INDICATORS

Indicators are used in social development projects and programmes to provide evidence of progress or
change. They play an important role in most monitoring and evaluation systems and approaches. There are
many kinds of indicator, but most are either quantitative or qualitative. They can be developed in different
ways, according to the context.

Indicators are defined in different ways by different Quantitative and qualitative indicators have different
organisations. Two definitions are shown below, but there strengths and weaknesses, and often both are needed
are many others: within a project or programme. For example, a detailed
case study on changes in individuals' livelihoods due to a
“A quantitative or qualitative factor or variable of project may not mean much unless the reader has some
interest, related to [an] intervention and its results, or idea of how many people were supported through the
to the context in which an intervention takes place.” project. Similarly, reports counting the number of people
(OECD, 2022) affected by a project may need to be supplemented by
descriptions of what has actually changed in their lives.
“An observable change or event which provides Some of the key differences between quantitative and
evidence that something has happened – whether an qualitative indicators are outlined below.
output delivered, immediate effect occurred or long-
term change observed.” (Bakewell, Adams and Pratt,
2003, p21)
Quantitative Qualitative
Indicators may be designed to reflect a project or
Expression Numbers Words
programme’s activities, or desired changes at different
levels from outputs (deliverables) through to long-term Coverage Provide Provide in-depth
impact. They can also be used to help identify information on information on changes
organisational (internal) change, or changes in the external scale and scope of at strategic points
environment. work

Analysis Analysed through Analysed through

statistical data qualitative analysis
Indicators should not be confused with the methods methods
things they are trying to measure. An
indicator is designed to provide evidence that Limitations Often need to be Often apply only to a
shows whether or not, or how far, a change interpreted through small number of people
qualitative enquiry or situations, and may
has happened or progress has been made. It not be representative
is not the desired change itself.

Other kinds of indicators include the following.

Different types of indicators
▪ Mixed or hybrid indicators contain an element of both
There are many kinds of indicator. The most commonly quantitative and qualitative data. For example, ‘# and
used ones are quantitative and qualitative indicators. description of policies changed’. These indicators can be
used to show both the scale and depth of change. In
➔ Quantitative indicators are reported as numbers this example, reporting on the number of policies
such as units, prices, proportions, rates of change changed would give the scale of change, and individual
and ratios. descriptions could show which policies had changed,
➔ Qualitative indicators are reported as words in
how and why.
quotes, statements, descriptions or case studies.
▪ Scoring and rating indicators are quantitative
It is not the way in which an indicator is defined that makes indicators. They are sometimes collected directly, but
it quantitative or qualitative, but the way in which it is may also be generated from qualitative data. For
reported. If an indicator is reported using a number then it example, training participants might be asked to rate
is a quantitative indicator. If it is reported using words then their satisfaction according to pre-defined categories
it is qualitative. A widespread misconception is that a such as ‘very satisfied’, ‘satisfied’, and ‘unsatisfied’.
qualitative indicator measures the quality of an activity or Alternatively, an evaluator might interview participants,
change. This is not always true. and then develop a rating based on their answers.

© INTRAC 2023
▪ Simple ‘yes/no’ or binary indicators can be used to Figure 1: An Example of the QQTP Protocol
define whether something has happened or not. For
example, ‘a new law on forced migration is enacted
before the end of 2025’.
Q uantity 300 midwives

300 midwives trained in traditional birthing

▪ In some circumstances, pictures can be used as Q uality
techniques
indicators. Along with words and numbers, pictures can
contain information that provides evidence of change. 300 midwives trained in traditional birthing
For example, photographs taken before and after a
T ime
techniques by the end of 2021
project can show how the physical environment of a 300 midwives in Southern Uganda trained in
village, school or urban area has changed. P lace traditional birthing techniques by the end of
2021
▪ Proxy indicators measure change in an indirect manner.
In other words, a proxy indicator does not measure
something directly. Instead, it measures it through a
related factor. For example, the distribution or Organisations that use neutral indicators often choose to
acceptance of condoms is sometimes used as a proxy link them up with baseline, milestone and target
measure for reduced rates of transmission of HIV. It is a statements. If indicators are quantitative then the
valid proxy because there is a known and accepted baselines, milestones and targets contain numbers. If they
correlation between the increased use of condoms and are qualitative then the baselines, milestones and targets
lower HIV transmission rates. contain words. Some simple examples are shown in figure 2
below.
▪ Framing (or basket) indicators are used when it is
difficult to exactly predict the changes resulting from a Whether neutral or not, a good indicator is still expected to
development intervention. They define the domain in be as specific as possible under the circumstances, so that it
which change is expected to occur. For example, is not left open to different interpretations.
‘changes in the way marginalised groups engage with
local government agencies’. Framing indicators are not
usually used to measure change, but instead are used to The relationship between indicators
collect and bring together different examples of change and sources of information
under a common theme. They are discussed further in
the M&E Universe paper on programme indicators. Some indicators can be collected using many different
methods of data collection and analysis. However, many
indicators only have meaning when they are linked to the
Defining indicators specific tools or methods used to collect them. For
example, if a survey is designed to ask a question such as
In the past, many indicators were developed according to ‘would you rate your engagement with the local school as
the Quantity, Quality, Time and Place (QQTP) protocol (see high, medium or low?’ then an indicator might be ‘# and %
figure 1). This meant that an indicator would include of respondents that say they have a high engagement with
numeric targets, such as '300 people trained' or a '30% the local school’. Without having first developed the survey,
increase in literacy levels'. the indicator would be meaningless.

Although some organisations still define indicators in this Consequently, the order in which indicators and tools are
way, a new industry standard has emerged where developed sometimes needs to be reversed. In some
indicators increasingly appear as neutral statements (e.g. circumstances it makes sense to develop an indicator first,
‘number of new jobs created’, not ‘50 new jobs created’). and then identify which sources of information could be
The reason is to ensure that indicators remain neutral used to generate the required information. In other cases it
criteria providing evidence of change, rather than targets to makes sense to develop or select tools of information
be achieved. collection and analysis before defining an indicator.

Figure 2: Baselines, Milestones and Targets

Indicator Baseline Milestone 1 Milestone 2 Target

% of girls in project areas who report living free
from violence over the past year 10% 25% 35% 50%

# of boys / girls completing one year of basic

primary education in project-supported schools 0 300 / 200 350 / 300 400 / 400

Capacity of supported partner to develop its Partner has no Partner can develop Partner is capable of Partner can produce
own project proposals ability to develop proposals with assistance developing independent independent, high
project proposals from supporting agency project proposals quality proposals

Policy on use of common grazing land No policy supports Development of new A new proposed policy is Policy is adopted by
introduced by the end of 2030 the use of common policy placed on agenda outlined and sent out for local government
grazing land of local government consultation

© INTRAC 2023
Disaggregation disadvantage is that the process of identifying, selecting
and refining indicators often takes much longer.
Indicators, especially quantitative ones, are often
disaggregated. Disaggregation means separating out Frequently, whatever process is used leads to the
information to show differences between distinct groups. development of a large number of potential indicators –
Common criteria for disaggregation include gender, youth, often far too many to collect and analyse effectively. Once
disability, and people living with HIV&AIDS. a range of possible indicators has been developed it is
useful to ask a few questions to help establish whether
Within social development it is now standard practice to they are realistic or not. Sometimes the answers to these
disaggregate indicators wherever possible, especially questions may lead to indicators being discarded. This helps
according to gender. This can apply not only to indicators to ensure that the remaining indicators are realistic. Some
focusing on people, but also to indicators such as ‘# of suggestions for questions are as follows:
organisations supported through capacity strengthening’,
which could be disaggregated according to whether ➔ Will you be able to collect information on your
organisations are women-led, youth-led, etc. indicator? If so, where will you get the information
from?
Where indicators are disaggregated, associated information ➔ Is the information likely to be accurate (credible)?
such as baselines, milestones and targets also needs to be ➔ How much will it cost to collect the information in
disaggregated, as in the example below. terms of staff time, project participants’ time
and/or money?
Figure 3: Disaggregated baselines and targets ➔ How often will you have to collect the
information?
Indicator Baseline Target ➔ Does it require baseline information? If so, can you
get this information?
% of targeted children suffering ➔ Do stakeholders have the capacity (or desire) to
40% 30%
from diahorrea in the past 2 collect the information honestly and accurately?
(35% boys) (30% boys)
weeks in programme areas, ➔ How far will you able to attribute the indicator to
(45% girls) (30% girls)
disaggregated by gender
your efforts?
➔ Will the information tell you anything you do not
already know?
Selecting and using indicators ➔ Will the information help you make decisions to
improve future performance?
Indicators can be developed or selected in many ways. ➔ Will it help you to be accountable to different
Some of these are described in the box below. stakeholders?
➔ How else will it help you (if at all)?

Methods of selecting indicators Once the indicators have been selected, the final step is to
operationalise them by defining them clearly, and stating
• Indicators might be developed by project or programme who will collect the information, when, how often, and
staff on their own.
which tools or methodologies will be used. This is explained
• They may be selected through brainstorming with a wider
group of stakeholders.
further in the M&E Universe paper on M&E plans.
• Many organisations involve project/programme
participants in selecting indicators. This is often a key
It is also important to recognise that some new indicators
aspect of participatory monitoring and evaluation. may emerge over the course of a project or programme,
• Some organisations develop checklists or menus of and other indicators may need to be removed or adjusted.
common indicators to select from. This might be because the indicators prove too difficult or
• Some organisations require standard indicators to be set expensive to use, or because of changes in the external
for specific programmes or sector areas (especially if they socio-economic environment, or because they simply don’t
wish to aggregate information). work as planned. A good monitoring and evaluation (M&E)
• Some donors require specific indicators to be used by system or approach will allow for the addition, removal or
organisations that receive their funds.
adjustment of indicators from time to time as a matter of
• In some areas of work, such as health or water and
sanitation, there are industry-specific indicators.
course.
• In some types of work there are approved guidelines for
setting indicators (e.g. SPHERE indicators for programmes “An objective that cannot be
involved in humanitarian programming).
measured may still have value
as a guiding or inspiring
Generally, the more stakeholders that are involved in objective. An indicator that
selecting indicators, the greater their ownership. This helps cannot be collected is a
ensure the indicators make sense to them, and are seen as
useful. In turn, this means the indicators are more likely to
worthless parasite.”
be collected accurately and analysed properly. However, a

© INTRAC 2023
Further reading and resources
Chapter 5 of the INTRAC book Sharpening the Development Process: A practical guide to monitoring and evaluation (see
reference below) is dedicated to indicators. Other papers in this section deal with setting objectives, and outputs, outcomes and
impact. There are also papers that discuss linking indicators between different levels of an organisation and developing M&E
plans. These papers can be accessed by clicking on the links below.

INTRAC has produced a concise guide to monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL), intended specifically for use by small non-
governmental organisations (NGOs). Written by Anne Garbutt, the toolkit is one of five produced as part of the Strengthening
Small Organisations with Big Ambitions project (2021-22), which aimed to strengthen small UK-based NGOs working in
international development. However, it can be used by any small NGO looking to develop their MEL practices. The toolkit
contains a short section on indicators, and is available at https://www.intrac.org/resources/monitoring-evaluation-and-learning-
a-toolkit-for-small-ngos/

References
▪ Bakewell, O.; J. Adams and B. Pratt (2003). Sharpening the Development Process: A practical guide to monitoring and
evaluation. INTRAC, UK.
▪ OECD (2022). Glossary of Key Terms in Evaluation and Results-Based Management: 2nd Edition – prepublication version.

Author(s): INTRAC is a values-based, not-for-profit organisation with a mission to strengthen civil society
Nigel Simister organisations. Since 1991, INTRAC has contributed significantly to the body of knowledge on monitoring
and evaluation. Our approach to M&E is practical and founded on core principles. We encourage
appropriate M&E, based on understanding what works in different contexts, and we work with people to
develop their own M&E approaches and tools, based on their needs.

M&E Training & Consultancy M&E Universe

INTRAC’s team of M&E specialists offer consultancy and For more papers in
training in all aspects of M&E, from core skills development the M&E Universe
through to the design of complex M&E systems series click the
Email: [email protected] home button