IP Research Paper

The International Journal of Indian Psychology
ISSN 2348-5396 (Online) | ISSN: 2349-3429 (Print)

Volume 9, Issue 2, April- June, 2021
DIP: 18.01.168.20210902, DOI: 10.25215/0902.168
http://www.ijip.in
Research Paper
Indian Psychology- Exploring the Historical Roots, Emerging

Trends and Future Implications
Mansi Sharma1*
ABSTRACT
The field of Indian psychology is potentially recent and dates back to the times of N.N.
Sengupta and the establishment of the first psychology lab in Calcutta (now Kolkata) in the
year 1915. Since then, the field of Indian psychology, at its own pace has seen its own
potentialities of upward growth and acceptance. Adopting various spiritual concepts and
ideological beliefs of the abstract ideas in the history of abstract consciousness, this relatively
new field of Indian psychology stands strong on the giants of eminent Indian psychologists
like Durganand Sinha, Girishwar Misra and Syed Mohammad Mohsin to name a few. The
contributions of Indian psychologists have been noteworthy. Keeping in mind their enormous
contribution and research evidences in this relatively vast and abstract sub-field, this
qualitative review is an attempt to explore the historical and indigenous roots of the Indian
perspective on Psychology, emerging trends and future scope and implications of research in
a field which deals majorly with human consciousness, spirituality and balance, by
maintaining the balance with the western psychological perspective.
Keywords: Indian Psychology, Consciousness, Self and Personality, Spirituality
T he development of Indian Psychology is a relatively a recent development which

roots from the Indian Philosophical subject matter. To establish a homogeneous
equation between indigenous and Indian Psychology might seem a dream because
psychology in India is still largely culturally bound and influenced. To define psychology
with an Indian perspective might seem an abstract idea because of the existence of a
theoretical conflict between the western and the Indian perspective on psychology.
Misra (2011) suggests that there is a functional difference between indigenous and Indian
psychology, while indigenous psychology deals majorly with the indigenization of
psychology as a discipline, Indian psychology usually deals with the functional thought of
the evolvement of psychology with spiritual and transcendental aspects. Supported and
strengthened by the spiritual thought process of Swami Vivekananda through a nationalistic
perspective, researchers and contributors get a comprehensive view of the evolving field of
Indian Psychology.
1
Counselling Psychologist, Uttar Pradesh, India
*Corresponding Author
Received: May 25, 2021; Revision Received: June 15, 2021; Accepted: June 30, 2021
© 2021, Sharma M.; licensee IJIP. This is an Open Access Research distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any Medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Indian Psychology- Exploring the Historical Roots, Emerging Trends and Future Implications
In his classical book “Development of Psychological Thought in India” (1962), S

Ramachandran wrote though the study of mind was not an independent thought in the
ancient times, various concepts- spiritual, transcendental and religious have been thought
upon in various altered perspectives.
Development of Indian Psychology

The advent of psychology in the Indian perspective has been into the research-based focus
only to follow the western perspective of psychology which started developing its own
empirical metaphysical subsystems and religious constructs. Based on these, numerous
theories about self and personality, religious, their interplay with the practical applications
and implications was constructed through a power bank of psychological knowledge base.
Modern methodology lacked empirical evidence in the true sense which is why a strict
divide or amend was required and expected, as far as modern Indian Psychology is
considered.
Considering the potential growth psychology here in India was capable of achieving, the
first coursework of experimental psychology was established in the university of Calcutta.
Often, Indian psychology is confused with the study of a specific culture or tribe in India,
sometimes so it is in the western terminology of definable constructs, thought upon as a
study about people or population of India residing specifically within the geographical
boundaries of the country. What is noteworthy is the fact that it does addresses the study of
the behavioral and cultural reactions to the situational constructs, it does not, by large the
psychology of the Indians.
Defined and highlighted in our ancient texts and scriptures, Indian psychology follows a
rightward inclination towards higher consciousness as a method to understand the intricacies
of self and personality and the theory of mind. Indian psychology or the Indian perspective
on psychology is dynamic in its nature because of its universal applicability.
When we talk about the indigenization of psychology, many psychologists who rely on the
cultural roots and cues, have successfully attempted to translate by adapting the tests and
scales as per the Indian setting, some of the examples can be Binet-Kamath intelligence
scale or Uma Chaudhary’s Indian adaptation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
The ancient thinkers have by far attempted to dig deep into every aspect in great detail, be it
the Arthashastra- the study of political and economic domain, the study of six philosophical
subsystems- Shat darsanas, Neetishastra or Dharmashastra – the study of the social aspect
of the society and human species or Kamasutra – about the sexual tendencies and human
sexuality. To sync the modern and philosophical roots of psychology, our ancient
intellectuals have covered it all from politics to sexuality.
Sufficient research and empirical evidences are available in the regard of the development of
Indian psychology, based on this we can roughly trace back the development of the Indian
roots to the development of psychology across the 20th century when the possible
terminology, to define psychology a s a different branch away from its own contemporary
roots of philosophy might be manashastra as its complimentary to the western perspective.
The western ideological belief to contemporary psychology differs in the sense that there are
varied perspectives to life and death, consciousness, human nature, life- orientation, goals
and virtues when compared with an Indian ideological belief. So much so that on the
surface the western form of thought-belief psychological perspective seems a bit too
© The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 1687
materialistic, probably which is why some of the theories and literature lacks practical
applicability when assessed in the Indian psychological environment and population.
The Indian perspective is strengthened by two spiritually inclined world-views dharma and
darsana. These are suggested to have been studied as the ancient experiences of saints and
sages along-with our intellectual thinkers. These begin with understanding the concept as the
grounded spirituality base in its own sense of reality. However, when looked upon in the
three forms of religious practices followed by the India population, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism evolve from similar cultural roots- from an Indian psychological thought, they
share similar features in terms of spirituality and religious oneness and integrity. These
aspects are discussed below briefly.
While indigenous psychology focuses on eliciting concepts and modalities based on taking
culture as a root, the concept of focusing and addressing those basic needs or biological
needs were thought upon by our Indian traditions long back. This is clearly similar to the
concept of Maslow’s need of hierarchy as we study today in the modern western
psychology. Our traditions suggest that when these basic needs are balanced out and
achieved, our mind and body struggle hard enough to achieve and actualize the other higher
order needs- in terms of spiritual and transcendental needs. When human beings are able to
attain the higher order spiritual inclination, they are better able to connect with innate
experiences, naturalistic thinking and thought process develops, one where there is no time-
space restrictions, detachment yet attachment to worldly pleasures and duties is evident as
well. Humans actualize and learn from experiences of self and others which enables them to
be connected with the spiritual path of growth and human potentialities, a concept similar to
the humanistic and existential perspective in the modern- contemporary psychology.
Life and death follow a different ideological thought pattern in both western and Indian
psychology. The western psychology is backed by the theory of human evolution by Darwin
where there is a passage of dominant and recessive traits across various species- living,
which is why, the human species is considered to be the most superior or the most developed
one, which limits its research scope in further directions. This is altogether different In the
Indian perspective as a fact that life and death is an ongoing process- the soul or aatma is
ever- evolving and when it leaves a human body, it will follow its due course and will
undergo rebirth again only in other life forms if not necessarily as a human species. The
force of life and death is ever evolving and an ongoing process. The practices, tendencies
and life path we follow in this life is a result of accumulated karma of a past life and acts as
a stepping stone in the next lifetime, our birth, transformation and death are complementary
to each other in accordance with the Indian perspective.
While the Indian perspective is known for its inclination towards purushartha or the
ideology where the human life is much deeper than the fulfillment of the biological needs, it
follows a life leading path which suggests that the human goals and aspirations must also be
influenced on the basis of how a living being wishes to spend his life, in the process of
leading a life full of virtues. By developing virtues in his/ her human life, individuals can
attain self- fulfillment and this attainment creates a building foundation towards the
attainment of spiritual goals, often practiced at the later stage of a human life-span. Often
misunderstood as the fulfillment of one’s sexual desires only Kama also indicates the
fulfillment of other higher order psychological needs as well. Ancient texts suggests that in
this process of birth, death and rebirth the whole process of purushartha is dynamic in its
own existential being.
There is an existence of a functional and ideological difference between western and Indian
psychology in the sense that the former is less accepting on the spiritual aspect of
psychology, however, it would be contextually incorrect to coin such an inference due to the
fact of increased research-based evidences about parapsychology a subfield of psychology
that deals with out of the body experiences (not to be confused as hallucination or
somatoform experiences).
When researchers based on consciousness surface, western psychology in the beginning was
only considerate enough to focus on exploring the three states of waking, deep sleep and
dream states. The fourth state which has recently been identified is the state of
consciousness or conscious awareness. Indian intellectual thinkers believe that
consciousness or higher- order/ transcendental consciousness is attaining pure state of
awareness. As far as the yoga sutra is concerned, the drstu or awareness is considered to be
independent of mental thoughts and activities. There is a clear demarcation between
consciousness and the mind due to which it is possible to consciously carry out mental
activities and tasks of consciousness. The manas is Jada Vastu sans life but with the
presence of physical matter. Consciousness is considered to be an energy that enlightens in
the presence of physical matter. Both of these together results in the formation of Sukshama
and the Karna Sharira which continue the rebith in a transformatory manner. Some of these
similar concepts are also evident in the Buddhism and the Jainism literature, although the
Jiva according to the Jains keeps on transforming and escalating with the help of karma and
the notions of Brahman and Atman is an alien concept. Although the Buddhists consider
Gautam Buddha as an enlightened person, he rejected the idea of transcendental awareness
or what we call Atman.
Psychological Aspects of Bhagwad Gita

Recent empirical developments shows that the psychological aspects of Shrimad Bhagwad
Gita portray great in-depth information about the whole time-lapse of the epic war- The
Mahabharata. Many researchers understand the comprehensive contextual and
psychological aspects it covers. Many of them are of the view that the great text in itself is
the greatest epitome of religiosity intertwined with spirituality. It is an important sacred text
in the Hinduism so much so that it has been translated into almost every language and
carries varied spiritual meaning dynamically.
The sacred text of the Gita depicts how consciousness, emotionality, behavioral aspects,
fulfilling one’s duties, fighting for righteousness, the ability of self-control, impulses and
reacting and acceptance of cowardice play a major role in one’s life and the circle of life.
Some aspects where Yudhishthira, the eldest son of Pandu, was influenced by Sanjay to
think that war is a sin in the name of Dharma, and that he himself was Dharmaraj, he was
influenced to some extent considering that waging a war against his own brothers was no
less than a sin. Another instance is the one where Arjuna, is reluctant to fulfill his duties as
an armed warrior in the battlefield. This shows the psychological reluctance despite pure
consciousness however, what was undiscovered as the form of conscious awareness was
resolved by Lord Krishna when he imparted the lesson of performing one’s social
obligations but keeping the religious and the spiritual notions of knowledge intact.
With the help of politics, Sanjay was able to manipulate the Pandavas in an attempt to
weaken their side against the Kaurawas. Attachment is majorly thought to be of enemy to
the human personality and it is suggested to follow the path of detachment towards
situations, people and relationships if the obligations or karma as they say has to be fulfilled.
If we try and analyze the character or personality of Arjuna, we realize that despite being a
learned warrior, he was reluctant to implement the skills, to help him realize his strength,
Lord Krishna has been seen being his supervisor and bringing him back on track to lead the
war in the battle-field. Truth and strength is evident when Lord himself imparts the
knowledge of the soul that it is eternal and it seeks to be killed in order to regain itself. He
also preaches that gradually, and steadily, the mind cannot be controlled but trained in such
a way where the thought process can reach a stage of transcendence and spirituality. Thus,
we can infer from such an analytic perspective that being derailed in making a conscious
decision is not indicative of cowardice, but it in itself is recovery, a journey towards making
an informed decision.
Buddhi yoga or intellect in accordance in terms of abstract judgement, learning and

adjustment. As per the Gita, Lord Krishna is the live example of Sthirbuddhi or a stable
intellect. It is crucial to also understand that with a view of Sthirbuddhi, reason and
enlightenment happens when there is no judgement of fear, as Lord himself says while
preaching that only he is the ultimate truth, and that in him, everything else merges. Arjun
then regains his senses and understands that illusion has to go in view of attaining
enlightenment and illumination. The Gita also highlights the importance of managing
impulses, the failure of which creates imbalance a result of which is evident in the under,
over and suppressed portrayal of emotions. Anger, greed, lust if practiced results in the lack
of judgement, ultimately leading to the failure and downfall of a human being.
Self and Personality in the Indian Context

The concept of self and personality in the Hindu tradition has been an ever-evolving
concept. Since the ancient times, self and personality have been studied as complimentary
aspects. The self is an independent concept. In accordance with the Yogic perspective, is
dualistic in nature. The purusa is the pure awareness or consciousness, whereas the prakriti
or the psycho-physical aspect which refers to the unconscious. The prakriti comprises of two
components namely buddhi or the intellect or the ahamkara or the ego-based mechanism.
The manas or the mind and the indri or the senses elicit its being from the self or the
purusa. In the path of enlightenment or in the process of attaining samadhi or transcendental
consciousness, the individual must accept and practice by undergoing the karmic cycles of
birth, rebirth, liberation and death- the ultimate form of liberation, from aatman, physical
body and an eternal soul.
Transcendental transformation follows the path of spirituality, especially in the process of

reaching an individual’s highest potential. Through the melodious interplay of purusa and
prakriti, an individual can get through the process of reaching the higher consciousness and
attaining self-liberation. The same can be reached through the process of Abhyasa through
which, a path of righteousness can be carved. Through devotion or bhakti yoga, the utmost
self- awareness can be attained. Samskara has its importance in the sense that it binds the
life of an individual, makes it fulfilling and easy to function on this path and fulfill its
essence of the very existence.
The self and personality in the ancient perspective can also be thought upon in terms of the
gunas the person is made up of. These gunas were the motivating factors and the building
blocks of an individual’s personality. Ancient researches and intellectual thinkers classify
them into three major categories namely- the tamas or the tamasic guna, the sattva guna
and the tamas or the rajas or rajasic guna. Indian saints and sages believed that a fully
functioning individual is a balanced composition of the three gunas, presence of any one
guna in excess could create an imbalance in the basic pravritti or the personality of an
individual.
The individuals with a dominant tamasic personality are more likely be argumentative, have
anger issues or may have tamasic qualities like lust, greed and immediate gratificatory
needs. Tamas may be a result of escapism from the duties of this worldly life and being
away from the spiritual awakening or transformation in the life. The rajas guna is dominant
of action and movement in life. It has to do with the fruit o results of our hard work and
achievement. Thus, an imbalance or underactivity of this particular guna might be indicative
of fearfulness or anxiousness in later stages of life. The sattva guna indicates the sattvik or
purity of action. It is the sattvik guna which reduces the effects of dominance of the tamas
and the rajas and makes it possible to achieve the ultimate liberation form all the worldly
pleasures of life. An individual high or dominant on this particular guna is highly likely to
be a person full of self- harmony, purity, balance and selflessness.
Ancient Ayurveda also highlights the importance or bodily composition of the tridoshas or
faults as body typology in an individual. These can be categorized as vatta, pitta and kapha.
The vatta is a major composition od air and earth, usually with a slender and an athletic body
type, these individuals are steady and effective communicators. They are active, result
oriented marked by movement and creativity. The pitta dominants are a combination of
water and fire. A stable balanced body, they are most likely to be of a medium built and their
qualities are their intellect and courage. They might face issues with anger and irritability
though, they are more dominant with transformation and transcendence. The kapha is a
composition of earth and water elements making the native on a plump side. Often full with
compassion and fluidity, flexibility and structure in their usual nature, these individuals are
usually likely to forgiving and full of love and compliance in their usual nature, however,
these individuals are also most likely to be filled with mental inertia, melancholy and
sadness, attachment and greed.
Challenges in Indian Psychology

The recent emerging trends towards the development of the Indian Psychology has shown an
upward trend towards testing and experimentation. While looking back in the 1930s and
beyond, India was on the verge of experiencing and accepting that psychological science
was or could be a different discipline altogether, apart from the biological roots of its
philosophical foundations. This section of qualitative review analyses the challenges in the
field of Indian Psychology that are evident, in accordance with the researcher’s own
observation.
• Backed by a materialistic perspective, Indian psychology is by large limited to the
characteristics of natural and physical sciences. Hence there exits a limited scope of
research advancement based on external scientific methodologies.
• There is paucity of research- based evidences and findings to fit the Indian
population in terms of subjective and objective interpretation of models and theories.
• There are certain research areas such as the Buddhism and Jainism spiritual
worldview because of lack of initiation towards the same.
• Researchers interested in studying transpersonal psychology are much more inclined
towards studying it superficially due to which, there is lack of in-depth analysis in
this field despite of its growth and potentialities.
• Clinical interventionists likewise are limited towards the expansion and research in
the clinical population across the country. This leaves them with limited or no scope
to study the Indian literature well.
• The whole conceptualization of the Indian psychological school of though is abstract
in its structure. Researchers find it difficult to understand the abstract concepts as
these are usually subjective in nature. For example, transcendence and spirituality
might hold different meanings for different people. In this way, what scientific
methodology should be adopted to reach satisfactory and conclusions of statistical or
qualitative significance might be an ethical issue or challenge to deal with.
• Social psychologists and researchers are often of the view that because of the
complementary integration of the psyche and the culture, it is nearly impossible to
conceptualize the construction of universally acceptable theories, models or studies.
DISCUSSION
The field of Indian psychology is potentially recent and dates back to the times of N.N.
Sengupta and the establishment of the first psychology lab in Calcutta (now Kolkata) in the
year 1915. Since then, the field of Indian psychology, at its own pace has seen its own
potentialities of upward growth and acceptance. Adopting various spiritual concepts and
ideological beliefs of the abstract ideas in the history of abstract consciousness, this
relatively new field of Indian psychology stands strong on the giants of eminent Indian
psychologists like Durganand Sinha, Girishwar Misra and Syed Mohammad Mohsin to
name a few.
Defined and highlighted in our ancient texts and scriptures, Indian psychology follows a
rightward inclination towards higher consciousness as a method to understand the intricacies
of self and personality and the theory of mind. Indian psychology or the Indian perspective
on psychology is dynamic in its nature because of its universal applicability.
When we talk about the indigenization of psychology, many psychologists who rely on the
cultural roots and cues, have successfully attempted to translate by adapting the tests and
scales as per the Indian setting, some of the examples can be Binet-Kamath intelligence
scale or Uma Chaudhary’s Indian adaptation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
The Indian perspective is strengthened by two spiritually inclined world-views dharma and
darsana. These are suggested to have been studied as the ancient experiences of saints and
sages along-with our intellectual thinkers. These begin with understanding the concept as the
grounded spirituality base in its own sense of reality. However, when looked upon in the
three forms of religious practices followed by the India population, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism evolve from similar cultural roots- from an Indian psychological thought, they
share similar features in terms of spirituality and religious oneness and integrity.
Lord Krishna is the live example of Sthirbuddhi or a stable intellect. It is crucial to also
understand that with a view of Sthirbuddhi, reason and enlightenment happens when there is
no judgement of fear, as Lord himself says while preaching that only he is the ultimate truth,
and that in him, everything else merges. Arjun then regains his senses and understands that
illusion has to go in view of attaining enlightenment and illumination. The Gita also
highlights the importance of managing impulses, the failure of which creates imbalance a
result of which is evident in the under, over and suppressed portrayal of emotions. Anger,
greed, lust if practiced results in the lack of judgement, ultimately leading to the failure and
downfall of a human being.
Transcendental transformation follows the path of spirituality, especially in the process of

reaching an individual’s highest potential. Through the melodious interplay of purusa and
prakriti, an individual can get through the process of reaching the higher consciousness and
attaining self-liberation. The same can be reached through the process of Abhyasa through
which, a path of righteousness can be carved. Through devotion or bhakti yoga, the utmost
self- awareness can be attained. Samskara has its importance in the sense that it binds the
life of an individual, makes it fulfilling and easy to function on this path and fulfill its
essence.
The recent emerging trends towards the development of the Indian Psychology has shown an
upward trend towards testing and experimentation. While looking back in the 1930s and
beyond, India was on the verge of experiencing and accepting that psychological science
was or could be a different discipline altogether, apart from the biological roots of its
philosophical foundations.
CONCLUSION
The contributions of Indian psychologists have been noteworthy. Keeping in mind their
enormous contribution and research evidences in this relatively vast and abstract sub-field,
this qualitative review is an attempt to explore the historical and indigenous roots of the
Indian perspective on Psychology, emerging trends and future scope and implications of
research in a field which deals majorly with human consciousness, spirituality and balance,
by maintaining the balance with the western psychological perspective.
Future Scope and Implications

Better and comprehensive data, both qualitative and quantitative can be analyzed keeping in
mind the applicability of the Indian roots and philosophical foundations. We need more
comprehensive researches in the area of triguna and tridoshas with adolescent samples.
There is also a lack of assessment scales in the same area, more psychological testing scales
can be developed to assess personality of the individuals on these tridoshas and trigunas.
University curriculum has to be also be updated not only in government but in private ones
also so that the students can get a grip of the ancient text and literature, and can get inspired
to carry out research in this domain as well. The paucity of research in the Indian
psychology is a core reason to be addressed due to which there is lack of availability of
empirical literature.
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Acknowledgement
The author(s) appreciates all those who participated in the study and helped to facilitate the
research process.
Conflict of Interest
The author(s) declared no conflict of interest.
How to cite this article: Sharma M. (2021). Indian Psychology- Exploring the Historical
Roots, Emerging Trends and Future Implications. International Journal of Indian
Psychology, 9(2), 1686-1695. DIP:18.01.168.20210902, DOI:10.25215/0902.168

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The International Journal of Indian Psychology

ISSN 2348-5396 (Online) | ISSN: 2349-3429 (Print)

Indian Psychology- Exploring the Historical Roots, Emerging

Keywords: Indian Psychology, Consciousness, Self and Personality, Spirituality

T he development of Indian Psychology is a relatively a recent development which

In his classical book “Development of Psychological Thought in India” (1962), S

Development of Indian Psychology

Psychological Aspects of Bhagwad Gita

Buddhi yoga or intellect in accordance in terms of abstract judgement, learning and

Self and Personality in the Indian Context

Transcendental transformation follows the path of spirituality, especially in the process of

Challenges in Indian Psychology

Transcendental transformation follows the path of spirituality, especially in the process of

Future Scope and Implications

Srivastava K. Concept of personality: Indian perspective. Ind Psychiatry J 2012;21:89-93.

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