PHYSICS GRADE 10

UNIT 5 SUMMARY

Introduction to Electronics
5.1 Vacuum tube device

BY: ADDIS ABABA EDUCATION BUREAU

MAY 2020
By the end of this section you should be able to :.
 Define the term electronics
 State the important of electronics in your daily life
 State what is meant by thermionic emission.
 Describe the behavior of vacuum tube .
 Describe the function of a cathode ray tube .
 Represent both d.c and a.c on current – time or voltage time
graph
 Use the current – time or voltage – time graph to find the
period and frequency of alternating current or voltage.
 Vacuum tube device
Thermionic emission
 Thermionic emission is the escape of electron from heated metal surface .
 Its rate negligible at ordinary temperature , and does not become significant
until high temperature are reached .
 Thermionic emission provides a controllable supply of electron in vacuum.
This is the basis of cathode ray oscilloscope.
 cathode ray oscilloscope is a pieces of equipment that has important uses in
studying and displaying electrical signals or oscillation.
Vacuum tube
Thermionic diode :. a vacuum tube is now almost obsolete, its jobs is now
being preformed by the semiconductor diode.
 Diode is device that has two electrode :. Which is anode and
cathode.
A metal plate has been heated so as to emit electrons. This was done
electrically by placing the cathode in front of what amounted to an
electric heater as shown . This heater is tungsten.
It is operated off a few volts ,either a.c or d.c .
From the diagram of Thermionic diode ;
 Electron boil off from the heated cathode and were attracted to the anode. :- a
cold metal plate which was commonly at about 100V with respect to the cathode .
 the main use of device (diode) was for rectification. i.e to o obtain a d.c current
from alternating voltage. It behaves like a valve in a water pipe and permitted one-
way flow only. Current could pass across it in the direction shown in figure 5.1 but
if the polarity of the main battery was reversed the clod anode would not emit
electrons in to the vacuum and so current would not flow.
 Adiode valve provide useful of power because of the heater.

Cathode ray
 cathode rays are a beam of electrons moving through a vacuum a high speed.
They are produced by an electron gun ,which is a vacuum tube device
 Used for controlling the number of electron
As in the thermionic diode ,electrons are realesed from heated cathode by
thermionic emission and are attracted toward the anode.
 un like the diode , the voltage on the anode may be as 5000V relative to
the cathode. The electrons are pulled to ward the center of the anode ,
accelerating to very high speed – of order of a tenth that of light –shooting
straight through the hole along the axis of the anode.
X-ray tube
The x-ray machine is also a vacuum tube device. Electrons are released from the
cathode by the thermionic emission and are then accelerating through a p.d of
the order of 100kV so as to hit the anode an extremely high speed . When such
fast- moving cathode rays are suddenly stopped , x-rays are produced.
Most of the beam’s energy is released as heat rather than x-rays, so the anode
gets very hot. To minimize this it is made of large block of copper to conduct
the heat away
, the other ending being equipped with cooling or having fins or
having cold liquid pumped round it.
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
 Another very useful vacuum tube device is the cathode ray oscilloscope.
 In cathode ray oscilloscope the beam of electrons are produces a spot on fluorescent
screen at the end of the tube. Before reaching the screen it pass between two set of
deflecting plate- one pair to deflect it in the y- direction and the other in the x- direction.
Cathode rays are:-
 Travel in straight line
 Start normally from the surface of the cathode
 Exert mechanical pressure on the surface at which it fall.
 Produce fluoresce on certain substance on which they fall.
 Penetrate through thin layer of matter.
 produce ionization in the gas through which they pass.
 Are attracted by electric field.
 Are deflected by magnetic field.
 Posses large amount of kinetic energy.
From these properties of cathode ray it was conclude that cathode rays are actually
stream of negatively charged particles .We now knows these rays are actually a
shower of electrons.
Some use of the CRO
It use as direct current:-
The CRO can be used as voltmeter and will represent the voltage of a source of
direct current as stationary spot of light on the screen.
It uses as sensitivity
The sensitivity – the size deflection caused by the voltage applied across the y-
plate of a CRO- can be adjusted using the gain control.
For example:- If the sensitivity is set to 3V per cm and the spot is deflected by
2cm by unknown potential difference . Then the unknown potential difference
can be calculated as follow:-
Look the diagram below.
Then if 1cm represent 3V
2cm = ?
Solution
1cm = 3V
2cm = X
X = 2cm x 3V
1cm
X=6cm
Example 2:- A 1.5 V cell is connected to the y- plate of a CRO and the gain
control adjust so the trace is 1cm above the zero line ( Figure 5.5a) .The
cell is removed , unknown potential difference is applied to the y- plate
and new trace is seen on the screen of the CRO (Figure 5.5b)
What is the size of the unknown potential difference?
 Solution
1cm = 1.5V ,2cm deflection is represent
2cm = X
X = 2cm x 1.5
1cm
X = 3V
 Cathode ray oscilloscope use as time base
 Time base is applied along the x- plate. This
pulls the spot across the screen from left right at
steady rate , it then flies backs to the left hand
side and represents its movement.
 If the time base is applied to a signals made by a
direct current the trace change from dot ( Figure
5.6a ) to line (Figure 5.b)
 CRO is used as Alternating current
The voltage of alternating current varies between ( a positive
maximum to ( a negative ) minimum . If the time base is
switched off this is represented as vertical line on the screen of a
CRO.
From the above figure 5.7b if the time base is switched on, this become a
curve whose shape is known as sine wave.
Finding the period and frequency of alternating currents or voltage using
CRO
In the same way that an unknown p.d can be measured using a CRO by
comparing its trace with that made by a known a p.d , The CRO can
measure frequency by comparing a wave of unknown frequency with
known frequency.
 The Known signals is applied to the CRO and the time base adjusted so
that one complete wave appears on the screen (In figure 5.8a) .The known
signals is then applied in place of the known signals ,with out alternating
any of the CRO controls and the trace on the screen is studied (figure 5.8b)
As figure 5.8 b shown to complete waves it follows that the unknown
frequency is twice that of known signals . Then find unknown frequency.
The known frequency = 50HZ
Since the unknown frequency twice that of known frequency
Then unknown frequency = 2 x 50Hz
= 100HZ
TV picture tube
 The older sort of television , with the big heavy tube ,is similar to CRO.
The receiver sends currents through coil that are mounted just out side
the tube; their magnetic field deflect the spot of light on the screen so it
moves rapidly to trace an order path all over the screen.
5.2 Conductor, semiconductor and insulator
Material can be divided in to three classes.
 Insulator :- Such as glass, and plastic , which do not conduct electricity
because every electron in them is tightly bound to its parent atom.
 Conductor :- Such as metal:- All the electron in the inner shell are still
tightly bound to their atoms . However ,those electrons in the outer most
shell of ever atoms are free to move with in the metal.
 Semiconductor:- Just the few of the outer most electrons have enough
energy to be in the conduction (that is to break free from their parent atom,
but this number rises as the material because hotter , silicon , germanium ,
leadsulphide , selenium and gallium arsenide are all semi conductor.
 Intrinsic semiconductor
 Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor not contain any
dopant.
 Pure semiconductor are usually referred to as intrinsic semiconductor .
Such as silicon , germanium etc
 Such substance have resistivity between those of insulator and
those of conductor .
 In intrinsic semiconductor ,electric current is carried by moving
electrons , as it is in metal, although the number of charge carriers in
silicon is perhaps a billion times fewer than in copper.
 Intrinsic semiconductor can also be considered to contain moving
positive charges that carry current
 Lattice structure of an intrinsic semiconductor.
 Some of electron in atom of an intrinsic semi conductors are held less
tightly than others . This means that in a piece of intrinsic semiconductors
materials at room temperature there will be always be a few free electrons
that have been ‘shaken free’ of their atoms by thermal excitation ( when
material has absorbed energy from the surrounding).
 When an electron leaves an atom in this way the atoms becomes
positively charged . The effect of electron leaving an atoms is therefore to
create a positive charge in the semiconductor lattice . This positive charge
is called a hole
When an electric field is applied to the semi
conductor ( that is when it connected to the
source of e.m.f) the electron and the holes move
in opposite direction and semi conductor exhibit
intrinsic conduction. This happens because ,
under the influence of this electric field electron
still bound to atom in the lattice are able to move
through the lattice from an atom to near by hole.
 Thus cause the hole to appear to move through the lattice. This
motion happens in the opposite direction to the motion of electron.
The current in a pure semiconductor consist of free electron moving
through the semiconductor lattice in one direction ,with the
equilibrium of positive charged holes moving in the other direction.
 Charge carrier resistance in semiconductor

While the resistance of metallic conductor rise as they warm the resistance of
semiconductor falls greatly as their temperature goes up. This because when the
temperature of semiconductor is raised , more electron ( charge carrier ) have
enough energy to break free.
 As the number of charge carrier increase ,the resistance of semiconductor decrease
the material conduct current.
5.3 Semiconductor ( impurities doping)
 Introducing extra charge carrier to some conductor materials is called doping.
 Doping is deliberately introducing impurities into a semiconductor to change its
electrical properties.
 When semiconductor increasing their conductivity by introducing extra charge
carrier to semiconductor lattice ,forming what is called extrinsic semiconductor.
 Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that is doped.
Majority and minority charge carrier
If phosphorous atoms with five outer electros are substituted as an
impurities for some of the silicon atoms , the fifth electron is not
needed for binding to adjacent atoms and is free to move through
the solid. Such extrinsic semiconductor with an impurities
donating free electrons to the crystal is known as n- type
semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that is doped.
Majority and minority charge carrier
If phosphorous atoms with five outer electros are substituted as an impurities for
some of the silicon atoms , the fifth electron is not needed for binding to
adjacent atoms and is free to move through the solid. Such extrinsic
semiconductor with an impurities donating free electrons to the crystal is known
as n- type semiconductor
 when boron doped to semiconductor such as silicon one deficiency of
electron is formed . Such extrinsic semiconductor is called p- type
semiconductor , because it accept one electron from the neighboring atoms .
The majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor is called electro while
the minority charge carrier in p- type semiconductor is called a hole
 Conduction in doped semiconductor

 The number of free electrons and holes can be altered dramatically by

doping. For example the addition only arsenic atoms per millions
silicon atoms increase the conductivity 100,000 times.
The p-n junction diode.
Suppose the p-n type semiconductor is in contact with an n-type one. At
the junction where they meet some of the n- type electron moves or fall
in to the p-type holes. This movement is known as diffusion.
This diffusion current cause the p-type became slightly become negative
while the n-type is left equally positive a depleting zone for small
distance each side of the boundary.
In the depletion zone there are no more ‘holes’ so it forms non conducting strip
which block all current .
Forward and reveres bias
 When the positive terminals of the cell connected to the p- side and the
negative terminals to the n-side the applied voltage of the junction is called
forward bias. In forward bias the extra field drives the majority charge
carriers ( electron n-type and holes in p- type ) of each region to ward the
junction .
 When negative terminals of the battery is connected to the p- type of the p-
n junction , the junction is said to be reverse bias. In reverse bias no current.
Current –voltage characteristics of semiconductor diode
• The p-n junction as describe acts as a diode ,in the other
direction it will conduct , in the other direction it will not. The
behavior of this diode can be illustrated by current voltage as
shown figure below.
• In forward direction , silicon require a bout 0.6v before
conduction will start , after current usually limited by the
resistance of the resistance of the circuit. In the other
direction notice there will be a tiny leakage current. If the
reverse potential be come to great for the device the barrier at
the junction breaks and permit large current to flow.
 Some conductor device
Diode is an electronic component with two two electrode – an anode and cathode- which will only allow the electric current to pass through
it in one direction.
 Some conductor diode – formed from a layer of p- type
semiconductor joined to a layer of n- type
semiconductor materials . It is very important electric
component.
LDR( Light dependent resistor)
A light dependent resistor (LDR for short) conducts
electricity but in the dark it has very high resistance .
Shining light on it appears to (“ unjam” ) it because its
resistance falls. The brighter the light the better it
conduct .The symbol LDR is given below.
 Thermistor
Thermistor is a piece of semiconductor for material that has a
high resistance in the cold. The resistance drops as it become
warmer.
 Variable resistance
A variable resistance is very useful component in electronic
circuit ,particularly in circuit contain transistor
 LED( light emitted diode)
LED is used in multitude device. When a current is passed in forward direction an
LED emit light . The LED is very useful component – if there is one in a circuit. It
is possible to see immediately if current is flowing . LED have many colours, red ,
green ,blue and white.
 Transistor
The transistor is a very significant semiconductor component
 A bipolar junction transistor is made of three layers of doped semiconductor
and has three terminals- the base is connected to central layer ,the other two
( the collector and the emitter) are each connected one of the outer layer.
Figure above shows n-p-n transistor ,which has a layer of p-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two layers of n- type.
Photo diode
The photodiode is a light sensitive diode used to detect light or to measure its
intensity . Photo diode are reverse bias so they don’t conduct. Light incident on
photo diode frees a few more electrons and device start to conduct.
Photovoltaic cell
The photovoltaic cell is a form of photodiode .The layer of photovoltaic cell solar
cell is made up of p-type semiconductor materials. This is covered with layer of
n-type semiconductor materials. when light strikes the junction between n- and
p-type of semiconductor ,electrons flow through the structure of the cell
Rectification using the p-n junction.
Using diode:- diode is allow current to flow current in one way. But on the
other half cycle the current can not flow. Back again through the diode but
not only diode by using diode and capacitor we can rectify current.
5.4 . Transistor (p-n-p, n-p-n )
The bipolar transistor
Bi- means two:- therefore , two types of transistor;-
1. p-n-p transistor and
2. n-p-n transistor
Transistor of this type has three terminals one to each semiconductor layer.
 The connection to the central is the base , while the outer two are called the
collector and the emitter.
 The two essential feature of transistors are
 The base layer has to be extremely thin
 The collector must be arranged so as to be in physical contact with and
surround as much of the bass as possible.
 Transistor biasing

A diode said to be forward if the voltage of the source ( positive terminals ) connected to the p-
type and n- type connected to the negative terminals. For the transistor biasing the arrow on the
emitter of the transistor shows the direction of the convectional current flow.
 Current sent to the base has only one possible route out. The junction toward the collector is
reverse biased so it all has to escape via the emitter.
Transistor characteristics
Transistor has three terminals , so one of them is inevitable be common
to both. It can be any of the three , so the circuit can be classified as
common emitter
common base
common collector
 Logic gate
Logic gates are tiny silicon chips which are etched combination of
transistor and resistor. They typically have two input and one output.
What happened to the out put is determined by the situation at those in
put. An example is the AND gate.
The AND gates
The power supply for this by two wire. One at +5V and the other is at
0V.
For the in put 0V in case we say the in put is “0”
For the in put +5V in case we say the input is “1”
For this gate the out put is “1” if and only both the input is “1” unless
“0”
The truth table for the NAD Gate
The NAD gate act like two switch in series. Both switch must be
placed in the one position to make the out put live

The OR gate
The OR gate behaves like the same two switch in parallel. The
truth table for the OR gate is shown below .The output always at
+5 except when both switches are at “0” .
 The NOT gate
This has a single input and its output always the opposite . A “0” at input means “1” at the
out put.
 The NAND and NOR gates
There are final gate to consider the NAND and NOR gate . These are
just the AND gate the OR gate respectively but the out put is inverted.
In steady of a “0” there is a “1” and instead of a “1” there is a “0” .
Combination of Logic the gate
More than one logic gate may be combined to increase the range
of control tasks can be preformed.
Example. consider the arrangement shown below.
The truth table for the combination of logic
Exercise
• Find the truth table
.
Thank you

END OF UNIT- 5