DDWA 2072 (CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY II)

GEOTECHNICAL LABORATORY

1. SOIL COMPACTION
2. SOIL CONSOLIDATION

GROUP MEMBERS
ALIF AFIF BIN MUHAMMAD AFFENDY (A21DW1083)
NUHAA SAFIAH BINTI MONARIZZAL (A21DW0543)
NUR KHAIRUNNISA BINTI ZAINI (A21DW0175)
TAN SHINO (A21DW0587)

LECTURER NAME
MR. WAN MOHD KAMIL BIN WAN AHMAD

1
 TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2

SOIL COMPACTION TEST

1.0 Introduction 4

2.0 Objective 5

3.0 Apparatus 5

4.0 Procedures 5

5.0 Data 9

6.0 Result

SOIL CONSOLIDATION TEST

1.0 Introduction 14

2.0 Objective 14

3.0 Apparatus 15

4.0 Procedures 16

5.0 Data 17

6.0 Result 18

7.0 Reference 26

Appendix 27

2
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Example Data Calculation 6

Table 2: Example Data Calculation 7

Table 3: Example Data Calculation 8

Table 4: Data Calculation 9

Table 5: Data Calculation 10

Table 6: Data Calculation 11

Table 7: Moisture content 16

Table 8: Saturated Sample 16

Table 9: Data of Soil Consolidation Test 17

Table 10: Data of Deformation and square root of time 18

Table 11: Pressure, Dial Gauge Reading and Void Ratio Data 21

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Graph of Soil's Dry Density Versus Moisture Content 12

Figure 2: Soil Consolidation Test Equipment 15

Figure 3: Graph of Deformation Versus 𝑡 19

Figure 4: Graph of Void Ratio Versus Pressure 22

Figure 5: Graph of e Versus log of Pressure 23

3
 SOIL COMPACTION TEST

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In general, the soil bearing capacity will be increased simultaneously with the
increment of density or unit weight of the soil. The increment of soil density can be
obtained via compaction process i.e. the process of mechanically reducing the air
void.

Soil compaction test is carried out in the laboratory in determining the ideal volume of
water to be poured while compacting the soil on site so that the required compaction
degree can be obtained. The important characteristics of soil compacted with an ideal
compaction degree are:
a. High shear strength
b. Low permeability coefficient and capacity
c. Reduce settlement when additional load is applied

The moisture content recorded when the maximum dry unit weight is achieved is
known as the optimum moisture content. There are two types of compaction i.e.
a. Standard Proctor
b. Modified Proctor

Standard Proctor will be used in undertaking the experiment where the standard data
are recorded as the following:

Standard Volume Mass of Drop No. of No. of

Proctor of Hammer Distance Blows Layer
Mould Per Layer

944 cm3 2.5 kg 305 mm 25 3

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2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the maximum dry density at the optimum moisture content under laboratory
conditions.

3.0 APPARATUS

1. Sieve 5.00 mm
2. Weighing machine
3. Empty mould with inner diameter of 101.6 mm, inner height of 16.43 mm and volume of
944 cm3 together with the base plate
4. Hammer with diameter of 50 mm and mass of 2.5 kg
5. Other equipment in determining the soil moisture content

4.0 PROCEDURES

1. The Standard Proctor was used in this experiment.

2. Small soil sample was obtained from the jobsite.
3. 5 kg of dry soil was prepared to pass through 4.75 mm sieve opening.
4. The weight was obtained for the empty mould, collar, and base plate.
5. The sample was thoroughly mixed with water (approximately 9% of the total soil
volume).
6. In the mould, the soil sample was compacted.
7. A solid and stable base was used to place the mould.
8. 3 layers of the sample were compacted
9. A total of 25 blows were applied uniformly over the surface and ensure the rammer was
always allowed to fall freely and that soil in the guide tube was not obstructing its
movement.
10. Upon completion of compaction, the attached collar was removed.
11. Before compacting the next layer, straightedge was used to trim the compacted soil until
it was even with the top of the mould.
12. The compacted soil was removed from the mould and was placed on the metal tray.
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13. Sample unit weight for compacted soil was determined by dividing the weight of the
compacted soil in the mould by the soil sample volume (volume of the mould).
14. In order to determine the moisture content of compacted soil, a small amount of
compacted soil was taken from the mould.
15. The experiment was repeated with four varying water content.
16. Using the wet (bulk) density of the compacted soil and the moisture content, the dry
density was calculated.
17. The soil's dry density versus moisture content was plotted.
18. Using a curve, it was demonstrated how the dry density of compacted soil varies as
moisture content increases.

The relationship between the dry density and the percentage of air content is illustrated as:
(1−𝐴)
ρ𝑑 = ρ𝑤 1
( 𝐺 +𝑚)
𝑠

Example:

Table 1: Example Data Calculation

No. of Test 1 2 3 4

Mass of empty mould

4.38 4.54 4.65 5.25
(kg)

Mass of mould + wet

6.20 6.55 6.65 7.15
soil (kg)

Mass of wet soil, M

1.82 2.01 2.00 1.90
(kg)
−4 3
Volume of mould, V 9. 433 × 10 𝑚

Bulk density
3 1929.7 2130.8 2120.2 2014.2
(ρ𝑏)(𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )

Dry density
3 1774.9 1894.0 1824.3 1681.7
(ρ𝑑)(𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )

6
Calculation:

From Table 1:

1. Mass of wet soil, (M) = 1.82 kg

2. Volume of mould, (V) = 9. 433 × 10

−4
𝑚
3

3. Bulk density, ρ𝑏 1.82

= −4 3
9.433×10 𝑚
3
= 1929 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

4. Dry density, ρ𝑑 ρ𝑏
=
1+𝑚

Table 2: Example Data Calculation

No. of Container 1 2 3 4

Mass of empty container (g) 9.6 9.7 10.0 9.7

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 25.8 27.7 31.5 30.9

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 24.5 25.7 28.5 27.4

Mass of water (g) 1.3 2.0 3.0 3.5

Mass of dry soil (g) 14.9 16.0 18.5 17.7

Moisture content (m) (%) 8.72 12.5 16.22 19.77

Calculation:

From Table 2:

1. Moisture content, m = 8.72%

2. Bulk density, ρ𝑏 1.929.4

=
1+0.0872
3
= 1774. 9 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

3
𝐺𝑠 = 2. 65 ρ𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

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 Table 3: Example Data Calculation

A = 0% A = 5%

M% 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
3
ρ𝑑(𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ) 2094.86 1896.24 1732.02 1593.99 1990.15 1801.43 1654.42 1514.29

A = 0%

M% 10 15 20 25
3
ρ𝑑(𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ) 1885.38 1706.62 1558.82 1435.59

Calculation:

From Table 3:

1. When A = 0%

2. Dry density, ρ𝑑 (1−𝐴)

= ρ𝑤 1
( 𝐺 +𝑚)
𝑠

(1−0)
= 1000 1
( 2.65 +0.1)
3
= 2094.86 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

By using the data from Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3, the graph of dry density versus moisture
content as well as the lines of air content of 0%, 5% and 10% can be plotted as shown in
Figure 1.

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5.0 DATA

Table 4: Data Calculation

No. of Test 1 2 3 4 5

Mass of empty mould (kg) 4.12 4.10 4.10 4.17 4.09

Mass of mould + wet soil (kg) 5.81 5.82 6.10 6.4 5.29

Mass of wet soil, M (kg) 1.69 1.72 2 2.23 1.2

Volume of mould, V 1.0 × 10-3 m3

Bulk density (ρ𝑏) ( ) (kg/m )

𝑀
𝑉
3
1690 1720 2000 2230 1200

Dry density (ρ𝑑) ( ρ𝑏

1+ 𝑚 ) (kg/m )
3
1556.31 1521.45 1705.03 1852.01 956.79

Calculation:

From Table 4:

1. Mass of wet soil, (M) = 1.69 kg

2. Volume of mould, (V) = 1. 0 × 10

−3
𝑚
3

3. Bulk density, ρ𝑏 1.69

= −3 3
1.0×10 𝑚
3
= 1690 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

4. Dry density, ρ𝑑 ρ𝑏
=
1+𝑚
1690
=
1+0.0859
3
=1556.31 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

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 Table 5: Data Calculation

1 2 3 4 5
No. of Container
1T 1M 1B 2T 2M 2B 3T 3M 3B 4T 4M 4T 5T 5M 5B

Mass of empty container (g) 29.91 29.81 29.35 29.77 29.77 29.85 29.89 29.75 29.55 29.92 29.74 29.64 29.81 29.6 29.62

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 61.03 79.14 66.07 61.66 73.59 63.38 87.92 81.1 103.62 77.04 71.88 76.07 133.98 150.99 123.87

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 58.58 75.12 63.24 57.9 68.43 59.67 79.42 73.31 92.93 68.87 64.83 68.28 112.78 126.14 105.04

Mass of water, Mw (g) 2.45 4.02 2.83 3.76 5.16 3.71 8.5 7.79 10.69 8.17 7.05 7.79 21.2 24.85 18.83

Mass of dry soil, Mc (g) 28.67 45.31 33.89 28.13 38.66 29.82 49.53 43.56 63.38 38.95 35.09 38.64 82.97 96.54 75.42

(
Moisture content, 𝑚 =
𝑀𝑤
𝑀𝑐 ) 8.55 8.87 8.35 13.37 13.35 12.44 17.16 17.88 16.87 20.98 20.09 20.16 25.55 25.74 24.97
(%)

Average moisture content, m (%) 8.59 13.05 17.30 20.41 25.42

Calculation:

From Table 5:

1. Moisture content, m = 8.59%

2. Dry density, ρ𝑑 1690

=
1+0.0859
3
= 1556. 31 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
Gs = 2.70 ρ𝑤= 1000 kg/m3

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 Table 6: Data Calculation

A = 0% A = 5%

M% 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25

ρ𝑑 (kg/m3) 2125.98 1921.71 1753.25 1611.94 2019.69 1825.62 1665.58 1531.34

A = 10%

M% 10 15 20 25

ρ𝑑 (kg/m3) 1913.39 1729.54 1577.92 1450.75

Calculation:

From Table 3:

1. When A = 0%

2. Dry density, ρ𝑑 (1−𝐴)

= ρ𝑤 1
( 𝐺 +𝑚)
𝑠

(1−0)
= 1000 1
( 2.70 +0.1)
3
= 2125.98 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

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6.0 RESULT

Figure 1: Graph of Soil's Dry Density Versus Moisture Content

3
Maximum density, (ρ𝑑𝑟𝑦) = 1875 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

Optimum moisture content (V) = 20.2%

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Question

Illustrate the soil phase diagram before and after soil compaction.

1. Before soil compaction

2. After soil compaction

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 SOIL CONSOLIDATION TEST

1.0 INTRODUCTION

When a saturated clay sample is applied with additional load, this load will be retained by
pore water. The pore water will receive an additional pressure known as pore water pressure.
After some times, the pore water will gradually flow from pore to the solid soil particles,
where the rate of flowing is depending on the compressibility of the clay sample. This
process will cause the reduction of clay volume simultaneously with the reduction of volume
of the flowed pore water which subsequently cause the settlement of the clay sample. This
whole process is known as consolidation.

Rate of consolidation depends on soil’s permeability. It can be very slow in fine-grained soils
thus it takes many years to achieve final settlement. Rate of consolidation is determined via
oedometer test which estimates the amount and time of consolidation as well as the resulting
settlements. This can be achieved by increasing the static loads on a cylindrical sample of
soil in a consolidation metal ring where the changes in thickness against time will be
recorded. From the changes in thickness at the end of each load stage, the compressibility of
the soil can be observed and the parameters i.e. compression index (Cc) and coefficient of
volume compressibility (mv) can be measured.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To measure the one-dimensional compression and swelling characteristics of a soil sample.

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3.0 APPARATUS

Sieve 425 µm Weighing Balance

Consolidation metal ring with inner Oedometer

diameter of 50 mm and thickness of 18 mm

Figure 2: Soil Consolidation Test Equipment

15
4.0 PROCEDURES

1. Dry soil was prepared by passing through sieve 4.25 μm opening

2. The sample was mixed thoroughly with water
3. The saturated sample was compacted in the consolidation metal ring
4. The dimension of the saturated sample was measured
5. The moisture content and mass of the saturated sample was obtained

Table 7: Moisture content

No. of container 1 2

Mass of empty container (g) 29.78 29.82

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 65.35 86.71

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 54.47 71.91

Mass of water, Mw (g) 10.88 14.80

Mass of dry soil, Mc (g) 24.69 42.09

(
Moisture content, 𝑚 =
𝑀𝑤
𝑀𝑐 ) (%) 44.07 35.16

6. The void ratio of the saturated sample was calculated

Table 8: Saturated Sample

Diameter of soil sample 5 cm

Thickness of soil sample 1.8 cm

Volume of soil sample, V 35.34 cm3

Mass of consolidation metal ring 57.98 g

Mass of soil sample + consolidation metal ring 119.95 g

Mass of soil sample, M 61.97 g

Mass of solid, Ms =
𝑀 43.01 g
1 + 𝑚1

𝑀𝑠 15.93 cm3
Volume of solid, Vs = 𝐺𝑠ρ𝑤

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 Volume of void, Vv = V - Vs 19.41 cm3
𝑉𝑣
Void ratio, eo = 𝑉𝑠 1.22
𝑚𝐺𝑠
Degree of saturation, Sr = 𝑒𝑜 97.53%

7. The soil sample was ensured to be placed in water throughout the experiment
8. The dial gauge was set at 0
9. Vertical static load increments of 1 kg at regular intervals 15 sec, 1 min, 2.25 min, 4 min,
9 min, 16 min, 25 min, 36 min, 39 min, 64 min, 81 min and 100 min was applied
10. The dial gauge reading was recorded at every interval where 1 scale = 0.01 mm
11. The test was stopped once the dial gauge reading is identical at 2 intervals

5.0 DATA

Table 9: Data of Soil Consolidation Test

Diameter of soil sample 50 mm

Thickness of soil sample 18 mm

Moisture content of soil sample 39.62 %

Load 1 kg

Dial Gauge Reading, 1

Time, t (min) 𝑡 , 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
(× 0.01 mm)

0 (sec) 0 0

15 (sec) 0.6 0.5

1 0.89 1.0
1
2 4
1.16 1.5

4 1.43 2

9 1.89 3

17
 16 2.12 4

25 2.17 5

36 2.18 6

49 2.19 7

64 2.19 8

81 2.19 9

100 2.19 10

6.0 RESULT

1. Plot the dial gauge readings i.e. deformation against square root of time graph.

Table 10: Data of Deformation and square root of time

1 Deformation, (thickness - dial gauge reading)
𝑡 , 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 (mm)

0 18.00

0.5 17.40

1.0 17.11

1.5 16.84

2 16.57

3 16.11

4 15.88

5 15.83

6 15.82

7 15.81

8 15.81

9 15.81

10 15.81

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 Figure 3: Graph of Deformation Versus 𝑡

2. From the graph, determine the time for 90% consolidation i.e. 𝑡90.

𝑡90 = 3. 57
2 2
(𝑡90) = 3. 57

𝑡90 = 12.74 min

2
3. Obtain the coefficient of consolidation in 𝑚 /𝑠 via:

2
0.848 𝑑
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑡90

2
0.848 (9)
𝑐𝑣 = 12.74
2 2 2
68.688 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑣 = 12.74 𝑚𝑖𝑛
× 2 2 × 60𝑠
1000 𝑚𝑚
−8 2
𝑐𝑣 = 8.986 x 10 𝑚 /𝑠

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4. Plot the void ratio against pressure graph based on the data given in the laboratory
manual.

Table 11: Pressure, Dial Gauge Reading and Void Ratio Data

σ ∆𝐻 Σ∆𝐻 H
2 ∆𝑒 e
(𝑘𝑁/𝑚 ) (mm) (mm) (mm)

0 0 0 18.00 0 1.22
1
8
0.60 0.60 17.40 0.07 1.15

1
4
0.29 0.89 17.11 0.04 1.11

1
2
0.27 1.16 16.84 0.03 1.08

1 0.27 1.43 16.57 0.03 1.05

2 0.46 1.89 16.11 0.06 0.99

4 0.23 2.12 15.88 0.03 0.96

8 0.05 2.17 15.83 0 0.96

16 0.01 2.18 15.82 0.01 0.95

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Figure 4: Graph of Void Ratio Versus Pressure

21
5. Determine the coefficient of compaction via:
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = ∆σ

From the graph,

σ1= 1 e1= 1.05

σ2= 4 e2= 0.96

1.05−0.96
𝑎v= 4−1

𝑎v= 0.03
2
6. Determine the coefficient of volume compressibility in 𝑚 /𝑘𝑛 via:
1
mv= 𝑎v × 1+𝑒𝑜

1
mv= 0.03 × 1+1.22

mv= 0.014m2/kN

7. Determine the coefficient of soil permeability in m/s via:

𝑘 = 𝑐𝑣𝑚𝑣γ𝑤
−8
k= (8.986 x 10 )(0.014)(9.81)
k=1.234 x 10-8 m/s

22
8. Plot the void ratio against log-of-pressure graph.

Figure 5: Graph of e Versus log of Pressure

9. Determine the compression index, Cc from the void ratio against log-of-pressure graph.

𝑒0− 𝑒1 σ1
Cc = σ1 σ0
σ1σ
𝑙𝑜𝑔 σ
0

1.05 − 0.99
= 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 1

= 0.199

23
Question

1. Describe the importance of understanding the soil settlement which causes the failure in
building structure.

i) Foundation Solidity
The stability of a foundation determines the stability of a structure. A secure foundation
must be established, and this requires properly compacted and settled soil, which is
achieved through soil consolidation. Consolidation lowers the likelihood of differential
settlement by strengthening the soil's resistance to further settlement. This is important
because differential settling can result in problems that jeopardize the building's stability,
such as uneven floors, wall fissures, and structural damage.

ii) Settlement Reduction

Future settlement risk is reduced by letting the soil combine before building. A large
portion of the settling happens before the structure is formed when soil combines before
construction. This lessens the chance of structural instability and the necessity for
expensive repairs by preventing major settlement once construction is finished. Reducing
settlement is crucial for long-term stable structures like bridges, high-rise buildings, and
infrastructure projects.

iii) Enhanced Soil Strength

Consolidation of the soil increases its strength and ability to support weight. During
consolidation, the soil particles settle and reorganise, becoming more compact and firmly
packed. Because of this densification, the soil becomes less compressible and gains
strength. To support large loads and guarantee the structural integrity of the built
elements, improved soil strength is essential. By distributing the applied loads across the
earth, it reduces the possibility of excessive settlement or structural collapse.

iv) Improved Drainage

Consolidation of the soil also improves the drainage properties. Consolidation causes
excess water to be released from the soil, improving drainage. Sufficient drainage is
essential for avoiding water buildup in the soil as too much water can erode the soil and
cause instability. Soil consolidation contributes to the long-term durability of the building
24
 by encouraging effective drainage. It reduces the possibility of problems caused by
water, such as soil erosion, subsidence, and damage to foundations.

v) Efficiency of Time
During building projects, using the right soil consolidation procedures may save a lot of
time. Cutting-edge technologies that facilitate effective water drainage and speed up soil
settling, such as geotextiles, prefabricated vertical drains, geosynthetics, and geotubes,
accelerate consolidation. Construction projects may go forward more swiftly thanks to
these technologies, which shorten the time needed for consolidation. Meeting project
deadlines, cutting construction costs, and raising overall production all depend on time
efficiency.

2. Discuss the stages and characteristics of soil settlement.

i) Immediate Settlement
Immediate settlement will occur right after the load is apply. It is caused by soil volume
distortion and completed quickly and constitutes a relatively small amount of settlement
in fine grained soils.

ii) Primary Consolidation Settlement

Primary consolidation settlement occurs due to extrusion of water from the voids as a
result of applied load. It is the vertical displacement of the surface corresponding to the
volume change at any change at any stage of consolidation process.

iii) Secondary Consolidation Settlement

After primary consolidation settlement has ended, soil compression and additional
associated settlement continue at a very low rate.

3. Explain the factors that affect soil consolidation.

i) Thickness of clay layer

The layer will consolidate more if it is thicker because of self-overburden pressure.

25
 ii) Number of drainage path
The drainage route is the farthest distance that water particles must travel in order to get
to the free drainage layer. Water will exit the soil layer and cause consolidation if the
drainage channel is longer than the water's length of travel. This is because the
proportionality of the water particles is lowered. Therefore, the consolidation will
increase with the drainage path.

iii) Coefficient of permeability

A higher soil permeability coefficient facilitates easier water evaporation from soil pores,
which in turn leads to increased consolidation.

iv) Coefficient of consolidation

Because the coefficient of consolidation and degree of consolidation are closely
correlated, higher the coefficient of consolidation, the more compacted the soil.

v) Magnitude of the consolidating pressure and its distribution

The distribution of the consolidating pressure has a major impact on soil consolidation.
Consolidation will occur more if the consolidating pressure is higher and equally
dispersed throughout the region.

7.0 REFERENCE

1) Understanding Soil Consolidation: The Process and Importance in Construction.

https://gssb.com.my/soil-consolidation-process-construction#:~:text=When%20soil%
20undergoes%20consolidation%2C%20it,the%20integrity%20of%20the%20building
2) Analysis of settlement and volume expansion
https://pilebuck.com/pile-buck-guide-soil-mechanics-testing/chapter-7-analysis-settle
ment-volume-expansion/
3) Z, Khan. Consolidation Process of Deformation of Soils
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/soil/consolidation-process-of-deformation-of-soils
/45560#:~:text=The%20factors%20which%20affect%20the%20consolidation%20are
%3A&text=(e)%20Magnitude%20of%20the%20consolidating,the%20thickness%20o
f%20the%20layer.&text=(a)%20Thickness%20of%20clay%20layer%3A,due%20to%
20self%20overburden%20pressure

26
APPENDIX

27