I

NTRODUCTI
ONTOAGRI
CULTURE
1.
1.1.
1.1

Whati
sAgr
icul
tur
e?

Agr
icul
tur
eist
hegr
owi
ngofcr
opsandr
ear
ingofani
mal
swhi
char
eusef
ult
ous.

1.
1.1.
1.2

I
mpor
tanceofAgr
icul
tur
e

Soci
alImpor
tanceofagri
cul
tur
e:itr
efer
st ohow agr
icul
tur
einf
luencest
hecust
oms,
tr
adi
ti
onsandsett
lementpat
ter
ns,
social
stat
usandwelfar
eofpeople.

 Agr
icul
tur
eenabl
espeopl
etododi
ff
erentj
obsi
nthecommuni
ty

 Cat
tl
ear
eusedt
opaybr
idepr
ice(
lobol
a)

 Owni
ngmanycat
tl
eincr
easesone’
spr
est
igeorsoci
alst
atus

 Cattl
e,goats and sheep are slaught
ered dur
ing cer
emoni
es e.
g.weddi
ng,
funer
als,
tradi
ti
onal
healingf
unctions

 Agr
icul
tur
ehel
pst
oreducet
henumberofr
ural
-ur
banmi
grat
ion

EconomicImportance:i
tref
erst
othecontr
ibut
ionofagricul
turetothel
ivesofpeopl
ein
ter
msofpr ovi
dingthem meanstoearnalivi
ngandmeet i
ngt hei
rneeds.Itdeal
swith
thi
ngsthatbr
ingorsav emoney,
whichyougetfrom agr
icult
ure.

 Agricul
tur
ecreatesbusi
nessopport
unit
iesandmar
ketf
orot
herbusi
nessese.
g.
thosemakingtract
ors,f
ert
il
izer
sandchemical
s.

 Agri
cult
ureprovi
defoodforpeopl
eandani
mal
se.
g.meat
,fi
sh,dai
rypr
oduct
s,
veget
ables,
cereal
s,f
rui
t

 Agricul
tur
eproducesrawmat er
ial
sforindust
ri
essot
hatt
heycant
urnt
hem i
nto
fi
nishedgoods,e.
g.animal
hides,cot
ton,ski
ns

 Empl
oymentopport
unit
ies-peopleareempl
oyedi
nagr
icul
tur
edepar
tment
ssuch
asBMC,TSM,Ranches,Pri
vatefarms,

 Agr
icul
tur
alpr
oducei
ssol
dtoot
hercount
ri
est
ogetf
orei
gnexchange.

 Peoplecansel
lcr
opsandl
i
vest
ockt
ogetmoneywhi
cht
heycanuset
obuyot
her
goods.

1
  Sour
ceofdraughtpower-someani
mal
sar
eusedt
odowor
ke.
g.donkey
sor
cat
tl
ear
eusedf orpl
oughi
ng

 Touri
sm att
ract
ion-t
ouri
stscomet oBotswanat
ov i
ewgame,wet
landsandt
he
deser
t.Thesearemanagedusingagri
cul
turemet
hods.

1.
1.1.
1.4

Thei
mpactofHI
V/AI
DSonagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ivi
ty

 Someoft hepr oduct

ive,experi
encedandt r
ainedworker
sdi
efr
om HI
V/AI
DS
rel
ateddi
seaseshenceaffecttheagri
cul
tur
all
abourf
orce

 Tr
aini
ngofnewwor
ker
stakesl
ongt
imeandi
tisv
eryexpensi
ve

 HI
VandAI DSweakenst
hei
mmunesy
stem sot
hatpeopl
ear
eeasi
l
yat
tackedby
ot
herdi
seases

 Par
ent
sandot herr
elat
ivesst
ayathomet
aki
ngcar
eoft
hosewhoar
esi
ck
i
nst
eadofgoi
ngtowork.

 Duetoil
l-
heal
thfar
m wor
ker
sspendmor
eti
mei
nhospi
tal
sorsi
ckl
eav
esi
nst
ead
ofat
tendi
ngfarms.

 Moneywhichcoul
dbeusedt odev
elopagr
icul
tur
eent
erpr
isesi
susedt
obuy
medi
cineandpayf
orf
uner
als

 Themoneythatthegovernmentspendst
ofi
ghtt
hedi
seasecoul
dhav
ebeen
usedt
ofi
nanceagri
cul
tur
eproject
s

 Mor
epeopl
edi
efr
om HI
Vsot
her
ewi
l
lbel
essdemandf
oragr
icul
tur
epr
oduct
s

 Peopleinfect
edwithHIVandAI
DSmusteataheal
thydi
etandthiscoul
dleadto
an increase i
n demand forf
resh v
eget
abl
es,f
rui
ts and f
armers can t
ake
advantageofthesit
uat
ion

1.
1.1.
1.4

Thei
mpactofagr
icul
tur
eact
ivi
ti
esont
heenv
ironment

Agr
icul
tur
alact
ivi
ti
es I
mpactont
heenv
ironment

2
Landcl
ear
ingf
orpl
oughi
ng  Thelandislef
tbareandexposedt
othe
agentsofsoil
erosi
on

 Lossofhabi
tatf
orani
mal
se.
g.bi
rds

Ov
erst
ocki
ng  Leadt oov
ergr
azi
ngandcausi
ngsoi
l
erosi
on

Useofheav
ymachi
nest
opl
ought
hel
and  Damagesthesoi
lstr
uct
urel
eadi
ngtoa
l
ossofpl
antnutr
ient
sfr
om t
hesoil

 Compactt
hesoi
l

 Cancauseai
rpol
l
uti
onf
rom smokes
andf
umes

Useoff
ert
il
izer
sandchemi
cal
s  Canpoll
utesur
faceandunder
ground
wat
erand

 Ki
l
lsusef
ulor
gani
smsi
nthesoi
l
.

1.
1.1.
1.5

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenagr
icul
tur
eandot
hersci
encesubj
ect
s

1.Mathemati
cs- i
tis essenti
al as agr
icul
ture i
nvol
ves calcul
ati
ons and
measurement
soflengt
h,ar
eaandv ol
umee. g.pl
otconst
ruct
ionandf er
ti
li
zer
appl
icat
ion

2.Biol
ogy-i
tisr
equi
redwhendeal
i
ngwi
thpl
ant
sandani
mal
s,under
standi
nghow
thei
rbodi
esoper
ate

3.Chemist
ry-i
thelpsf
armer
stounder
standt
hechemi
calpr
ocessest
hatt
akei
n
thesoi
l,
inpl
ant
sandinani
mal
s.

 hel
ps to under
stand t
he use ofchemi
calf
ert
il
izer
s and pest
ici
des i
n
agr
icul
tur
e

4.Phy
sics-hel
psfarmer
sinthemanufact
ure,oper
ati
onandmai
ntenanceoff
arm
i
mplements,machi
ner
yandbui
l
dings.

3
 5.Geogr
aphy-i
tassi
stsfar
merst
ounder
standt
heirgeogr
aphi
cal
locat
ions,
cli
mat
e,
l
andformsandsoilt
ypeset
c.whi
char
eessenti
altofar
ming

6.Busi
nessstudi
es-iti
nvolvescal
culati
onofmarketpr
ices,pr
ofi
tandl
oss,dr
awi
ng
upabusinessplan,whil
ei nagr
icul
turef
armi
ngi sabusinessandafar
mermust
knowifheorsheismaki ngprof
itornot

7.HomeEconomics-i
tist
hest
udyoff
oodandnut
ri
ti
onwhi
l
eagr
icul
tur
edeal
swi
th
f
oodpr
oducti
onaswel l
asnut
ri
ti
onofani
mal
s

1.
1.1.
1.6

Br
anchesofagr
icul
tur
e

i
. Ani
malhusbandry-I
nvol
vesraisi
ngofanimal
smostlykepti
nBot
swana.Thesear
e
cat
tl
e,sheep,
goats,
poul
try
,pigs,hor
sesandr
abbi
ts.

i
i
. Agr
onomy-Itdeal
swi t
ht hegr
owingandmanagementoffi
eldcr
ops.Cropsgr
ownin
Bot
swanaaremai ze,sorghum,cowpeas,pumpki
ns,et
c.Thesecropsarerai
nfed
whi
lstot
her
sar ei
rri
gated.

i
i
i. Horti
cult
ure-Itdeals wit
h growing and managementofv egetabl
es,fr
uits and
ornamental
s.Vegetabl
esgrowni ncl
ude;spinach,beetroot
scabbageet c.Fr
uitcrops
i
ncludes;or
anges,peaches,guavas,bananas,etc.Ornamental
spl antsar
egrownf or
decorat
ione.gChri
stmastrees,bougainvi
l
lea,snakeladder,
rose,etc.

i
v. Forestr
y- I
tinv
olvesthegrowingandmanagementoftreesforwoodandt
imber
products.Theyincl
udegum t
rees(
eucal
ypt
us)
,mukwa,palmtr
ee.

v
. Rangeandpastur
emanagement-I
tdeal
swiththeproperwayofusi
nggrazi
ngar
eas
forthei
mprovementandproduct
ionoffarm ani
mals.Itent
ail
skeepi
ngt her
ight
numberofani
malspergr
azi
ngareatoavoi
dovergr
azing.

4
v
i. Agri
cul
tur
alengi
neeri
ng-I
tinvol
vestheselect
ion,use,propercar
eandmai
ntenance
offar
m equipmentandbuil
dings.However,f
armt ools,implement
sandmachines
needgoodcareandmaint
enancet ol
astl
ong.

v
ii
. Agricul
tur
aleconomi cs -
Itdeals with busi
ness aspectoff armi
ng e.g.keepi
ng
fi
nancialr
ecords,budget
ing,sell
ingagri
cul
tur
alproduce,keepingbooksofaccounts,
etc.ital
sohelpsinplanningonhowbestt ousescarcer esourcese.
g.land,money,
etc.toachi
evehighlevel
sofpr oducti
on.
1.
1.1.
2.1

Car
eeroppor
tuni
ti
esi
nagr
icul
tur
e

Acareeri
sajobt
haty
oudof ormostofyourl
i
fe.ORiti
sapr
ofessi
onf
ort
heper
soni
s
t
rai
nedandinwhi
chheorsheworkstoearnal
ivi
ng.

Car
eer/
job Whati
tinv
olv
es

Agr
icul
tur
eteacher Teachagr
icul
tur
einschool
andcol
l
eges

Hor
ti
cul
tur
ali
st Pr
oduci
ngv
eget
abl
esandf
rui
ts

Agr
icul
tur
aldemonst
rat
or Showi
ngf
armerhowt
ogr
owandt
akecar
eofcr
ops

Agr
icul
tur
alr
esear
cher Fi
ndi
ngoutbett
erwaysofr
aisi
ngcr
opsandl
i
vest
ock
andsol
vi
ngf
armingpr
obl
ems

Agr
icul
tural engi
neer
/ Desi
gn,repai
randmai
ntai
nfar
m equi
pment
,machi
ner
y
mechanic andstr
ucture

Agr
icul
tur
aleconomi
st Manageorr
unt
heagr
icul
tur
ebusi
ness

Ar
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
or I
nsertsemeni
ntocowst
hathav
ebeenobser
vedt
obeon
heat

For
est off
icer / woodl
ot Wor
kwi
tht
reesandf
orest
manager

Landscapeof
fi
cer Workwi
thgar
dendecor
ati
ons,f
lower
sandor
nament
al
cr
ops

Vet
eri
nar
yof
fi
cer Car
ing f
orl
i
vest
ock by v
acci
nat
ing t
hem t
o pr
event
di
seases

5
Ot
hercar
eer
soppor
tuni
ti
esi
nagr
icul
tur
e

 Ranchmanager

 Soi
lconser
vat
ionof
fi
cer

 Cr
oppr
otect
ionof
fi
cer

 Li
vest
ockpr
oduct
ionof
fi
cer

 Agr
onomi
st

 Techni
cal
assi
stant

 Agr
icul
tur
alext
ensi
onof
fi
cer

1.
1.1.
2.2

Tr
aini
ngandent
ryr
equi
rement
sforst
udi
esi
nagr
icul
tur
ali
nst
it
uti
ons

1.Bot
swanaUni
ver
sit
yofAgr
icul
tur
eandNat
ural
Resour
ces

 I
tof
fer
sdi
ploma,
degr
eeandmast
ersqual
i
ficat
ion

 Theyalsooff
ersshortcour
sest
hroughi
tscent
ref
ori
n-ser
viceandcont
inui
ng
ofeducati
on(CICE)

Mini
mum entr
yisBotswanagener
alcer
ti
fi
cat
eofsecondaryeducati
on(BGCSE)withat
l
eastapassinEngl
i
shandcrediti
nmathemati
cs,
physi
cs,chemistr
y,bi
ologyorgr
adeB
i
ndoublesci
ence

2.Col
l
egesofEducat
ion

 Theyt r
aint eachers ofagricul
tur
eforboth pri
maryand secondaryschools
respect
ivel
yTonot acoll
egeofeducati
on,Tl
okwengcol
legeofeducat
ion,
Lobatse
coll
egeofeducat ion,Franci
stowncoll
egeofeducati
onandSer owecollegeof
educati
on

 Theyof
ferdi
plomai
nagr
icul
tur
ewi
thami
nimum ent
ryofBGCSEorequi
val
ent

3.Ramat
labamaRanchmanagementcent
re

 Of
fer
str
aini
ngi
nranchmanagementandar
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
ion

6
  Mi
nimum r
equi
rement
;juni
orcer
ti
fi
cat
e(JC)

4.Rur
alt
rai
ningcent
res

 Of
fer
sshor
tcour
sesi
nagr
icul
tur
etof
armer
s

 Mi
nimum ent
ryi
sJuni
orCer
ti
fi
cat
eorBGCSE

5.Techni
cal
col
l
egesandbr
igades

 Someoft
hem of
fert
rai
ningi
nagr
icul
tur
e

 Mi
nimum ent
ryi
sBGCSE

Whi
chi
nst
it
uti
onof
fer
sadegr
eei
nagr
icul
tur
e?

ANS:
Bot
swanaUni
ver
sit
yofAgr
icul
tur
eandNat
ural
Resour
ces

1.
1.1.
3.1

FOODPRODUCTI
ONSI
TUATI
ONI
NBOTSWANA

Botswanadoesnotpr oduceenoughf oodtomeett heneedsofi t

sci t
izens.Mostof
foodconsumedl ocal
lyi
si mportedfrom SouthAfri
ca,Zi
mbabwe,Nami bia,theUni
ted
StatesofAmer i
caandot hercountr
ies.HenceBotswanaisanexporterofbeefandbeef
products.Ther
eforethesupplyfr
om domest i
cproducti
oni
slessthanthedemand.

1.
1.1.
3.2

Foodsecur
it
yandf
oodsel
f-
suf
fi
ciency

Foodself
-suf
fi
ciency
:-I
sabi
l
ityofacount
ryt
opr
oduceal
lthef
oodneededbyi
ts
ci
ti
zens.

Foodsecurit
y:-Isabil
i
tyofacount
ryt
opr
ovi
deal
lthef
oodneededbyi
tsci
ti
zens
regar
dlessofi
tssour
ceofsuppl
y.

1.
1.1.
3.3

Fact
orsl
i
mit
ingf
oodpr
oduct
ionandf
oodsecur
it
yinBot
swana

Fact
orsl
i
mit
ingf
oodpr
oduct
ion Fact
orsl
i
mit
ingf
oodsecur
it
y

 Unr
eli
abl
erai
nfal
l-Rai
ninBot
swanai
s  Dr
ought
-ver
yli
tt
lef
oodi
shar
vest
ed

7
 nottrust
wort
hy;someti
mesther
eisless dur
ingdr
oughtper
iods.
rai
nwhi l
eothertimesnorainatall
.If
ther
ei snoraincropsandanimal
swi l
l
notsurvi
ve

 Hightemperatures-Bot swanahashi gh  High inputcost s – Farmer

s cannot
temperat
ureswhi chcangoashi ghas aff
ord t o buy expensiv
e machi nes,
o fer
ti
li
zers, seeds and pesti
cides to
35C.These t emperatures can affect
crops because wat er wi l
l evaporate i
mp roveproduct
ion
quickl
ymakingt hecropst ogetburnt.If
cropsareburntanimalswi l
lhavenothing
tofeedon

 Risi
ngfoodprices–whenthepri
ceof
foodincr
easesonlyafew peopl
ecan
 Poor soils - Most of the soi
ls in haveaccesstofood.
Botswana ar e sandy and l ack
phosphorouswhichmakei tdif
fi
cul
tt o
producegoodquali
tycropsandthi
swi l
l
l
eadt opoorgr
owthofanimals

 Outbreak of pests and di seases -  I

ncrease in popul
ation- when t
he
Outbreak of pests and diseases for number of people i ncr
eases t
he
cropsandanimalscanr esul
tinlowyield demand forfood i
ncreasesthi
swill
andanimalsdying l
eadtolowsupplyoffood.

 Lackofmoney-Far
mer
sdonothav
e
money to buy product
ion equi
pmente.g.
har
vesti
ng machi nes, ref
riger
ator
s and
mil
kingmachines

 Hi
ghi
nputcost
s–Far
mer
scannotaf
for
d
tobuyexpensi
vemachi
nes,
f er
ti
li
zers,
seeds
andpest
ici
destoi
mproveproducti
on

8
 Poorf
arm management–Someoft
he
farmersl
ack skil
l
sandtechni
calknowl
edge
tomanaget heirfar
mshencel eadtopoor
growthofcr
opsandanimals

1.
1.1.
3.4

Way
sofi
mpr
ovi
ngf
oodpr
oduct
ionandf
oodsecur
it
yinBot
swana

 Educat
ingandt
rai
ningf
armer
sonbet
terway
sofr
aisi
ngcr
opsandl
i
vest
ock

 Encour
agef
armer
stomakebet
teruseofgov
ernmentschemes,
suchasCEDA

 Bui
l
ddamsandwat
err
esour
cesi
nfar
mingar
eas

 Pr
ovi
det
echni
cal
suppor
ttof
armer
s

 Buy
ingf
oodf
rom ot
hercount
ri
est
omeett
hel
ocal
foodneeds.

1.
1.1.
3

Gov
ernmentst
rat
egi
est
oimpr
ovef
oodpr
oduct
ion

 Provi
dingeducat
ionandtrai
ningtofar
mer
sthr
oughext
ensi
onandi
nfor
mat
ion
serv
icesofthemini
str
yofagri
cult
ure

 Suppor
tforagr
icul
tur
alr
esear
cht
odev
elopnewandappr
opr
iat
etechnol
ogi
es

 Pr
ovi
dingf
inanci
alassi
stancewi
thl
owi
nter
estr
atet
ofar
mer
se.
g.CRDA

 Provi
ding and i
mpr
ovi
ng phy
sical i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure t
o f
aci
l
itat
e agr
icul
tur
al
devel
opment

 Wat
err
esour
cesdev
elopmentf
ori
rr
igat
iont
hroughconst
ruct
ionofdams

 Trai
ningandimpr
ovementofhumanr
esour
cedev
elopmentf
ort
hebet
ter
mentof
agri
cult
ural
devel
opment
.

 Pr
ovi
dingsubsi
diz
edagr
icul
tur
ali
nput
se.
g.seeds,
fer
ti
li
zer
s

 Dr
oughtr
eli
efpr
oject
sar
epr
ovi
dedf
orar
abl
efar
ms

 Fr
eev acci
nat
ion-Somedi seasesar evacci
nat
edf
orf
reee.
g.ant
hrax,hear
t
water
,rabi
es,
footandmout
hdi seaseetc.

 Art
if
ici
alinsemi
nat
ion--Cat
tl
eforf
armer
sar
einsemi
nat
edwi
thsemenf
rom
goodbull
satalowerchar
ge

9
  Buyi
ngoffarmersproduce-Afterhar
v est
ingthegov
ernmentbuy
swhatf
armer
s
hav
eproducedthroughBotswanaAgricult
ural
Marketi
ngBoar
d(BAMB)

1.
1.1.
3.6

Ty
pesoff
armi
ng

Ar
abl
efar
ming-i
nvol
vest
hegr
owi
ngofcr
opsonl
y

Li
vest
ock/
past
oral
far
ming-r
ear
ingl
i
vest
ockonl
y

Mi
xedf
armi
ng-pr
oduct
ionofl
i
vest
ockandcr
opsont
hesamef
arm

1.
1.1.
3.7

Lev
elsofpr
oduct
ion

1.Subsi
stencef
armi
ng-Pr
oduct
ionofcr
opsandl
i
vest
ockf
orf
ami
l
yconsumpt
ion

2.Commer
cial
far
ming-Pr
oduct
ionofcr
opsandl
i
vest
ockmai
nlyf
orsal
e

Di
ff
erencebet
weensubsi
stenceandcommer
cial
far
ming

Subsi
stencef
armi
ng

 Lowcapi
tal
input  Hi
ghcapi
tal
input

 Lowpr
oduct
ivi
ty  Hi
ghpr
oduct
ivi
ty

 Car
ri
edoutonasmal
lscal
e  Car
ri
edoutonal
argescal
e

 Useofhandt
ool
s  Useofmachi
ner
y

 Useoft
radi
ti
onal
far
mingmet
hod  Useofmoder
nfar
mingt
echni
ques

 Lessski
l
lsneeded  Requi
resmor
eski
l
lsandknowl
edge

 Farmers usual
l
yfar
m i
n communal  Farmers usuall
yowns t
he l
and on
areas which he gr ows cr
ops or r
aises
l
ivest
ock

 Farmerai
msatsel
l
ing and maki
ng
 Far
mer pr
oduces f
or f
ami
l
y prof
it
10
 consumpt
ion

1.
1.1.
3.6-
1.1.
1.3.
7

Pr
obl
emsexper
iencedbycommer
cial
far
mer
sandsol
uti
onst
othem

Pr
obl
ems Sol
uti
ons

Unr
eli
abl
erai
nfal
l Constr
uct
ionofdamsandcanalt
opr
ovi
de
waterf
orcropsandl
i
vest
ock

Out
breakofpest
sanddi
seases Usi
ng chemical
st o contr
ol pest
s&
di
seasesandbet
terf
armingmet
hods

Lackofmar
ket
s Market
s shoul
d be bui
l
d wher
efar
mer
s
cansel
lthei
rpr
oduce

Lackofcapi
tal
/money Farmer
sshouldusegover
nmentf
inanci
al
schemessuchasCEDA

HI
V/AI
DS Farmer
sshould bet aughtmor
eon HIV
/AI
DSissuesespeci
all
yhowtoavoi
dbei
ng
i
nfect
ed

Shor
tageofski
l
ledl
abour More peopl
e should be t
rai
ned and
equi
pped on r
elev
ant ar
eas of agr
ic-
busi
ness

Poorr
oadsandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure The government shoul
dimprovelocal
str
uctur
e,especi
all
yroadsandthebasi
c
tr
ansport

Compet
it
ionf
rom i
mpor
tedgoods Theyshoul
dimprov
et hemar
ket
ing and
st
oragef
aci
li
ti
esf
orfar
mers

11
12
 1.
1.1.
4.4

 Alwayshandl
eamachi nebyitshandlenotbyitsblades
 Befor
eusingthem makesurey ourequipment’
sareingoodwor
kingcondi
ti
on
 Separat
eequipmentaccordi
ngt othei
rfunct
ion
 Wearappropri
atesafet
yclot
hingwhennecessar y
 Wearappropri
atesafet
yclot
hingwhennecessar y
 Neverdragorthr
owequi pment’
s
 Donotcarrysharptool
sinyourshoulder
 Donotleaveequipment’
slyi
ngar oundaft
erusingthem.

13
 1.
1.1.
4.5

 Al
lfarm equi
pmentmustbecov
eredwhennoti
nuset
oav
oiddamagef
rom t
he
weather
.

1.
1.1.
4.6

Howt
ost
oret
ool
s,i
mpl
ement
sandmachi
nes

 Tools,
implement sandmachi nesshouldalwaysbest or
edproperl
ysothatthey
donotcauseacci dents.
 Toolswit
hbl ades,l
ikespadesandr akesshoul
dal waysbestoredwiththebl
ades
faci
ngdownorf aci
ngt hewall.
 Toolsl
ikesicklesandsecateursshouldalwaysbeclosedwhent heyarestor
ed.
 Toolsmustonl ybeusedf orthepurposeforwhichtheyweredesigned.
 Stor
eequipment ’si
nacov eredarea,awayfrom di
rectsunl
i
ght

14
 1.
1.1.
4.7-1.
1.1.
4.8

Far
m Mechani
zati
on-Thi
sistheuseofmachinestoperf
ormf ar
m operati
onsinst
eadof
workersatal
loper
ational
lev
els[
product
ion,
storageandprocessing]

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesoff
arm mechani
zat
ion

1.
1.1.
4.10

Probl
emscausedbyt
heuseoff
armt
ool
s,i
mpl
ement
sandmachi
nesandpossi
ble
solut
ions

Pr
obl
em Sol
uti
on

Pr
oducti
on of smoke by some  Servi
cefar
m machi
nesregul
arl
yso
machi
nescausepol
l
uti
on thatt
heydonotemitsmokeorleak
oil

Machi
nes and impl
ements ar
e heav
y  Ti
llt
hesoiltol
oosenit
andtherefor
ecompactthesoil
.(har
d
pandevelopment
)  Pl
oughing atthe di
ff
erentdept
hs
ev
eryyear.

 Gr
owi
ngpl
ant
swi
thl
ongt
apr
oot
s

15
 as t
hey can push t
hrough some
har
dpansandloosenthesoi
l

 Reducetheuseofheav
ymachi
ner
y
fort
il
lage

Farm i mplements damage t he soil  Usef

armimplement
swhent
hesoi
l
structure.Pl
oughing hel
ps tol oosen i
snottoodr
yortoowet
the soil.Butift he soi
list oo wet ,
ploughingwillcauset hesoilt oform
l
umpsorcl ods.Ifthesoili
st oodr yit
willturntodustandbebl ownawayby
thewi nd

Useoff
arm machi
ner
ymayl
eadt
osoi
l  Keepabor derofnat
uralvegetat
ion
er
osi
on aroundf i
elds.Thi
swi l
lprotectthe
naturalpl
antsinthear eaandhel p
to f i
ght soil erosion. ( pl
ant
windbreaks)

 Addor
gani
cmat
tert
othesoi
l

 Putmulchontopofthesoi
ltokeep
thewi
ndfrom car
ryi
ngsoi
laway

 Pl
oughacr
osst
hesl
ope

Far
m implement s can spread weeds Clean f
arm impl
ement
s t
horoughl
y
and plant diseases. The seeds of befor
eusi
ngt
hem i
nanewpl
ace
weedsandt heor gani
smst hatcause
di
seases cl
ing t ot he bl
ades ofthe
i
mplement.

 Regul
ar addi
ti
on of manur
e and
fer
ti
li
zer
s
Leadst
olessf
ert
il
esoi
l

16
 SOI
L
Soi
lcanbedef
inedast
heuppermostl
ayeroft
heear
thcr
ustwher
epl
ant
sgr
ow

1.
2.1.
1.1
SOI
LFERTILI
TY
o Iti
stheabil
it
yofsoi
ltosuppl
ynecessar
ynutri
ent
stopl
ant
sfornor
mal
and
healt
hygrowthi
nsuit
ableamountsandpropor
ti
ons.

Fer
ti
li
tyofsoi li
sdeterminedbyt hef ol
lowing:
1.Nut rientcontent–f erti
lesoilshav ehighnut r
ientcontent
2.Aer ation–f ert
il
esoi l
scont ainenoughai rsothatrootsandsoilorganismshav e
oxygen.
3.Wat erholdingcapacity–f ertil
esoilsshoul dbeablet ohol
denoughwat erfor
growi ngcrops
4.Dr ainage–f ert
il
esoi l
sper mitwat ertoflowt hrough;soi
lsshouldnotdr yout
quicklyorbecomewat erl
ogged.
5.Dept hoftopsoil
-thet opsoi lshouldbedeepenoughsot hatplant
sr ootscan
growwel landspr eadeasi ly

1.
2.1.
1.2

FERTI
LISERS

o Afert
il
izeri
sanysubst
ancet
hatsuppl
iesoneormor
epl
antel
ement
swhen
addedtothesoi
l.
1.2.
1.1.
3

I
MPORTANCEOFFERTI LI
SERSTOTHESOI L
o Theyaddnut rientstothesoil
o Theycor r
ectsoi lpHe.g.Limest oneAmmoni um Ni
trat
e(LAN)
o Replaceorreturnnut ri
entsusedbyear li
erpl
ants
o Organicfert
il
izersincreasemi crobialacti
vi
ty.
o Organicfert
il
izersimpr ovesoilstructur
e.
o Providespecifi
cnut r
ientsinthesoi lneededtoboostgrowthofpl
ant
satacer
tai
n
st
ageofgr owt h
o Helppr omotef oodpr oducti
onandsecur i
tythroughbetterpl
antgr
owthand
producti
on
1.2.
1.1.
4

17
 Ty
pesoff
ert
il
izer
s

i
. Organi
c/natur
alfer
ti
li
zer
s-t
hesear
efer
ti
li
zer
smadef
rom mat
eri
alsofpl
ant
and/orani
mal or
igi
n.
o Chickenmanure
o Kraalmanure
o Compostmanur e
o Greenmanur e

i
i
.I nor
ganic/ chemi cal
/art
ifici
alf
erti
l
izer-t
hesearefert
il
izersmadefrom chemi
cal
s
notfrom mat erialsofplantoranimal or
igi
nandtheyar eusuall
yhighl
y
concentrated.
Inor
ganicf erti
l
izersaref urt
herdivi
dedintotwocategoriesnamely
:
o St raightferti
l
izer
-t heysupplyonl
yoneofthemaj orel
ements.Exampl
es
i
ncl ude:

St
rai
ghtf
ert
il
izer Exampl
eoff
ert
il
izer

Ni
tr
ogenousf
ert
il
izer
s(pr
ovi
deonl
y Urea,Li
mest
oneAmmonium Ni
tr
ate
Ni
tr
ogen) (LAN),Ammoni
um Ni
tr
ate,
Ammonium
Sulphate

Phosphor
ousfer
ti
li
zer
s(pr
ovi
deonl
y Singl
esuperphosphate,
doubl
e
phosphor
ous) superphosphat
e,tr
ipl
e
superphosphat
e

Pot
assi
um f
ert
il
izer
s(pr
ovi
deonl
y Muri
ateofPotash(Pot
assium
pot
assi
um) chl
ori
de),Pot
assi
um ni
trate,
Pot
assium Sul
phat
e,Potashof
Magnesia

o Compoundfer
ti
li
zer-t
heysuppl
ymor
ethanonemacr oel
ement,andt
hey
ar
enormall
ydescri
bedinter
msofNPKrat
ios.Exampl
esincl
ude:
- 2:3:
2(22)NPK
- 4:2:
1(31)NPK
- 4:1:
1(33)NPK
- 4:1:
2(35)NPK

1.
2.1.
1.4

18
 1.
2.1.
1.5

Adv
ant
agesofusingorganicfert
il
izers
o I
mpr ovessoilstr
ucture,waterret
entionandsoi lworkabil
it
y
o Addor ganicmatterandhumust othesoi l
o Arenothar mfult
opl antwhenappl i
edi nlar
geamount s
o Easyandcheapt oobt ain
o Releasesnutri
entgraduallyther
eforeleachingisminimized
o Addmi crobestothesoi landprovi
det hem withfood.
o Cancont rolt
hepHoft hesoil

Di
sadv
antagesofusingor gani
cf er
til
i
zers
o Requiresalotoflabourtoappl y
o Iti
sappl i
edinlar
gequant iti
es
o Arelessconcentratedthaninorganicfer
ti
li
zer
s
o Takesal ongti
met odecomposeandber eadyforusebypl
ant
s
o Freshmanur ecanbur n/scorchplants
o Diff
icultt
oesti
mat ehowmucht oapplytosoi
l.

19
Advant
agesofusi nginorgani cf erti
li
zers
o Prov idesel ement si nhi ghconcent rati
on,sosmal lamount sar eneeded
o Thei ref fectonpl ant sisf astsincethenut r
ientsareimmedi at
elyreleased
o Cont ai ncer t
if
ied[ known]quant i
ti
esofnut r
ients
o Theyar eeasyt ot ranspor tandappl y
o Canbeaddedi ncor rectamount sneededbyapar t
icularplant
Di
sadvantagesofusi ngi nor gani cfert
ili
zers
o Ar eexpensi veandcanbescar ce
o Requi rest echnical skil
lsandknowl edge
o Donoti mpr ovesoi lproper t
iessuchasst r
ucture,pH,wat erholdi
ngcapaci t
y,
aerationanddr ai
nageaswel l
asact ivi
ti
esofmi crobes.
o Canbur n/ scorchpl antift heycomei nt
ocont actwiththem
o Donotcont aint r
aceel ement s
o Pr olongedusemayl eadt osoilexhaustionandpol l
utionofunder groundwat er
o Si ncet heyar ehighl ysol uble,l
eachingiscommon

1.
2.1.
1.6
FERTI
LISERAPPLI
CATI
ONRATE

I
fthefert
il
izerappli
cati
onrat
eis200kgperhect
are,
calcul
atetheamountoff
ert
il
izerf
or
aplotof500m2
AmountofFer ti
l
izerneeded=rat
eofappli
cat
ionxAreaoffiel
d/l
and
(Kg) (
Kg/ha) (Ha)

Hi
nt1ha=10000m2
:

1.
2.1.
1.7

Whent
oappl
yfer
ti
li
zer
s

1.Basal
dr essing-istheappl
i
cat
ionoffer
ti
li
zerbefor
eplant
ingordur
ingpl
ant
ing.
Examplesf ert
il
izer
susedaresuper
phosphateand2:3:
2

2.Topdressi
ng-istheappl
icat
ionoff
ert
il
izert
ocr
opsafterseedl
i
ngemer
gence.
Examplesoffert
il
izer
susedareLANandAmmoni um ni
trat
e

1.
2.1.
1.8
Met
hodsoff
ert
il
izerappl
i
cat
ion

i
. Broadcast
ing-thi
siswhenfert
il
izeri
srandoml
yscat
ter
edonaf
iel
dusual
l
yusi
ng
handsorferti
li
zerspr
eaderandthenmixedwit
hthesoi
l

i
i
. Banding-i
sthepl
acementoff
ert
il
izer
snextt
othegr
owi
ngpl
ant
s,asst
ri
psor
r
ings

20
 a)St
ri
pappl
i
cat
ioni
swhenf
ert
il
izeri
sappl
i
edi
nal
i
ne(
asst
ri
ps)nextt
ocr
ops

b)Ri
ngappl
i
cat
ioni
swhenf
ert
il
izeri
sappl
i
edar
oundt
hecr
opsi
naci
rcl
e(r
ing)

i
i
i. Dr
il
li
ng-i
swhenf
ert
il
izer
sandseedsar
epl
acedt
oget
heri
nashal
l
owf
urr
ow

i
v. Sidedressi
ng-issimil
art
ostri
pappli
cat
ionbutthefert
il
izerisappl
i
edi
nrows
nextt
ocr ops.Fer
ti
li
zer
sarepl
acedi
nshall
owholesnexttoplants.

21
 v
. Fol
i
arsprayi
ng-i
swhenfer
ti
li
zer
saredissol
vedi
nwat
er,t
henspr
ayedont
othe
l
eavesofthepl
ant
srat
hert
hantothesoi
l.

v
i. Fert
igat
ion-iswhenf
ert
il
iz
ersaremixedwi t
hwat
erandt
henappl
i
edt
othesoi
l
thr
oughirri
gati
onwat
er.
1.
2.1.
1.9-
1.2.
1.1.
10

MAJOR/
MACROANDMI
NOR/MI
CRONUTRI
ENTELEMENTS

i
. Maj
or/Macr
o el
ement
s-t
hesear
eel
ement
sneeded bypl
ant
sinl
arge
amount
s.

i
i
. Minor/Micr
o/Tr
aceel
ement
s-t
heseareel
ement
sneededbyplant
sinsmal
l
amounts.
Maj
or/Macr
oelements Minor/Micr
o/Traceel
ement
s

o Ni
tr
ogen o Bor
on

o Phosphor
us o Chl
ori
ne

o Pot
assi
um o Zi
nc

o Oxy
gen o Copper

o Sul
phur o I
ron

22
 o Cal
cium o Manganese

o Magnesi
um o Si
l
icon

o Car
bon o Mol
ybdenum

Whyar
esomeel
ement
smi
norandot
her
smaj
or?

 Thebasi
sofcl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
stheamounti
nwhi
cht
heyar
eneededbypl
ant
s.

1.
2.1.
1.11-1.
2.1.
1.16

FUNCTI
ONSANDUSESOFCOMMONLYUSEDMAJORELEMENTS

Ni
trogen,
Phosphor
usandPot
assi
um ar
ethr
eemaj
orel
ement
sfoundi
nmostf
ert
il
izer
s
si
ncetheyar
eneededbypl
ant
sinlar
geamount
s

23
 1.
2.1.
1.17

WAYSOFMAI
NTAI
NINGSOI
LFERTI
LITY

o Practicingcroprotati
on
o Applicat i
onoffert
ili
zer
s
o Prevent i
onofsoilerosion
o Mulchi ng
o Weedcont r
ol
o Cult
ivat i
ont oi
mpr ovesoilaer
ati
onanddr
ainage.

24
 o Cor
rect
ionofsoi
lpH
o Pl
oughi
nginofcropresi
dues
1.
2.1.
1.18

1.
2.1.
2.1

Soi
lpH

Itr
efer
stot
heAci
dit
yorAl
kal
i
nit
yoft
hesoi
l[HowAci
dic(
Sour
)orAl
kal
i
ne(
Sal
ty)t
he
soi
li
s]

i
i.I
tcanal
sobedef
inedast
hedegreeofhydr
ogeni
onsi
nthesoi
l
.
#ThepHscalei
susedtomeasur
et hesoi
lpH

pHScal
e

25
 1.
2.1.
2.2

Ef
fect
sofsoi
lpHonpl
antgr
owt
h

 Al
owpHwi
l
lrenderPhosphor
usandMol
ybdenum unav
ail
abl
eforpl
ant
s.

 Alow l
evelofpH r
educestheact
ivi
tyofmi
crobesandt
hismayr
esul
tinl
ow
l
evel
sofnit
rogeni
nthesoi
l

 Ver
yhi
ghorl
owpHwi
l
lscor
ch(
bur
n)pl
ant
saswel
laski
l
lsoi
lmi
crobes.

 Alowsoi
lpHcanal
sol
eadtot
hebreakdownofcl
ayminer
als,whi
chcontai
nhi
gh
amountofnut
ri
ent
s.I
fclayminer
alsaredi
stur
bed,l
eachingofnutr
ient
scan
easi
l
yoccur

 Cr
opsmaynotgrow heal
thyi
nacidi
csoil
sbecausephosphor
ushav
ebecome
i
nsol
ubl
e,t
her
efor
ecr
opscannotabsor
bit
.

 When thesoili
sv eryaci
dicpoisonouselements(al
umi
num & manganese)
di
ssol
ves i
nt he soi
lwaterand absorbed byplant
s.Pl
ant
sthen die af
ter
absor
bingt
heseel
ementsbecausetheyarepoi
sonous.

 Averyl
ow soi
lpHmayi ncreasetheamountofi
ronandal
umi
num i
nthesoi
l
,
whi
chcoul
dbepoisonoustoplant
s

 I
fthepH i
stoohighort
oolow,t hepl
ant
swi l
lnotbeabletotakeupmicr
o-
nut
ri
ent
s(moly
bdenum,manganeseandiron)fr
om thesoi
lresul
ti
ngtopoor
pl
antgr
owt
h.

 Hi
ghsoi
lpH(
pH9)pl
ant
sabsor
bsodi
um i
namount
sthatpoi
sont
hei
rroot
s

 Fungigrow bet
teri
naci
dicsoi
landt heycausesoi
lbor
nedi
seasessuchas
cl
ubrot
.
1.2.
1.2.
3

METHODSOFDETERMI
NINGSOI
LPH

1.Usi
ngtheli
tmuspaper
:Makeasoi
lsol
uti
onusi
ngdi
sti
l
ledwater
,al
l
owittoset
tl
e,
di
pthelit
muspaper(blueorr
edl
it
muspaper)tot
hesolut
ionandobser
veany
col
ourchange.
26
 Not
e:Redlit
muspapert
urnsbl
uei
fpl
acedi
nal
kal
i
nesubst
anceandr
emai
nred
i
nacidsubst
ance.

Bluel i
tmuspapert urnsr edi fplacedi
nacidsubstanceandr emainbluei n
al
kalinesubstance.
2.Usinguni v
ersalindi
catormet hod( Thecol
ori
metri
cmet hod/col ourmet hod):
Takeasmal l
soilsampleandpourenoughoft heuni
versalindi
cat
orsolut
ionover
i
tsot hatitisjustwellsoaked.Leav ei
ttostandforaf ew mi
nutes.Observe
colourchangeandcompar ewi ththepHcolourchar
t;i
twillgiv
eyouthepHv al
ue
ofthesoil.

Note:Thi
smethodiseasyandqui
teaccur
atebuti
tisnotal
way
seasyt
ofi
ndt
he
r
ightindi
cat
orandcol
ourchar
t

3.Theelectr
ometri
cmethod( ThepHmeter)
:Thisisthemostaccuratebuti
tneeds
averyexpensi
vepHmet er.Thesoil
samplei
smoi stenedwithdi
sti
l
ledwat
erunti
l
i
tissoftpasteli
kethi
npor ri
dge.Themeteri
sswi tchedonandhel di
nthesoft
soi
lpaste.Themeterwi
llshowtheexactpHofthesoi lsampl
e.

1.
2.1.
2.4

Cr
opsgr
owni
ndi
ff
erentsoi
lpH

CROPS SOI
LpHRANGE

Mai
ze 5.
7-7.
5

Mi
l
let 5.
0-6.
5

Sor
ghum 5.
5-7.
5

Gr
oundnut
s 5.
5-6.
5

Beans 6.
0-7.
0

Spi
nach 6.
0-6.
8

27
Rape 5.
5-7.
0

Tomat
oes 5.
5-6.
0

Gr
eenpepper
s 5.
5-7.
0

Oni
ons 5.
0-6.
5

Banana 5.
0-8.
0

Ci
tr
us:oranges,
lemons,
li
mes,
grapef
rui
t, 5.
5-7.
0
mandari
ns

1.
2.1.
2.5

ACTI
VITI
ESTHATCHANGES/ALTERSOI
LpH

o Addit
ionofal
kal
i
nemat er
ial
s-whenlimeisaddedt
othesoi
litr
aisesi
tspH,so
thi
smeanslimewil
lmakethesoi
llessaci
dic.

o Leachi
ngofsol
ubl
enut ri
entelements(bases)-i
nareaswithav er
ygooddrai
nage
suchassandysoi
lareas,basesi.
e.calcium,magnesium andsodium ar
eli
kel
yto
bewasheddownintothedeepersoillayerscausi
ngtheupperlayerst
obeacidi
c

o Appli
cat
ionofacidi
fyi
ngmateri
als-addi
ti
onofaci
dbasedfer
ti
li
ser
ssuchas
ammonium sul
phatemayincr
easet heaci
dit
yoft
hesoi
lwhenaddedinaci
dic
soi
ls.

o Addit
ionofor
gani
cmat t
ertot
hesoi
l
-whenor
gani
cmat
eri
alsdecomposet
hey
rel
easeaci
dsi
ntothesoil

o Act
ionofmi cr
o-or
gani
sms-theseacti
vi
ti
esl
eadt
othepr
oduct
ionofor
gani
c
aci
dsthatmakethesoi
lmor
eacidic.

o Usi
nghar
dfori
rr
igat
ion-makest
hesoi
lal
kal
i
nee.
g.wat
erf
rom bor
ehol
esand
wel
ls

o Over-i
rr
igat
ion-canmakethesoi
laci
dicbecauset
hecarbondioxi
det hatpl
ant
rootsandmi cr
o-or
gani
smsint
hesoi
lbreat
heoutdi
ssol
vesinwaterandproduce
carboni
cacid.

o Cli
mate-Soil
sareacidi
cinplaceswi
thhighrai
nfal
landal
kali
neinareaswi
thl
ow
rai
nfal
lther
efor
esaltdeposi
tsandpansarecommoni nsuchareas.

o Waterloggi
ng-i
nwat erl
oggedsoi
l
s;al
lspacesarefi
ll
edwithwater.Car
bon
di
oxide t
hatis pr
oduced byt
he r
espi
rat
ion ofpl
ant
s and mi
cro-
organi
sms
28
 di
ssol
vesi
nthewat
er.I
tfor
mscar
boni
caci
dandt
hismakest
hesoi
laci
dic.

1.
2.1.
2.6

HOW TOCONTROLORREGULATESOI
LPH

Aci
dicsoi
l
s( l
owsoi l
pH)
 By appl yi
ng oraddi ng subst
ance cont
aini
ng cal
cium and magnesi
um e.
g.
qui
ckli
me, woodash,slakedli
me,dol
omite
 Byappl yi
ngagricul
turall
i
me
 Byr educi
ngirri
gati
on
 Bypl oughi
ngbackcr opremains

Al
kal
i
nesoil(highsoilpH)
 Byaddi ngf er
til
iz
erscontainingsulphursuchasAmmoni
um sul
phat
e,sul
phur
andurea
 Byov er-i
rr
igat
ingdel
iberat
ely
 Byaddi ngorganicmattert
ot hesoil
.

29