(iv). A package may include extra facilities, which are not required by an individual user or
company.
(v). Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the task at hand.
(vi). In the case of Spreadsheet or Database, the user must still develop the application, which
requires a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the package, which are usually quite
extensive.
(vii). The user must still provide documentation for the particular application that he/she has
created.
(viii). It is quite easy to forget the commands to use the package, especially if it is not used
frequently.
Special-purpose applications (User-developed/ in-house programs).
They are written to meet the specific needs of an organization.
They are usually customized (modified/ tailored) programs written by the user or a Software
house under contract, to perform a specific job.
They are developed by users to solve only the specific processing tasks in one organization, and
may not suit the needs of other organizations, hence the name In-house or Tailor-made
programs.
Advantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). The user gets a well tried & tested program, which he/she is able to use with confidence.
(ii). The user is able to quickly implement the results obtained from the use of the package.
Disadvantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). Purchaser has direct control over the package, as he is involved in its production.
(ii). Are very expensive.
Factors to consider when buying an Application package.
The following are some of the factors that a buyer who is intending to acquire an Application
package should consider: -
1). Cost of the package in relation to the expected benefits against the cost of developing in-
house programs.
2). Compatibility: - (fitting) of the package with/within the existing computer resources, e.g.,
hardware, software, etc.
3). Whether there is maintenance support from the suppliers.
4). Whether there is accompanying documentation (the descriptions), which helps in using,
maintaining & installing the package.
5). The portability of the package, i.e. whether the package can be used on different families of
computers.
6). A good package is that which is easy to learn & use. This helps to determine the duration of
training that might be involved & the subsequent cost of training.
7). Before buying a particular package, its current users should be interviewed to find out
whether the package is successful and famous in the market.

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EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION PACKAGES.

WORD PROCESSORS.
A Word processor is a computer system with a special piece of software used for the production
of documents.
Word processors can be used to prepare & produce letters, documents, books, articles, mailing
lists and any material that involves text.
Common examples of Word processors: -
* Microsoft Word. * WordPerfect.
* Lotus Word Pro. * WordStar.
* Wang writer.

SPREADSHHETS.
Spreadsheets are application packages used for manipulation of figures. A spreadsheet
application lets the user enter numerical data.
A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.
The figures or text are inserted into the Cells. A cell is referred to by the column letter and row
number (e.g., A1 refers to the first cell).
The package is suited for Accounts oriented work since it has in-built formulas that enable users
to perform complex calculations.
 Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means for financial planning.
- Using Spreadsheets, Sales & purchases can be recorded, Invoices produced and
statements compiled.
- The management can keep track of the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods dispatched.
 Researchers can compile and analyse their results.
 Teachers can compile their students’ marks and produce results.
 Clerks and secretaries can easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as
required.
Examples of Spreadsheet packages in the market today: -
* Microsoft Excel. * Lotus 1-2-3.
* Quattro Pro.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

A Database is a tool that is used to store large volumes of data in a compact & well-organized
manner.
A Database application can be used to store, track and manage files/ records containing related
information.
They generally allow users to create database files, enter data, organize that data in various ways,
and create reports.
You can create a database for customer’s records, financial records, library records, personal
records, etc. The database will help you sort through your records & compile lists based on any
criteria you like to establish.
Examples of Database management system programs;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro.
* Dbase. * Paradox.

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GRAPHICS PROGRAMS.
Graphics applications are used to create artwork that can be printed or incorporated into other
applications such as, Desktop publishing packages and Word processing programs.
They can be used to create simple line drawings, charts or presentations.
There are different kinds of Graphics programs, all designed to help the user create drawings and
illustrations that can be used for different purposes.
Examples of Presentation Graphics packages: -
* Microsoft PowerPoint. * Corel Draw.
* Adobe Photoshop. * Harvard Graphics.
* Lotus Freelance Graphics. * Adobe Illustrator.

DESKTOP PUBLISHERS (DTP).

Desktop publishing is used to create documents that look like typeset professional publications.
Usually, Desktop publishing programs combine data from other applications such as, text from
Word processors and artwork from a Graphics package.
DTP is used to handle documents involving printed text, diagrams and images.
DTP programs can be used to create Newsletters, Reports, Books, & any other documents that
may require page layout.
Examples of Desktop publishing packages: -
* Adobe PageMaker. * FrameMaker.
* Microsoft Publisher.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD).

CAD is mainly used in Engineering design & Architectural drawings. It is used by engineers,
scientists, architects to speed up their design process.
CAD is widely used in Computer simulation.
SIMULATION
Computer simulation involves trying to predict what will happen in a real-life situation from a
model of that situation.
For example, a CAD program may be used by;
(i). An Architect to ‘try out’ various designs of a building.
(ii). CAD is widely used in the design of electronic circuits, ships, roads & cars.
(iii). When designing a bridge, an Engineer would like to know the effects of various loading
conditions on the bridge without actually having to build the bridge.
(iv). An Aeronautical engineer to determine how a different tail design will affect the
performance of an aircraft.
The Aircraft designer would like to know the effect on lift, say, of changing the shape of
the wings or the tail without having to build an aircraft with these changes.
A computer is a useful tool in providing answers to these questions.
(v). It is used in computers in the manufacture of industrial products, in what is referred to as
Computer Aided Manufacturer (CAM).
(vi). CAD programs are also used to simulate the timing of traffic lights or a nuclear attack for
testing national defenses.

Examples of CAD packages: -

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* AutoCAD. * ArchCAD.
* Architectural Desktop. * Planix Home Designer 3D Deluxe.
* SoftPlan. * Draffics.
*3dsMacs.

MULTIMEDIA PROGRAMS.
Multimedia refers to a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation and video.
Multimedia is essential in many software applications. For example, Word processing and
Desktop Publishing documents can be enhanced with graphics, photos and charts. Sound and
animation can be added to make presentations exciting.
Multimedia subjects include; children’s learning, History, Geography, hobbies, sports and
games.
Multimedia software comes on a Compact Disk (CD-ROM), because they require a large storage
space.
The minimum requirements for Multimedia software as set by the Multimedia Personal
Computer (MPC) Marketing Council include: -
 CD-ROM Drive.
 VGA monitor
 Hard disk drive with sufficient storage capacity.
 A Sound card with Speakers or headphones. A Microphone (is optional) if you want to record
your own sounds.
Examples of Multimedia packages: -
* Animation Master 99. * 3D Studio Max.
* Extreme 3D. * Morpher.

COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE.
Communication software is used to exchange information, messages and ideas with people
around the world who have PCs equipped with Modems & communications software.
To use a communications package, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.
The basic purpose of a communication program is to control the way the computer transmits &
receives data.
Examples of communications packages: -
* WinFax Pro. * Zoc.
* ProComm Plus. * HyperAccess.

INTERNET SOFTWARE.
E-Mail (Electronic mail).
E-mail is a quick, convenient, efficient & cheap way of communicating with both individuals and
groups.
E-mail is much faster than regular mail. With e-mail, the message can reach the recipient in hrs,
minutes or even seconds.
E-mail is also convenient since you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and
your recipients respond at their convenient times.
Examples of e-mail packages: -
* Microsoft Exchange. * Outlook Express.
* Netscape Mail/Messenger.
Note. All e-mail software must have the capability of writing messages, sending & receiving
e-mail.

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Browsers.
Browsers are software that enable the user to surf (log in / use) the World Wide Web (www). The
WWW provides users on computer networks with a consistent means to access a variety of
media in a simplified fashion.
The most commonly used browsers are: -
* Internet Explorer. * Netscape.
* Cello Internet browser. * NCSA Habanero.
SOFTWARE SUITES.
A Software Suite is a group of different compatible applications sold by one software company.
The programs are each individual applications, but they usually work in a similar manner, and
have some common features, such as menu commands, buttons, or keystrokes.
Although each of the programs in a suite can be purchased separately, they cost less when
purchased as a bundle.
Typically, a suite includes a Word processor, a Spreadsheet, a Database, Presentation graphics
applications, Personal Information Managers, and E-mail applications.
The applications are integrated with one another, making it easy to use them together and to
transfer data from one into the others.
Examples of Software Suites are: -
* Microsoft Office. * LotusSmart Suite.
* WordPerfect Suite. * Microsoft Works.
* ClarisWorks.

Exercise (a).
1. (a). Briefly discuss the two broad categories of software.
(b). Giving examples, name 3 different types of computer programs found on a typical
computer systems.
2. Give 4 examples of System software and Applications software.
3. Why do people prefer special–purpose applications (developed applications) to general-
purpose applications (bought off-the-shelf)?
4. Give THREE factors to consider when choosing an Application package.
Exercise (b).
1. (a). What is a program?
(b). Outline the difference between the two classes of programs.
2. Outline the range and functions of Application programs.
3. Name FIVE programs which can be classified as ‘Application programs’.
4. What are Text Editors and where are they most commonly used?
5. (a). What are Spreadsheets?
(b). Name THREE commonly used spreadsheet packages.
6. (a). What are Database management system software?
(b). Give 3 examples of database software.
7. (a). List four categories of Graphics packages.
(b). State some of the essential features of a Graphics package.
(c). Give THREE examples of the most commonly used Presentation Graphics package.
8. What is Desktop Publishing? How does it differ from Word processing?
9. State one computer software used in industrial systems. Give examples.
10. (a). What is Multimedia?
(b). State any four devices of a computer that can be classified under Multimedia devices.
(c). List four applications of multimedia programs.
(d). What are the minimum hardware requirements to run multimedia applications?
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11. What are communication software used for?
12. (a). What are the advantages of e-mail?
(b). What is a browser and what is it used for?
13. What are Software Suites? Give the advantages of using suites?
Exercise (c).
1. Briefly distinguish between System Software and Application Software.
2. (a). What are Application packages?
(b). Identify FIVE types of Application software that may be installed in a microcomputer.
Briefly explain what each type of software you have listed does, and give two examples
where necessary.
(c). List THREE advantages and disadvantages of general-purpose application software as
compared to the other forms of applications.
3. Name FOUR major application packages. Outline four features of each.
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of Integrated packages/Software Suites over Standard
packages.

COMPUTER VIRUSES.
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A Computer virus is a program (or a piece of software), which attaches itself to another program
or a system.
It is designed specifically to copy itself to other programs & cause some undesirable effect on the
programs (or damage them) without the knowledge of the user. E.g., it may attach itself to the
FORMAT command, and be run every time you format a diskette.
A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks: -
(i). To replicate (duplicate/ copy) itself from one computer system to another.
(ii). To locate itself within a computer system making it possible for it to amend/ destroy
programs & data files, by interfering with the normal processes of the Operating system.
The program is written by people who are cruel, unethical and malicious.
RISKS POSED BY VIRUSES.
The risks posed by viruses and the primary impacts of a virus attack can be broadly classified
into 2 categories: -
Destructive viruses.
Type of Destruction Symptoms
Massive Destruction The virus attacks the format of disks, or Delete all files on the disk
making any damage on programs or data on that disk unrecoverable.
Partial Destruction The virus erases & modifies a specific portion of a disk affecting
any files stored in that location.
Selective Destruction The virus erases & modifies specific files or file groups.
Random Havoc It randomly changes data on a disk or in memory during normal
program execution. They also change keystroke values, or data
from other I/O devices.
Network Saturation The virus systematically uses up computer memory or space thus
impeding (slowing down/ obstructing) performance or causing the
system to crash.
Non-destructive viruses.
These viruses do not cause any destruction, but are usually annoying.
What Non-destructive viruses do?
1. They might lock the Keyboard.
2. Change keystroke values (e.g. changing the effect of the SHIFT key).
3. Display an obnoxious (loathsome/ horrible/ intolerable) message on the screen.
4. Change the display colours.
5. Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
SOURCES OF VIRUSES (Virus transmission - ways in which a virus can spread).
The most common sources of virus transmission are: -
(a). Contact with contaminated systems.
Any diskette used on a contaminated system could become contaminated. If the same
diskette is used on another system, then the virus will spread.
(b). Pirated Software.
The use of rented disks containing Pirated computer software introduces the risk that the
software may be contaminated by a virus code or might have been amended to perform
some other destructive function, which may affect your system.

(c). Infected Proprietary Software.

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There are cases of virus programs being introduced and contaminating software under
development in laboratories and then being installed onto diskettes containing the finished
software product.
(d). Fake Games.
Some virus programs pose as game software. Since many people like playing games on
computers, then virus can spread very fast. It can take a very short period for a game
program to spread across many countries.
(e). Freeware and Shareware.
Freeware & Shareware programs are commonly available from Bulletin Board Systems
(BBS). Using a Modem & a Telephone to dial into a public bulletin board system &
download programs onto your system may cause transmission.
Generally, a registration fee is requested to be sent directly to the author.
Such programs should be treated with care. They should first be used in a controlled
environment until it is clear that the program actually does what it is supposed to do and
does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.
(f). Updates of Software distributed using Networks.
Distribution of software through networks is an obvious target for virus programmers as
they provide a built-in method for widespread & anonymous (unidentified, unknown,
secret) propagation.

Symptoms of a Virus.
The presence of a virus can be indicated if one or more of the following symptoms appear on
your computer.
(i). Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical (surprising) messages appearing on the screen.
(ii). Programs taking longer than usual to load.
(iii). Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
(iv). Unusual Error messages occurring more frequently.
(v). Less memory available than usual, e.g. Base memory may read less than 640K.
(vi). Access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
(vii). Programs or files disappearing mysteriously.
(viii). Executable files or data files changing size for no obvious reason.
(ix). Changes of disk volume IDs.
(x). Frequent Read/Write errors.
(xi). Computer hags (gets stuck) anytime when executing or running a program.
Any evidence of these or similar events should be of an immediate concern. The PC should be
isolated at once and investigated.

HOW VIRUSES WORK.

A virus infects a machine for which it was written, i.e. a virus that was written for a Macintosh
computer cannot infect an IBM PC or a Clone.
A virus infects files containing programs; they do not infect files containing data.
A virus-infected program attaches itself to the bottom of a normal useful program. When the
normal program is run, the portion containing the virus is the first to be run, thus infecting other
uninfected programs.
The most common type of virus is the Boot Sector Virus, which is common to most diskettes,
e.g. disk A: The virus hides in the Boot sector of the diskette (the area of the disk, which is
automatically loaded when the computer starts up). The virus resides in RAM from where it can
infect the boot sector of your hard disk & every floppy disk you use.

Prevention against Viruses (Ways to avoid viruses).

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The following steps should be followed to prevent virus infection: -
(i). Never accept software from anyone.
(ii). Never download software from a bulletin board or from Internet.
(iii). If possible, avoid using one diskette on several machines.
(iv). Scan all boot diskettes using an up-to-date Anti-virus program and Write-protect them.
(v). Practice protection rules with your computer.
Note. If you receive an alien diskette or download a program from bulletin board onto your hard
disk, scan it with an Anti-virus; the best being the scan from McAfee Associates.
If you suspect that your computer has been infected, reboot your computer from a clean, write-
protected floppy disk.
How to prepare a clean floppy disk for rebooting.
1. Format a clean floppy disk & put a copy of the MS-DOS Operating system onto the disk.
FORMAT A:/S
2. Copy your virus scan program onto the floppy disk, i.e. this creates a Rescue Disk.
3. Set the Write-Protect on the diskette. The hardware physically prevents the program from
changing anything on the floppy disk.
4. Put the diskette in a safe place.
Detection & Removal of Viruses.
Use Anti-virus software to detect infected files and remove known viruses.
Some of the commonly used Anti-virus programs are: - Dr. Solomon’s Toolkit, Norton Antivirus,
McAfee Associates & Pc Cillin.
Note. For an anti-virus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature.
The following steps should be taken if a virus attack is suspected: -
 Identify & isolate PCs & disks, which could be affected.
 Seek the advice of a specialist who would help you to;
(a). Identify the virus code on affected disks.
(b). Remove the virus code from all affected disks, including backups.
(c). Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is
minimized.
 Determine how the virus was introduced to the system.
 If any infected diskettes could have left the site (e.g. to clients, subsidiaries, branches or
customers), the management should determine how best to inform them that they could be
having infected disks on their site, and take steps to retrieve them.
 The management should also consider whether the matter could affect the public image of the
organization & take appropriate steps to protect the organization from the effects of any bad
publicity.
Some commonly used terms.
Trojans: - They are programs, which deliberately set out to destroy your data. Their trigger
(activator / starter) could be time (time bombs) or certain logical condition (logic bombs).
Trojans do not multiply like viruses, but are equally harmful.
Variants: - Are programs very similar to virus codes and go by the same virus family name but
give slightly different effects.
Example; a virus called ZELENTSOV causes .COM files to increase by 1,168 bytes, while its
two variants; ZELENTSOV1 & ZELENTSOV2 increase them by 128 and 1514 bytes
respectively.
Worm: - A program that ‘borrows’ (or sneaks) into a computer’s memory. It is designed to
search for idle computer memory, and then rewrite itself successfully through the computer’s
memory until the system crashes.
McAfee Antivirus program.
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This program helps in the prevention, detection and removal of viruses.
Prevention.
BOOTSCAN is a program that detects your machine against all viruses known to the current
version of the MacAfee Antivirus program.
To activate the program, type BOOTSCAN at the subdirectory where the MacAfee program is
installed. For example,
C:\McAfee>BOOTSCAN {Enter}. This loads the boot scan program into your memory for as
long as the computer is on.
Since this would be a daily procedure, it is better to include the following statement at the
beginning of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
C:\MacAfee\Bootscan
To make sure that Bootscan is executed before any other program including Command.com, the
bootscan device driver must be loaded in the system.
This is achieved by including the following line in the CONFIG.SYS file.
Device=C:\McAfee\Bootscan.Sys
C:\MacAfee\Bootscan.Com
Removal.
CLEAN is a program used for cleaning up infected diskettes. The program can be run from both
the Command Line and McAfee menu.
To start the McAfee menu, go to the subdirectory that contains the MacAfee program, then type
Bootscan at the prompt.
i.e. C:\MacAfee>BOOTSCAN/All/Clean ↵
Scanning a suspected diskette.
- Insert the diskette into drive A:
- Start the McAfee Bootscan program, then choose the drive to be scanned.
i.e. C:\McAfee>Bootscan/All/Clean A: ↵
This checks all the executable programs and gives a full report of the viruses found and their
family names.
When Bootscan finds a virus, it warns you, removes the virus from the infected file and then
continues checking for other viruses. After finishing, it gives you a report on the viruses
removed. To be safe, scan the disk again.
Do the same for all the other diskettes you have.
Scanning the Hard disk.
If you suspect the hard disk is infected, the Antivirus program installed on it will not work. Thus
any diskettes used in the machine will be infected.
To remove the virus infection;
- Boot the machine from a clean, write-protected system disk.
- Load McAfee from a clean diskette that contains the program. Sometimes, the same program
disk can be used as a Boot Disk.
- Select the Hard disk (drive C:) using the SPACEBAR.
- Follow the same procedure as described above to scan and clean the hard disk.
Since a disk could be infected by several viruses, it is important to scan the disk again after the
first successful virus removal.
Try to establish how many diskettes could have been used on the same system during the time of
infection and clean them all.

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