STANDARDHI

GHSCHOOL-
ZZANA
ADVANCEDAGRI
CULTURE
I
NTROUDCTI
ONTOCROPSCI
ENCE
PRI
NCI
PLESOFCROPPRODUCTI
ON:
Theprinci
pleofcr
opproduct
ionref
erst
otheact
ivi
ti
es/pr
acti
cesthatgover
ncrop
producti
ontoensurepr
opergrowthandhi
ghcropyiel
d.Theseacti
vit
iesar
e;

 Seedbedpr
epar
ati
on

 Sel
ect
ionofpl
ant
ingmat
eri
als

 Cr
opspaci
ng

 Pr
operweedi
ngofcr
oppl
ant
s

 Ti
mel
ypl
ant
ing

 Fer
ti
li
zerappl
icat
ion

 Pestanddi
seasecont
rol

 Thi
nni
ng

 Useofr
ecommendedpl
ant
ingdept
h

 Mul
chi
ng

 I
rr
igat
ion

 Ear
thi
ngup

 Gappi
ng

 Appl
icat
ionoff
ert
il
izerandmanur
e

 Pr
icki
ngout
,pr
uni
nget
c.
LANDPREPARATI
ON:Thi
sist
hepr
epar
ati
onofl
andf
orpl
ant
ing.I
tincl
udes;
Landcl
ear
ing
Ti
ll
age.
REASONSFORCARRYI
NGOUTLANDPREPARATI
ON

 Tokil
lweedsbyupr
ooti
ngandbur
yingt
hem downorbyexposi
ngt
hem t
othe
dr
yingact
ionoft
hesun.
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  Tobreakthesoi
landi
mpr
ovewat
eri
nfi
lt
rat
ion,
aer
ati
onandeaser
oot
penet
rat
ion.

 Tofaci
li
tat
esecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ionbycl
ear
ingbushesandupr
oot
ingt
ree
st
umps.

 Tobreakthesoilhardpanthati
mpedesr
ootgrowth.Soi
lhar
dpanr
efer
stot
he
har
dlayerofthesoilfoundbel
owthesoi
lsur
face.

 Tokil
lpestanddiseaseorganism t
hatmaybeinthesoi
lbydest
royi
ngt
hei
r
l
if
ecycleandexposingthem tothesurf
acefordesi
ccat
ion.

 Todest
royt
het
reeshadet
hatcutof
fli
ghtsuppl
ytot
hecr
oppl
ant
s.

 Tomi
xtheor
gani
cmat
teri
ntot
hesoi
l.

 Topr
ovi
dei
dealcondi
ti
onf
orseedger
minat
ionandpl
antgr
owt
h.

 Tobur
ythecropr
esi
duesandor
gani
cmat
terandal
soi
ncr
easet
hespeedat
whi
chtheyr
ot.

 Hel
psi
ncont
rol
li
ngsoi
ler
osi
onbyi
mpr
ovi
ngonsoi
lst
ruct
ure.

 Tol
evelt
hel
andf
orpl
ant
ing.
STEPSI
NLANDPREPARATI
ON.
1.Landclear
ing:Thi
sinvol
vecl
ear
ingbushes,cut
ti
ngdownt r
eesandr
emovi
ngt
ree
stumps,
rootsandstonesfr
om t
hegroundbeforeact
ualcul
ti
vati
on.
I
MPORTANCEOFLANDCLEARI
NG.

 I
teasesmovementofmachi
ner
yandani
maldur
ingcul
ti
vat
ion.

 Toki
llweeds.

 Tor
emoveobst
acl
est
hatdamaget
yresanddest
royt
hebl
adeofi
mpl
ement
s.

 Tof
aci
li
tat
epr
imar
ycul
ti
vat
ion.

 I
tal
soactasabasi
sforl
andr
ecl
amat
ion.

 Landcleari
ngcanbedonet hr
oughslashi
ngofbushes,
cont
rol
ledburning,
cutti
ngdownt r
ees,di
ggi
ngouttreestumps,
diggi
ngoutant
hil
l,
removingof
stonesfr
om thegroundet
c.
2.Ti
ll
age(
Landcult
ivat
ion):Thi
sistheactofbr
eaki
ng/
diggi
ngoutsoi
lusi
ngvar
ious
i
mplement
sbefor
ethecr opispl
anted.

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Met
hodsoft
il
lageoper
ati
on:
1.Pr
imarytil
lage/
cult
ivat
ion.Thisistheinit
ialstageofseedbedpr epar
ati
on.Seedbed
i
sthelandthathasbeenpr epar
edwel lenoughf orplant
ingcrops.The
i
mplements/tool
sforpri
mar ycul
tivat
ioninclude;
Ox-
plough,
discpl
ough,
amol
dboar
dpl
ough,
asubsoi
ler
,rot
ovat
or.
I
mpor
tanceofpr
imar
ycul
ti
vat
ion

 Tocontrolpestbydest
royi
ngt
hei
rli
fecycl
eandexposi
ngt
hem t
othesur
face
fordesi
ccati
on.

 Cont
rol
sweedgr
owt
hbydamagi
ngt
hei
rroot
s.

 I
thel
psi
nimpr
ovi
ngpor
osi
tyoft
hesoi
landdr
ainage.

 I
teasessecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ion.

 Br
eakst
hesoi
lhar
dpant
hatpr
event
swat
eri
nfi
lt
rat
ion.

 Hel
psi
nbur
yingsur
faceveget
ati
onandcr
opr
esi
duesf
rom t
hepr
evi
ousseason.

 Exposesl
owersoi
llayer
stoweat
her
ingagent
s.
2.Secondaryti
ll
age/cul
ti
vation.Thi
sisthesecondoperati
ontwoweeksafterpri
mary
cult
ivat
iontomakethesoilreadyforpl
anti
ng.Theti
megapoft woweeksistoall
ow
theweedseedsburiedduringprimarycul
ti
vati
ontogerminateandhencebekil
ledat
thei
rearlyst
ageofgrowthbysecondar yt
il
lage.
I
mpor
tanceofsecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ion.

 Hel
psi
nlevel
ingl
andf
orpl
ant
ing

 I
tcont
rol
sweedsbydest
royi
ngt
hem att
hei
rear
lyst
ageofgr
owt
h.

 I
tcr
eat
esasui
tabl
esoi
lcondi
ti
onf
orseedger
minat
ion.

 I
tmi
xeswel
lther
ott
enpl
antmat
eri
als(
organi
cmat
ter
).

 Mi
xesf
ert
il
izerwi
tht
hesoi
l.

Thet
ool
sforsecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ioni
ncl
ude;Rake,
rol
ler
s,handhoes,
rot
ovat
or
et
c.

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FACTORSTHATINFLUENCETHECHOI
CEOFTOOLSANDI
MPLEMENTSTOBE
USEDINCULTI
VATION.
Soi
lcondi
ti
on:Har
dsoilcondi
ti
onlikedr
ysoilr
equi
rest
heuseofmol
dboar
dpl
ough
anddi
scploughwhi
lel
ightsoi
lrequir
eshandhoes.
Soilt
ype:Heavy/sti
ckysoi
lli
kecl
aycaneasi
lybecul
ti
vat
edbydiscpl
oughwhi
le
sandyloansoilcanbeworkeduponbyhandhoesandox-pl
ough.
Topography:Steepslopedoesnotfavorstheuseoftr
actort
rai
ledi
mplementsl
ike
moldboardploughsincetract
orcannotmoveonhi l
lyl
and.Fl
atlandencour
aget
heuse
oftr
actorwhilehil
lyareascanbecult
ivat
edbyhandhoes.
Natureofsurf
acevegetati
on:Thi
ckvegetat
ionli
mit
stheuseofhandhoesandox-
pl
oughwhi l
emol dboar
dploughcaneasil
ycrushontallandt
hickveget
ati
on.
Thi
sis
becausetr
actorcaneasil
yrol
lthr
oughwithoutbl
ockage.
Avai
labi
li
tyofcapi
tal
:Tractori
sexpensi
vet
opeasantf
armer
smaki
nghandhoest
o
dominat
efarmingoper
ation.
Avail
abi
li
tyofski
ll
edpersonnel:Tr
actortrai
ledi
mplementse.
g.Moldboar
dplough,
discpl
oughetc.r
equir
esskil
ledpersonneltooper
ateunl
ikehandhoeswhichdoesnot
requi
remuchskil
lstohandl
e.
Landtenur
esyst
em:Fragmentedlanddoesnotfavort
ract
ort
rai
ledi
mpl
ement
ssince
tr
act
orcannotmoveinsub-
divi
dedland.Suchar
easneedhandhoeswhi
let
rai
led
i
mplementsoper
atebestonext
ensiveland.
Conservat
iveness:Thisl
imit
stheuseofmechani
zedequi
pmentbyfar
mersespeci
all
y
i
nnortheasternpartofUganda.Thi
smakesfarmerst
oconti
nueusi
ngindi
genous
t
oolsforcult
ivat
ione.g.Handhoes.

FACTORSTHATDETERMI
NETHENUMBER/FREQUENCYOFSECONDARY
CULTI
VATI
ON.
Physi
calcondit
ionoftheseedbedaft
erpr
imar
ycul
ti
vat
ion:Roughseedbedr
equi
res
moreoperat
ionsthansmoothseedbed.
Sizeoft heseedt
obepl ant
ed:Smallseedse.
g.willr
equir
eafinerseedbedthanlager
seedslikemaizeseeds.Thi
sisbecausesmallseededcropsneedaf i
netil
tforsmooth
establ
ishmentduri
ngger mi
nati
on.
Thetypesofweedstobecont r
oll
ed:Rhi
zomatousweedsl
ikecouchgr
ass,spear
grassaredi
ff
icul
ttocont
rolandther
efor
erequi
remorecul
ti
vati
ontoef
fect
ivel
y

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r
emovet
her
hizomesf
rom t
hesoi
l.
Soi
ltext
ure:Li
ghtsoi
lbr
eakeasi
lyhencer
equi
ri
ngf
eweroper
ati
ont
hanheavysoi
ls.
Amountoforgani
cmat ter
:Denselyveget
atedl
ande.
g.sugarcanet
rashr
equi
resmor
e
oper
ati
onsthanli
ghtvegetat
edland.
Moist
urecontentoft
hesoil:Wetsoildoesnotneedt
obeoverwor kedonsi
ncei
t
cr
eatepuddl
ewhi chdest
royssoilst
ructur
ehencefeweroper
ati
ons.
Li
abil
it
ytoerosi
on:I
fthesoi
lisl
i
abl
etoer
osi
on,
lessoper
ati
onsi
srequi
rede.
g.on
hi
ll
yareas.
METHODSOFPREPRI
NGSEEDBED.
1.Handmethod:Thi
sinvol
vest
heuseofhandhoes,
pangaet
c.andt
hepoweri
s
provi
demanual
lybyman.
Advant
agesofhandmet
hod.

 I
tisnotexpensi
ve

 Nospeci
alski
ll
sisr
equi
red

 Tool
sar
erel
iabl
e

 I
tcr
eat
eempl
oymentoppor
tuni
ty

 I
tisf
lexi
blei
.e.canbeusedt
oper
for
m var
iet
iesoff
arm oper
ati
ons.
Di
sadvant
agesofhandmet
hod.

 I
tissl
owi
nper
for
mingf
armi
ngoper
ati
ons.

 I
toper
atet
oal
imi
teddept
h

 I
tisi
nef
fi
cientonhar
dpi
eceofl
and.

 I
tcannotwor
kpr
oper
lyont
hickveget
atedl
and.

 I
tcanonl
ycul
ti
vat
eaf
ewacr
eageofl
andperday.

 I
tdel
ayspl
ant
ingpr
ogr
am si
ncei
tissl
ow.

 I
tisexpensi
veoverl
argegar
den.
2.
Mechani
calmet
hod:Thi
sinvol
vet
heuseofmot
ori
zedmachi
nee.
g.Tr
act
or.
Advant
agesofmechani
calmet
hodsofl
andpr
epar
ati
on.

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  Themet
hodi
sfast

 Lar
geacr
eageofl
andcanbecul
ti
vat
edperday.

 I
tencour
agest
imel
yfar
mingoper
ati
onse.
g.t
imel
ypl
ant
ing.

 I
tisef
fect
ivei
nhar
dsoi
lcondi
ti
on.

 Incr
easesdept
hofpenet
rat
ionofpenet
rat
ionoft
hepl
oughwhi
chi
mpr
oveson
drai
nage.

 I
tisef
fect
iveundert
hickveget
ati
oncover

 I
tismor
eeconomi
calt
hanhandmet
hodonl
argegar
den.

 I
trel
easesl
abour
etodootherf
armi
ngoper
ati
onsi
ncet
heuseoft
ract
or
r
equir
esonl
yoneperson.
Di
sadvant
agesofMechani
calmet
hod

 Machi
nesar
eexpensi
vet
obuy.

 I
trequi
rest
echni
calski
ll
stooper
ate.

 I
tcr
eat
esunempl
oyment
.

 Itmayl
eadtosoi
lcappi
ngifusei
ntensi
vel
y.Soi
lcapishardl
ayerformedon
soil
sur
faceduei
ntensi
vemovementofmachineontheland,
overgrazi
nget
c.

 Exhaustf
umespr
oducedmaypol
lut
etheenvi
ronment
.

 Mai
ntenancecost
sofmachi
ner
yar
ehi
ghwhi
chdi
scour
agesf
armer
s.

MI
NIMUM TI
LLAGE:Thi
sisacrophusbandr
ypr
acti
ceswhereseedbedi
spr
epar
ed
wi
thal
it
tl
edi
stur
banceonsoi
lsurf
ace.Mini
mum t
il
lagei
sdoneby;
Useofher
bici
det
oki
llweedsf
rom t
hegar
denwher
ecr
opswi
llbepl
ant
ed.
Mul
chi
ngt
hear
eat
osuppr
essweedgr
owt
h.
Di
ggi
ngpl
ant
inghol
esf
orpl
ant
ingandt
her
estoft
hel
andi
sundi
stur
bed.
I
MPORTANCEOFMI
NIMUM TI
LLAGE

 I
tmai
ntai
nsoi
lst
ruct
ure

 Itr
educescostofpr
oduct
ionont
hef
arm si
neonl
yasmal
lar
easneedt
obe
cul
tivat
ed.
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  I
tconser
vessoi
lmoi
stur
e

 Ital
somini
mizeont
hedeat
hofsoi
lli
vingor
gani
sm si
ncel
essar
eexposedon
soil
sur
face.

 I
tmai
ntai
nssoi
laer
ati
onbymi
nimi
zingonsoi
lcompact
ion.

 I
treducessur
facer
unof
fthuscont
rol
li
ngsoi
ler
osi
on.

PLANTPROPAGATI
ON.
Thi
sref
erstothewaysofi ncr
easingplantpopulat
ioni
nthef
iel
d.Therearebasi
cal
ly
twomethodsofpropagat
ioni.
e.propagationbymeanofseeds(sexualpr
opagat
ion)
andbyuseofvegetati
veorgans(asexualpropagat
ion)
.
1.Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion(
asexualpr
opagat
ion)
.
Thi
sisthemet hodbywhichpl
ant
sr epr
oducest
hemsel
vesf
rom t
hepl
ant
’spar
tthati
s
notassoci
atedwithr
epr
oducti
veorgans.
Advant
agesofveget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion

 Theof
fspr
ingpr
oducedar
eident
icalt
othepar
entpl
ant
s

 Theof
fspr
inggr
owf
astandmat
ureear
ly

 Theoffspr
ingar
ehar
dandst
rongcompar
edt
otheseedl
ingsobt
ainedf
rom
seeds.

 I
tist
heonl
ymet
hodsofpr
opagat
ingcr
opswhi
chdonotpr
oduceseeds.

 Theyoungpl
antget
sfoodf
rom t
hepar
entpl
antunt
ilt
heyar
eful
lydevel
oped.

 Ther
eiseasymul
ti
pli
cat
ionofpl
antpopul
ati
on.

 I
tpr
omot
esphysi
cal
uni
for
mit
yofcr
opsi
nthegar
denduet
olackofvar
iat
ion.

 I
tiseasyt
oavoi
dgenet
icdi
sint
egr
ati
onwhi
chi
sacasei
nsexualpr
opagat
ion.

 Themethoddoesnotrequi
reel
aborat
eseedbedpr
epar
ati
onsi
ncet
hel
anddoes
notneedwel
lprepar
ati
onunli
keinseeds.

 I
thel
psi
nel
imi
nat
ingt
hepr
obl
emsofseeddor
mancy.

 Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionhashi
ghchanceoft
aki
ngt
hanseedger
minat
ion.
Di
sadvant
agesofveget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion.

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  Theplant
ingmat
eri
alsar
equi
tebul
kyt
her
efor
ear
edi
ff
icul
ttohandl
eand
tr
ansport
.

 Somemet
hodsofveget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionr
equi
respeci
alski
ll
se.
g.gr
aft
ing

 Onl
ysmal
lar
eascanbecover
eddur
ingpl
ant
ing.

 Theplanti
ngmat
eri
alsaredi
ff
icul
ttost
oresi
ncet
heyhavehi
ghmoi
stur
e
cont
entleadi
ngt
orott
ing.

 I
tleadst
oover
crowdi
ngsgofcr
oppl
anti
nthef
iel
d.

 Iteasestr
ansmissi
onofplantpestanddiseasesdur
ingpl
ant
ingwhen
contaminatedt
oolsandequipmentareused.

 I
tspr
eadpar
ent
’sdi
seaset
otheof
fspr
ing.

 Ther
eisnovar
iat
ioni
npl
antsi
ncet
her
eisnocr
ossi
ngover
.

FORMSOFVEGETATATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON
St
em tuber
:Thi
sisaswoll
enundergroundstem wi
thbudst
hatcandevel
opi
ntoanew
pl
antwhenusede.g.I
ri
shpot
atoes,Sweetpotat
oes.
Sucker
s:Thesear
eplant
sthatdevel
opf
rom t
hemotherpl
antbel
owt
hegr
oundl
evel
andcanbeusedforpl
anti
ng.I
tiscommoninbanana
Spl
it
s:Thesear
eindi
vidualshoot
sthatdevel
opi
nti
ll
eri
ngpl
ant
sespeci
all
ygr
asses
e.
g.Gui
neagrass,
sorghum, et
c.
Bulbs:Theseareundergr
oundstem wi
thmodi
fi
edleavest
ostor
efoodandbet
ween
themodifi
edleavesareauxi
li
arybudswhi
chgrowsintoanewpl
ante.
g.oni
on,Gal
li
c
etc.
Rhi
zomes:Theseareunder
groundst
em wi
thnodesandint
ernodeswhichstoresfood
andar
ecapableofger
minati
ngint
onewplant
se.g.Couchgrass,
speargrassetc.
Runners:Thesearehori
zontalsuccul
entst
em gr
owingabovethegr
oundsurf
ace
produci
ngadventit
iousr
ootsandnewpl ant
satthei
rnodese.g.
inWander
ingJew,
sweetpotatoes,
pumpkinetc.
Corms:Thesear
ever
ti
calunder
groundst
em wi
thshorti
nter
nodeswi
thscal
yleaves.
Theycanbeusedasplant
ingmater
ial
se.
g.i
nCocoyam.
Crowns:Thesear
evegetat
ivestr
ucturewhicharepart
icul
arl
yfoundont
opofapi
ne
appl
eplantsandest
abl
ishesslowerthanthesucker
swhenpl anted.
8
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
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e.St
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epar
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
Bulbil
s:Theseareti
nyplant
sproducedi
nthei
nfl
orescenceatt
heendofpl
ant
’sl
if
e
cyclee.g.i
nSisal
,nutgr
assetc.
St
olon:Thesearehor
izont
alcr
eepi
ngst
em abovet
hegr
oundmodi
fi
edt
ost
oref
ood
e.
g.inStargr
ass.
Roottuber
s:Theseareswol
lenunder
groundr
oot
swhi
chcanbeusedf
orpl
ant
ing
e.
g.i
nSweetpot at
oes.
Cutti
ngs:Theseareport
ionorpartofplantthatmaybecutandusedformult
ipl
ying
plant
se.g.st
em cutt
ingsincassava,sugarcaneandrootcut
ti
ngsinguava,
appleand
speargrass.
Somecutti
ngsarepl
anteddi
rect
lyi
ntot
hesoile.g.cassava,
sweetpotat
oeswhile
other
saredel
icat
eandhastobeputint
herootingmedi um t
oencouragerapi
drooti
ng.
Theroot
ingmedium i
ncl
udessand,
sawdustsoi let
c.
Ther
oot
ingmedi
um i
sfi
rstst
eri
li
zedt
oavoi
dinf
ect
ionbysoi
lpat
hogens.
FACTORSTHATAFFECTSROOTI
NGSOFCUTTTI
NG.
Oxygensupply:Root
ingprocessesr
equi
resampl
esuppl
yofoxygent
opr
ovi
det
he
ener
gyforrooti
ngprocess.
Lightint
ensi
ty:Sof
trootcutt
ingsandherbaceouscut
ti
ngsusemorelightf
or
synthesi
sofcarbohydrat
ewhi l
eforhar
dwoodmuchl i
ghti
snotneededasthecut
ti
ng
supplyenoughcarbohydrat
e
Temperat
ure:Cooltowarmtemper
atur
ear
oundt
her
oot
spr
omot
eroot
ingbecause
theyr
educetranspi
rat
ionr
ate.
Rel
ati
vehumidity:Highrel
ati
vehumidit
ytomaint
aint
urgi
dit
ywi
thi
nthel
eafandt
o
pr
eventsdesi
ccationandencourageroot
ing.
Chemicalt
reat
ment
:Root
inghor
monesappl
iedatt
hebasalendofcut
ti
ngpr
omot
e
root
ing.
Commonr
oot
inghor
monesi
ncl
udes;
I
AA(
Indol
eAcet
icAci
d)
I
BA(
Indol
eBut
yri
cAci
d)
NAA(
Napht
hal
eneAcet
icAci
d)
Layeri
ng:Thi
sisthemethodofveget
ati
vepropagati
onwhi
chinvol
veinducti
onof
pl
ant’
sstem t
oproduceroot
sbefor
ebeingcutofffr
om t
hepar
entplantsfor
pr
opagati
on.Thepartoft
heplanti
swoundedtoexposethest
em cambium togi
veri
se
9
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toroots.Thewoundingofst
em bl
ockdownwar
dmovementofphot
osynt
het
ic
productswhichaccumul
ateatt
hewounde
par
ttosuppor
troot
ing.
Type/
for
msofl
ayer
ing.
TipLayeri
ng:Thebranchti
pisbenttot
hegr
oundandcover
edwi
thsoi
ltopr
oduce
root
s.Iti
sheldinposit
ionbypegs.

SimpleLayer
ing:Thisi
sdonewhenabranchisbentint
othesoilatonl
yonepoi
nt
reasonabl
yawayf r
om t
heti
pandthenheldi
npositi
onbypegging.

CompoundLayeri
ng:Thebranchisbentandcoveredinthegroundatseveralpoi
nts
andpeggedtopr
ovideroot
s.I
tiscal
ledserpent
inebecausethebranchisinaserpent-
l
ikeshape.

Aeri
alLayer
ing:Thismet hodi
smai nlyusedonplantswhichcannotbebenttot
he
gr
ound.Thebar kisremovedfrom smallsect
ionofthebranchandmoistfer
ti
lesoi
lin
apolyt
henebagi swr appedar
oundt hewoundedsection.

Mound/St
oolLayer
ing:Soi
lisheapedar
oundt
hebaseoft
hest
em whi
chgi
ver
iset
o
newshoot
s.
Tr
enchLayer
ing:Theshooti
sbentandl
aidi
nat
renchandcover
edwi
thmoi
stsoi
l.

10
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Propagationbymeansofgrafting:Graft
ingistheuni
onoftwosepar
atepl
ants
usuall
ywoodystem andall
owingt hem togrowasoneplant
.Theupperpar
tiscal
led
thescionandthel
owerpartiscall
edthest al
k.Thesci
onshoul
dhaveoneormor e
budstogiveri
setothefut
urefruit
ingplants.
REASONS/
BENEFI
TSOFGRAFTI
NG

 Tofacil
itat
ethechangi
ngoft
het
opoft
het
reef
rom bei
ngundesi
rabl
eto
desi
rable.

 Itmakesthegr
owi
ngofmor
ethanonet
ypeoff
rui
ts/
flower
sononet
reepl
ant
possi
ble

 I
thel
pst
opr
opagat
ecl
oneswhi
chcannotbepr
opagat
edbyanymeans.

 I
thel
psi
nobt
aini
ngaspeci
alpl
anti
nthegar
den.

 I
tisusedf
ort
est
ingr
esi
stantt
ovar
iousdi
seasesi
npl
ant
.

 I
tisusedf
orr
epai
ri
ngdamaget
ree.
CONDI
TIONSNECESSARYFORSUCCESSFULGRAFTI
NG.
Compati
bili
tyi
.e.Corr
ectj
oiningoft
hesci
onandthestal
k.Thecambium t
issuesof
t
hestal
kandt hescionshouldbeablet
ofi
tpr
eci
selytofaci
li
tat
enor
maltranslocat
ion
t
otakeplace.
Highrel
ati
vehumi
dit
yi.
e.t
her
eshoul
dbel
owt
emper
atur
etor
educeont
her
ateof
t
ranspir
ati
on.
Graf
ti
ngtechni
que:Qual
it
ycutshoul
dbemadet oal
lowuni
for
mjoi
ningofsci
onand
st
alkandcareshoul
dbetakent
oprotectt
heuni
on.
Bot
hthesci
onandst
alkshoul
dbewoody.
Usesui
tabl
etool
sorequi
pmentwhengr
aft
ingi
.e.shar
pkni
feorbl
ades
Graf
tedplantsshoul
dbedi cotyl
edonousbecausemonocotyl
edonousplantdoesnot
undergosecondaryt
hickening.Secondaryt
hickeni
ngr
efer
stotheregener
ati
onofnew
st
em surfaceastheoldonesar eruptur
edoff.

11
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Avai
labi
li
tyofgr
aft
ingt
ape
Thegraft
edpart(uni
on)shoul
dbeseal
ed/wrappedproper
lypref
erabl
yusi
nggr
aft
ing
tapeorpolyt
henetoavoi
dairent
rywhi
chcouldleadt
odesiccati
on.
Thet
wopl
ant
sshoul
dbef
rom t
hesamef
ami
ly.
Thescionshoul
dhavesomebudtoal
lowphot
osynt
hesi
stakest
opl
acei
nor
dert
o
gener
ateenoughener
gyforgr
owt
h.
Botht
hesci
onandst
alkshoul
dber
emovedatt
her
ightst
ageofgr
owt
h.Ol
dpl
ant
s
shoul
dbeavoi
ded
Thepl
ant
sshoul
dbef
reef
rom pestanddi
seases
METHODSOFGRAFTI
NG
Slicegraft
ing.Thi
smet hodsrequi
resbot
hthesci
onandt hestalkt
obeofthesame
diameter.Slant
ingcutisthenmadefrom t
hesur
faceofthestalkandfr
om t
hebaseof
thescion.Thet woplant
sar et
henfit
tedt
oget
hertofor
m astrongunion.

Sidegraft
ing.Thisinvol
vefi
tti
ngscionofaverysmalldi
ameteri
ntoagrowi
ng
plant
(t
ree).
Acutismadei nt
othestalkatsui
tabl
eanglet
henthesci
oninser
tedt
o
ensurecontactbetweenthecambium ofboththestal
kandthesci
on.

Wedge/Cl
eftgraf
ti
ng:Thisisusedwhent hestalkdiamet
erisbi
ggerthant
hatoft
he
sci
on.Therootst
alkiscuttoform aV-shapeandt hesci
ontofor
m awedgeshape.
Thesci
onistheninsert
edintothestal
kandwr appedtoget
hertofor
m astr
ongunion.

Budgr aft
ing:Thisisaspecialf
orm ofgraf
ti
ngwher eveget
ati
vebudofonepl
anti
s
graft
edont oanotherplant(r
ootst
alk).
Thebudisinsert
edint
oaslitmadeont
hebark
ofthestalkandheldtightwithabuddingtape.Aft
erthebudhasst ar
tedt
ogr
ow,t
he
partofthestalkabovet hebudshouldbecutoff
.
Pr
ocedur
esofbuddi
ng
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  Sel
ectsui
tabl
etr
eespeci
esandgett
hei
rbudsandst
ocks.

 MakeaT-
cutont
hest
ockandbar
kgent
lysepar
atedf
rom t
hewood.

 I
nser
tthebudi
ntot
heT-
cut

 Thebudi
sboundont
othest
ockwi
thpol
ythenepaperort
apet
opr
eventwat
er
ent
ry

 ApplywaxorVasel
ineont
heout
sideoft
hewr
appi
ngt
oreducebact
eri
aor
fungalent
ry.

 Af
tert
woweeksr
emovet
hewr
appi
ng.

 Ifthebudisgreen,t
henthepr
ocessi
ssuccessf
ulandi
fthebudi
sbr
ownt
he
processisnotsuccessf
ul.

 Whenthegreenbudproducest
heshoot
,theendpar
toft
her
ootst
ocki
scutof
f
t
oreducetr
anspir
ati
on.

 Thebudsar
ethent
ranspl
ant
edt
othef
iel
d.
Propagati
onbyseeds:Seedi sthemostcommonmet hodofpr
opagati
ngself
-
poll
inat
edplants.Seedisafer
ti
lizedovul
eandi
tcont
ainanembryo,
foodreserveand
aprotect
ivecovercall
edtest
a.
Advant
agesofusi
ngseed.

 I
tisconveni
entt
ohandl
eandst
ore.

 I
tiseasyt
omechani
zei
nanycr
ops.

 Itcont
rol
sthespr
eadofparentdi
seaset
hatwoul
dhaveot
her
wisespr
eadf
rom
usingi
nfect
edveget
abl
eplants.

 I
tensur
esvar
iat
ionamongpl
ant
sduet
ocr
osspol
li
nat
ionandf
ert
il
izat
ion.

 Somepl
ant
scannotbepr
opagat
edf
rom veget
ati
vepar
tse.
g.Mai
ze.

 I
tischeapert
hanveget
ati
vemet
hod.

 Plant
spropagat
edf
rom seedhaveal
ongl
if
espant
hanpl
ant
spr
opagat
ed
veget
atai
vel
y.

 Thepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alsar
eeasyt
otr
anspor
t.
Di
sadvant
agesofusi
ngseeds.

 Easyspr
eadofseedbor
nedi
seases.
13
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  Ther
eisnouni
for
mit
yamongt
hepl
ant
sduet
ovar
iat
ion.

 I
trequi
respr
operl
andpr
epar
ati
on.

 Ther
eishi
ghr
iskofseedl
ingdi
seases.

 Pl
ant
spr
opagat
edf
rom seedgr
owandmat
urel
ate.

 Seedshavelowger
minat
ionper
cent
agecompar
edt
oof
fspr
ingt
akenf
rom
parentpl
ant
s.

SEEDSELECTI
ON.
Thi
sref
ert
opr
ocessofchoosi
nggoodqual
it
yseedst
obeusepl
ant
ing.
Qual
it
iesofagoodseedf
orpl
ant
ing
Seedvigour.Theseedshouldbeabl
etogermi
nat
efreel
yoverawi
derangeof
envi
ronmentalcondit
ioni
.e.t
heseedshoul
dbest
rongenoughtor
esi
stanycl
imat
ic
changese.g.drought
.
Cl
eanl
iness.Theseedshoul
dbef
reef
rom anycont
ami
nat
ionbyweedseedswhi
ch
l
owersit
squalit
y.
Matur
it
y.Itshoul
dbemat
uredenoughwi
thwel
l-
devel
opedembr
yoi
nor
dert
o
ger
minatequickl
y.
Fr
eedom fr
om pestanddi
seases.Theseedshoul
dbef
reef
rom pestanddi
sease
si
ncetheyr
educesseedvi
abil
it
ybyeati
ngupseeds.
Sizeandshape.Theseedshouldbelargeenough,l
argerseedshavelargeembryoand
l
argefoodreservewhichstor
esenoughfoodforgerminat
ion.Smallsi
zedseedshave
l
owper cent
ageofestabli
shmentonceplant
edsincethefoodreser
vemi ghtget
deplet
edbeforeemergenceofcr
opplants.
Goodgenet i
cmakeup.Agodseedshoul dbefr
om avari
etyt
hati
shighyi
eldi
ng,
resi
stantt
opr eventpestanddi
seases,
highger
minabi
li
tyandear
lymatur
ing.
I
tshoul
dhavecor
rectmoi
stur
econt
ent
.Someseedsr
equi
repr
operdr
yingbef
ore
14
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t
heycoul
dbepl
ant
ed.
Theseedshoul
dbeplumpedenoughi.
e.i
tshoul
dbewel
lfi
ll
edsi
ncewr
inkl
edseeds
l
ackst
henecessar
yfoodr
eser
veforger
minati
on.
I
tshoul
dnothavemechani
cal
/physi
caldef
ect
,thi
sreducesseedsvi
abi
li
ty/
.
Theseedshoul
dhaveal
ongshel
fli
fei
.e.shoul
dbest
oredf
orl
ongwi
thoutget
ti
ng
spoi
lt
.
I
tshoul
dnotbedor
mant
I
tshoul
dbepi
ckedf
rom aheal
thypl
ant
s.
SEEDVI
ABI
LITY/
GERMI
NABI
LITY.
Seedviabi
li
tyist
heabil
it
yofseedt
oger
minat
eifpr
ovi
dedwi
thal
lthenecessar
y
condi
ti
onsaf t
erpl
ant
ing.
Condi
ti
onsf
orseedger
minat
ion.
Sui
tabl
etemper
atur
e
Enoughsuppl
yofwat
er.
Goodi
nter
nal
condi
ti
ons.
Adequat
esuppl
yofoxygen.
Goodphysi
calandchemi
calcondi
ti
ons.
Condi
ti
onswhi
chhi
nder
sseedger
minat
ion/
fact
orsaf
fect
ingger
minat
ionEf
fi
ciency.
Germinati
onEff
ici
encyr
efer
stot
hepr
opor
ti
onofseedst
hatger
minat
eoutoft
he
seedsplant
ed.
Physi
caldamaget
otheseeds
Shall
owplanti
ngwhichexposeseedst
opestandpr
eventseesf
rom obt
aini
ngenough
moistur
eforgrowt
h.
Deeppl
anti
ngwhi
chmaket
hef
oodr
eser
vewi
thi
ntheseedst
ogetdepl
etedbef
ore
ger
minat
ion.
I
mmat
uri
tyofembr
yo.
Pestanddi
seasesal
sol
ower
sseedger
minat
ion.
Goodsoi
ltemper
atur
eisr
equi
red.Ver
yhi
ghandver
ylowt
emper
atur
ereducesseed
ger
minat
ion.

15
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Goodsoi
laer
ati
on.Seedsneedampl
esuppl
yofoxygent
ogener
ateenoughener
gyf
or
ger
minat
ionpr
ocess.
Soilt
ype.E.
g.cl
ayr
esi
stspenet
rat
ionofr
oot
sandest
abl
ishmentofshootabovet
he
groundthel
evel
.
Soi
lmoi
stur
e,goodsoi
lmoi
stur
eisr
equi
red.
Analysi
sofseedpur i
ty:Thi
sref
erstot
heprocessofdetermi
ningwhethert
he
purchasedorprocessedseedshavegotanycontaminati
one.g.Weedseeds,
other
cropseedsetc.Iti
sdetermi
nedusingt
heformula
Per
cent
ageseedpur
it
y=Wei
ghtofseedsonl
y *100%
Tot
alwei
ghtofseedsampl
e
Seedt
reat
ment
Seedcanbet
reat
edby;
Dr
ying
Seeddr
essi
ng
Fumi
gat
ionofseeds
Seedi
nocul
ati
on
Note:Seedi
nocul
ati
onisthet
reat
mentofl egumeseedwiththerightst
rai
nofnit
rogen
f
ixi
ngbacter
iawhil
eseedfumigat
ionistheuseofchemicalwhichproducegasesthat
f
il
ltheroom,cr
acksonthewal
ltopreventthesoi
lpestt
hatattackseeds.
Seeddressi
ng:Thi
sist
het
reat
mentofseedsusi
ngsui
tabl
echemi
cal
sbef
orepl
ant
ing
ofst
orage
MEASURES/
WAYSOFI
NCREASI
NGGERMI
NATI
ONEFFI
CIENCYOFSEEDS.
Pr
operdr
yingofseedsbef
orest
oraget
oreduceont
hemoi
stur
econt
ent
Maint
aini
ngopt
imum t
emper
atur
ewi
thi
ntheseedsdur
ingst
oraget
oavoi
dseed
dor
mancy.
Pr
operseedbedpr
epar
ati
onespeci
all
yforsmal
lsi
zedseedst
oincr
easeger
minabi
li
ty.
Soakingt
heseedsinwat
eroverni
ghtbef
orepl
ant
ingt
osof
tenseedcoatandal
low
oxygenandwaterent
ryi
ntot
heseeds.
Pr
operseedt
reat
mentt
ocont
rolat
tackbypestanddi
seases.
Soaki
ngseedsi
ngr
owt
hst
imul
ant
s/hor
monest
ost
imul
ategr
owt
h.
16
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Pr
echi
ll
ingofseedwi
thhar
dseedcoatt
oeaseent
ryofoxygenandwat
er.
Avoi
dst
ori
ngseedsf
orpl
ant
ingf
oralongper
iodoft
ime.
METHODSOFTESTINGSEEDVIABI
LITY/GERMINATIONTEST.
Ther
ear
emai
nly3met
hods;
i
. Theger
minat
iont
estmet
hod.
i
i. Thel
ackont
echni
que.
i
ii
. Usi
ngpot
assi
um per
manganat
esol
uti
on.
(
i) Theger
minat
iont
estmet
hod.
Mat
eri
alr
equi
red:
Seedl
ot,
cot
tonwool
/fi
l
terpaper
,wat
er,
Pet
ridi
sh/
plat
e.
Pr
ocedur
e
o Putt
hecot
tonwoolont
hepl
ate.
o Pi
ckacount
ednumberofseedsf
rom aseedl
otatr
andom.
o Pl
acet
heseedsandcovert
hem.
o Pr
ovi
deal
lthecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforger
minat
ion.
o Cont
inuewat
eri
ngt
heseeds.
o Aft
er5-7days,opentheseedsandcountt
hoset hathaveger
minat
ed
andexpressthem asapercent
ageofthet
otalseedsplant
ed.
Not
e
I
ftheger
minati
onpercent
agei
sabove80%,
thent
heseedsar
egood
f
orcommercialpl
ant
ing.
(
ii
) Thel
ackont
echni
que/t
etr
azol
ium sal
tmet
hod.
Mat
eri
als
o Seedl
ot.
o Pet
ridi
sh
o Tet
razol
ium sal
tsol
uti
on.
Pr
ocedur
e
o Acount
ednumberofseedsar
esoakedi
na0.
1%t
etr
azol
ium sal
tsol
uti
on.
17
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 o Al
lowt
heseedst
ost
ayi
nthesol
uti
onover
night
.
o Cutt
heseedsopent
oexposet
heembr
yo.
o Countthenumberofseedst
hathaveacqui
redpi
nk/
reddi
shembr
yo.Thesewi
ll
beviabl
eones.
o Expr
esst
hei
rnumberasaper
cent
ageoft
het
otalseedssoaked/
test
ed.
Obser
vat
ionandconcl
usi
on
Whenthevi
abl
eseedsrespi
ret
heypr
oducecar
bondi
oxi
det
hatt
urnst
etr
azol
ium sal
t
sol
uti
onpi
nkorreddi
sh.
Not
e
Ift
hepercent
ageoftheseedswit
hpi
nk/reddi
shembr
yoi
s80%andabove,
thent
he
seedsar
egoodf orcommerci
alpl
ant
ing.
(
ii
i) Useofpot
assi
um per
manganat
e
Mat
eri
alsused:
o Seedl
ot.
o Pot
assi
um per
manganat
esol
uti
on.
o Beaker
.
o Heatsour
ce.
Pr
ocedur
e
o Putacount
ednumberofseedsi
nabeakercont
aini
ngpot
assi
um
per
manganatesol
uti
on.
o Heattheseedsi
nthebeakerf
orsomet
imet
obr
eakt
het
est
asot
hatt
heycan
r
eleasetheli
qui
dint
hem.
o Pot
assi
um permanganat
esolut
ioni
susual
lypur
plei
ncol
orandwi
llget
di
scol
oredi
ftheseedsarevi
abl
e.
Not
e
Inthismethod,cal
cul
ati
onofger
mi nationper
cent
ageisimpossibl
ebecauseiti
s
dif
ficul
ttoident
if
ytheseedst
hatreleasethel
iqui
dandthosethathavenot.

18
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THEMECHANI
SM OFSEEDGERMI
NATI
ON
Imbi
biti
ons:Theini
ti
alst
ageingerminat
ioni
sabsor
pti
onofwaterthr
oughthe
micr
ophylbyosmosis.Thisi
scall
edimbibi
ti
onsandasaresul
t,t
heembryobecomes
hydr
atedandthisacti
vat
estheenzymes.
Met abolisati
onoffoodr eserve:Thi
scauser apidtr
ansf or
mat i
onandexpansionof
foodr eservei.
e.thefoodreservesarebroken/hydrolyzedintosimplesolubl
eproduct
s
thatcanbemovedt ogrowingar eae.
g.Proteintoami noacidbyproteaseenzyme,
starchtogl ucosebyamyl ase,andli
pidstofattyaci
dandgl ycer
olbyli
pase.
Translocati
on:Thesolubl
eproductsaret
ransl
ocat
edandusedi
nrespi
rat
ionand
synthesisofnewtissuese.
g.Glucoseandaminoacidf
orATPpr
oducti
on
Cotyledonswell
s:Expansi
onoff oodreser
vedduetoimbibi
ti
onswillal
socr eat
e
pressureint
hecotyledonoftheseedmakingtheseedcoattorapt
uretherebyall
owing
entranceofoxygeninsi
detheseed;oxygenwil
lincr
easeonthenecessaryenergyfor
germinati
onprocess.
Celldi
visi
onandcel
ldi
ff
erent
iat
ion:Theplumuleandr
adi
cleelongateoutthr
ought
he
seedcoatanddevel
opi
ntopri
mar yshootsyst
em andr
ootsyst
em respect
ivel
y.
Plumuleemergeoutabovethegr
oundduet
orapi
delongat
ionofepi
cotyl
s,get
exposedabovethesunl
ightandt
hefor
mati
onofl
eavestar
ts(pr
imordi
all
eaves)t
o
aidsphot
osynthesi
s.

SEEDDORMANCY
Thi
sisacondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chvi
abl
eseedsf
ailt
oger
minat
edespi
tehavi
ngal
lthe
necessar
ycondi
ti
onsf
orseedger
minat
ion.
CAUSESOFSEEDDORMANCY

 Pr
esenceoft
hickhar
dcoatt
hati
simper
meabl
etowat
erandoxygen

 I
mmat
ureembr
yoi
ntheseed

 Pr
esenceofger
minat
ioni
nhi
bit
ioni
ntheseede.
g.absci
cicaci
d

 Poorst
oragecondi
ti
onl
eadi
ngt
odeat
hofembr
yo

 Hi
ghenvi
ronment
alt
emper
atur
ewhi
chdenat
ureger
minat
ionenzymes.
19
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  Short
ageofgrowthsti
mulati
nghormonese.g.gi
bberel
li
nswhichhel
pin
conver
ti
ngstoredfoodmateri
alsi
ntoafor
m usablebytheseeds.
METHODSOFBREAKI
NGSEEDDORMANCY

 Mechani
calscar
if
icat
ion,
whi
chi
sthemechani
calbr
eaki
ngofseedcoatt
o
f
acil
it
ateentr
yofoxygen

 Useofheattr
eat
mentatcont
rol
ledt
emper
atur
e(80c),
thi
sist
oenhance
enzymeacti
on.

 Useofchemi
calt
reat
mente.
g.sul
phur
icaci
dtosof
tent
heseedcoat

 Pre-chi
ll
ingthi
siswhenseedsar
eexposedt
olowt
emper
atur
eforawhi
le
beforeplant
ing.

 Pr
ovi
dingpr
operst
oragecondi
ti
on

 Soaki
ngt
heseedi
ngr
owt
hst
imul
ati
nghor
monee.
g.I
ndol
eAcet
icAci
d(I
AA)

 Soaki
ngt
heseedsi
ncol
dwat
eroverni
ghtorf
orsomedayst
osof
tent
heseed
coat

 Cut
tt
ingof
fthehar
dcoatoft
heseedt
omakei
tper
meabl
etooxygen
FI
ELDPRACTI
CESUSEI
NGROWI
NGCROPS(
THEAGRONOMI
CPRACTI
CES)
1.PLANTING:Thi
sref
erst
otheact
ualpl
acementofseedi
nthenur
ser
ybedort
he
act
ualgar
den.
Note:Pl
ant
ingmater
ial
sref
erst
oanypl
ant
’spar
tthati
susedt
orai
seacr
ope.
g.seed
orveget
ati
vepar
t.
Nurserybedrefer
stoasmal lpor
ti
onofl
andpreparedforrai
singseedli
ngbef ore
tr
ansplant
ing,
itsal
waysonemet erwi
dewithalengthofanyreasonabledegreewhile
aseedbedont heothersi
derefer
stoapi
eceoflandvaryinginsizefrom hundredor
eventhousandhectareswhi
chhasbeenprepar
edandr eadytoreceiveplanti
ng
materi
alswheretheycangrowup.
I
mpor
tanceofanur
ser
ybed.

 Manyseedl
ingscanber
aisedi
nasmal
lar
ea.

 Makesi
teasyt
ocar
ryr
out
inemanagementpr
act
ices.

 I
tpr
ovi
dest
hebestcondi
ti
onsf
orgr
owt
he.
g.f
inet
il
t.

 Smal
lseedscanbepl
ant
edandr
aisedi
ntoaf
ormt
hatcangr
owi
ndependent
ly.
20
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Excessseedl
ingscanbesol
dbyt
hef
armer
sfori
ncome.
Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhensel
ect
ingsi
tef
ornur
ser
ybed.
Watersour
ce:I
tshouldbenearpermanentwat
ersour
cetof
aci
li
tat
ewat
eri
ng,
seedl
ingsr
equi
resalotofwateratear
lyst
ageofgr
owth.
Typeofsoi
l:Thesoi
lshoul
dbedeep,
fer
ti
leandwel
ldr
ained.
Topogr
aphy:Si
tesf
ornur
ser
ybedshoul
dbegent
lesl
oppi
ngt
oavoi
dsoi
ler
osi
onand
fl
oodi
ng.
Secur
it
y:t
hesi
teshoul
dbewel
lpr
otect
edf
rom wi
ldani
mal
s,bi
rdsandt
hieves.
Distancefr
om home:Si
tef
ornurser
ybedshoul
dbenearhomest
eadsi
nceseedl
ing
requir
esint
ensi
vemanagementbythef
armer.
Pestanddi
seases:Thesi
teshoul
dbef
reef
rom pestanddi
seases.
METHODOFPLANTI NG:Therear
ebasi
cal
lyt
womet
hodsofpl
ant
ingcr
opsi
.e.
br
oadcast
ingandr
owplant
ing;
Broadcast
ingMet
hod:Thi
sr ef
erstorandom spr
eadi
ngofseedsasevenaspossi
bleat
theseedbedandt
hencoveredlight
lywit
hthesoil
.
Advant
agesofbr
oadcast
ingmet
hod

 Themet
hodi
sfastandl
argear
eai
scover
edwi
thi
nrel
ati
vel
yshor
tti
me

 I
tdoesnotr
equi
respeci
alski
ll
sandt
her
efor
e,f
ewerl
abour
ers.

 I
tisaconveni
entmet
hodsofpl
ant
ingsmal
lseededcr
opse.
g.Si
msi
m,sor
ghum,
mil
letet
c.

 I
tcanbeusedt
oobt
ainhi
gherpl
antpopul
ati
oni
nthef
iel
d.

 I
tpr
ovi
desgoodgr
oundcoverqui
ckl
y.
Di
sadvant
agesofbr
oadcast
ingmet
hodofpl
ant
ing

 Iti
sdif
fi
cultt
oregul
ateopt
imum pl
antpopul
ati
onsi
nceseesar
escat
ter
ed
uncont
rol
labl
y.

 I
tleadst
oover
crowdi
ngofcr
oppl
anti
nthef
iel
d.

 I
tmakessubsequentmanagementofcr
oppl
antdi
ff
icul
te.
g.Weedi
ng

 I
tli
mit
stheuseofmachi
nei
nweedi
ng,
har
vest
ing,
pestanddi
seasecont
rolet
c.

 I
tmayl
eadt
owast
ageofseedsunnecessar
il
y.
21
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  I
tmayal
sol
eadt
ocr
eat
ionofempt
ygapsi
nthef
iel
d.

 I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttor
egul
atepl
ant
ingdept
hwhi
chmayaf
fect
sger
minat
ionofseeds.

 I
tpre-
disposesseedstobir
dsandsurf
acerunof
fduetoshal
lowpl
ant
inghence
r
educi
ngt otal
plantpopul
ati
onperuni
tar
eaofland.
Row/LinePlant
ing:Thi
sref
erst
opl
ant
ingofcr
opseedsi
nli
ne.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesof
rowplant
ing;
Hil
ldropping:Thi
sist
hepl
ant
ingofcr opsatspeci
fi
cdist
ancefr
om oneanot
herand
speci
ficquanti
tyi
naholei
sestabl
ishedandcoveredli
ghtl
ywit
hthesoil
.
Dri
ll
ing:Thi
siswhereseedsaredr
oppedcont
inuousl
yinshal
lowf
urr
owsmadei
nli
ne
andthencoveredl
ight
lywit
hthesoi
l.
Advant
agesofr
ow/
li
nepl
ant
ing.

 Iteconomisesseedssi
ncet
hepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alscanber
egul
ateddur
ing
planti
ng.

 I
tal
soencour
agespr
operspaci
ng.Thi
sgi
vespl
antenoughspacef
orgr
owt
h.

 I
tiseasyt
oregul
atepl
ant
ingdept
hdur
ingmaki
ngofhol
esorpl
ant
ingf
urr
ows.

 Thesemethodsalsoensur
euni
for
mit
y ger
minat
ionofcr
oppl
ant
sduet
o
regul
atedpl
ant
ingdepth.

 Easysubsequentmanagementofcropplanti
nthefi
elde.g.weedi
ng,
pestand
di
seasecontrolhar
vest
ingsi
ncetheeisnoovercrowding.

 I
tper
mit
stheuseofmachi
nef
orpl
ant
ing,
weedi
ng,
pestanddi
seasecont
rolet
c

 I
tal
soavoi
dsover
crowdi
ngofseedsi
nthef
iel
d.

 Themet
hodsal
sopr
eventcr
eat
ionofempt
ygapsi
nthef
iel
d.
2.Timelypl
anting:Thisref
erstoplanti
ngofcr
opsatt
heonsetoftherai
nsot hat
cropsgetenoughgr owthfact
orsthroughoutt
hegr
owingseason.Lat
eplant
ingoften
resul
tsi
ntolowcr opyiel
d.

Advant
agesoft
imel
ypl
ant
ing.

22
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Cr
opsbenef i
tsfr
om ni
trogenflush(bi
rcheff
ects)
.Bi
rchef f
ectsref
erstofi
rst
ni
trogenrel
easedduri
ngdr yseason.Thenit
rogenwillgetlockedupinthesoi
l
i
nform ofammonium compoundandi ti
srel
easedatt heonsetofrai
n.

 Cr
opsgetenoughmoi
stur
efr
om t
hesoi
latcr
it
icalst
agesofgr
owt
h.

 I
treducest
heinci
denceofpestanddi
seaseat
tackoncr
oppl
ant
sespeci
all
y
t
hosethatcomesatlat
erst
ageofgrowth.

 Cr
opsal
sogetagoodst
artagai
nstweedssi
nceweedscomeswhenpl
ant
shas
gr
own.

 Earl
ypl
ant
edcr
opsat
tr
acthi
gherpr
icesl
eadi
ngt
oincr
easei
ncomeoft
he
far
mer.

 Thef
armer
scar
ryouthi
dfar
mingoper
ati
ononpr
ogr
ammeswi
thoutcongest
ion.

 I
tpr
omot
ehi
ghcr
opyi
eld.
3.Ti
melyseedbedprepar
ati
on:Landshoul
dbeopenedatl
easesixweeksbefor
e
pl
anti
ng.Thi
swillgi
veampleti
mesforweather
ingt
ogivef
inet
il
thforpl
ant
ing.
4.Useofcorr
ectplanti
ngdept
h:Plant
ingdepthref
erstohowdeeptheseedispl
ant
ed
bel
owt hesoi
l.Pl
anti
ngdepthi
sgreatl
yinf
luencedbythesizeoft
heseedsandsoi
l
moist
urecontent
.
Advant
ages/
Mer
it
sofcor
rectpl
ant
ingdept
h.

 I
tenabl
est
heseedst
ogetenoughwat
erandoxygenf
orger
minat
ion.

 I
tpr
event
sseesf
rom exhaust
ingal
lthei
rfoodr
eser
vedur
ingger
minat
ion,
.

 I
tpromoteuni
for
m ger
mi nat
ionanduni
for
m gr
owt
hofcr
oppl
ant
sint
hef
iel
d,
t
hisencour
agegoodharvest
.

 Itencouragehighcropyi
eldduet
ogoodseedl
ingest
abl
ishment
.Seedl
ings
emer gesuccessful
lyf
rom t
hesoi
l.

 I
tal
sopr
otect
stheseesf
rom dr
yingduet
otoomuchheat
.

 Itpr
eventseedsf
rom bei
ngexposedt
obi
rdsandot
herani
mal
swhi
chdest
roys
seeds

5.Properspacingofcr
ops:Cr
opspaci
ngref
erstoplant
ingofseeds/seedl
ingsata
specif
icdi
stancefr
om oneanot
herandfr
om onel
inetoanotherl
ine.

23
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
Advant
agesofpr
opercr
opspaci
ng.

 I
tpromot
ehi
ghcr
opyi
eldduet
omaxi
mum pl
antpopul
ati
onperuni
tar
eaof
l
and.

 I
treducesover
crowdi
ngandcompet
it
ionf
ornut
ri
ent
sandl
ighti
nthef
iel
d.

 I
tsuppressesweedsbyr
educi
ngt
hespacet
hatwoul
dhaveot
her
wisebeenl
eft
f
orthem togrow.

 Itpr
omotessubsequentmanagementofcr
oppl
ant
se.g.weeding,
mul chi
ng,
pestanddiseasecont
rolsi
ncet
hefar
m canmover
oundthefieldwit
hout
congest
ion.

 Pl
ant
sgetenoughoxygen,
sunl
ightandnut
ri
ent
sformaxi
mum gr
owt
h.

 Itcont
rolpestanddiseasebyopeni
ngenoughspaceforoxygensandl
ight
penetr
ati
one.g.closerspaci
ngcont
rolgr
oundnutr
osett
ecausedbyAphids.

 I
tencour
agesmechani
zat
ion.
Fact
orst
hatdet
ermi
nesspaci
ngofcr
ops.
Growthhabi
tofthecrop:Cr
opsthatspreadwidel
yi.
e.cropswithlat
eralgr
owt
hhabi
t
requi
reswi
derspaci
ngthancropswitherect
/upri
ghtgr
owt hhabit
.
Plant
ingmethod:Broadcast
ingmet
hodofpl
ant
ingnecessi
tat
escl
osespaci
ngunl
ike
rowplat
ingwit
hwi derspaci
ng.
Amountofmoi
stur
e/rai
nfall
:Cl
osespaci
ngispossi
blef
orareaswit
hhi
ghmoi
stur
e
cont
entt
hancr
opsgrowni nari
dareaswher
erai
nfal
lisi
nadequat
e.
Levelofsoilf
ert
il
it
y:Cl
osespaci
ngi
srecommendedi
naver
yfer
ti
lesoi
lthanl
ess
fer
ti
lesoil
s.
Purposeforwhi
chthecr
opsisgr
owne.g.beanpl
ant
sgr ownforgr
eenmanur
e
pr
eparati
oniscl
osel
yspacedt
hanthatf
orcommerci
alpurpose.
Necessit
ytousemachinesforweedi
ng,pestanddi
seasecont
rol
.Thi
swi
llencour
age
widerspaci
ngtol
eaveenoughspaceformachinest
omove.
Cr
oppingsyst
em t
obeused.Mi
xedst
andcr
opsr
equi
rescl
oserspaci
ngt
hancr
ops
pl
ant
edinasingl
estand.
Di
seasecont
rolmeasur
e:e.
g.cl
osespaci
ngi
susedi
nG.
nutt
ocont
rolG.
nutr
eset
ti
ng.
6.Seedsel
ect
ionanddressi
ng:Seedsel
ecti
onr
efer
st ochoosi
ngbestquali
tyseedto
beplant
edsothatt
heyareabl
etogrowintomat
urecropsandgivehi
ghyi el
dwhi l
e
24
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
e.St
andar
dHi
ghschoolZzanamai
ncampus
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epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
seeddressi
ngisthecoati
ng/mi
xingofseedswithsui
tabl
est
rai
nofchemi
cal
sand
pest
ici
detopreventat
tackanddamagebyst or
agepest.

7.Useofr
ecommendedseedrate:Aseedrateref
erstothequant
it
yofseedsr
equi
red
peruni
tar
eaofl
and.Ther
earebasical
lyt
hreetypeofseedrat
eonaf ar
m;
Hi
ghseedr
ate
Lowseedr
ate
Opt
imum seedr
ate.
Hi
ghseedrat
e:Thi
siswhenafar
merpl
antmor
eseedi
nanar
eat
hant
hatwhi
chi
s
r
ecommended.I
tnormal
lyl
eadst
o;

 Overcr
owdi
ngofcr
oppl
ant
s

 Reducedcr
opyi
eldduet
ocompet
it
ion

 Makesmanagementofcr
opdi
ff
icul
te.
g.weedi
ng

 Reducedi
ncomeduet
opoorqual
it
y.
Lowseedrat
e:Thi
sisasi
tuati
onwherefamersplantf
ewseedsinagi venareas.I
t
normal
lyr
esul
tsi
ntol
owcropyiel
dpergivenareabuti
tincr
easeindi
vidualyi
eldof
croppl
ant
sduetomaximum useofnut
ri
entsforthecr
opplants.
Opt
imum seedr
ate:Thi
siswhenafar
merusest
her
ecommendedquant
it
yofseedsi
n
agi
venar
ea.Opti
mum seedrat
epromotes;
Hi
ghyi
eldsofcr
ops
Easymanagementofcr
op
Hi
ghi
ncomeduet
ohi
ghqual
it
yyi
eldsf
rom cr
oppl
ant
.
Note:Aseedr
ateismostl
ydet
ermi
nedbyt
hegr
owt
hhabi
toft
hedr
oppl
ant
sandt
he
quali
tyoft
heseedsused.
8.Gapfil
li
ng:Thi
sisthefi
ll
ingofemptyspaceswher eseeddidnotger
minateor
whereseedli
ngdri
edupaftertr
anspl
anti
nginthef i
eldtoensur
eopti
mum plant
popul
ati
on..
It’
sdonebyreplant
ingf
reshseeds/seedli
nginthegap.
Gapfil
li
nghasadvantagesofr
egul
ati
ngpl
antpopul
ati
onandf
il
li
ngempt
yspacest
o
avoi
dwastageofland.
9.Thi
nni
ng:Thi
sist
her
emovalofexcessseedl
i
ngsusual
lyweakonesf
rom t
hepl
ant
inghol
es
25
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
e.St
andar
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ghschoolZzanamai
ncampus
Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
somedaysaft
ergermi
nat
iont
oleavecor
rectspaci
ng.Exampl
esofpl
antt
hatcanbet
hinnedar
e
maize,
cot
tonetc.
10.Pri
cki
ngout
:Thi
sist
her
emovalofexcessseedl
ingsf
rom t
hecr
owdedar
eai
nthe
nurser
ybed.
11.Prunung:Thi
sistheremovalofpl
ant’
spartswhicharel
essproduct
iveor
unproduct
iveal
ltoget
here.
g.i
njuredordi
seasedbranchesofcr
opplants.
Advant
agesofpr
uni
ng.

 I
tfaci
l
itat
eseasymanagementofcr
oppl
ant
se.
g.spr
ayi
ng,
weedi
nget
c.

 I
tgi
vest
hepl
antpr
opershapeandt
ocont
roli
tsgr
owt
h.

 Tocontrolpestanddiseasebyinter
feri
ngwiththecoolmi
crocl
imat
ewhi
ch
favour
stheirsurvi
aval
.egantest
iaburgsincoff
ee?

 Ital
soencouragesheal
thygrowthofcroppl
antsbyopeni
ngspacef
orai
r
cir
culat
ionandli
ghtent
ryforphotosynt
hesi
s.

 Iteconomi
sesontheuseofchemi
cal
sbyreduci
ngt
hesur
facear
eat
obe
coveredwi
thchemical
sdur
ingspr
ayi
ng.

 Tocont
roloverbear
ingoff
rui
tse.
g.i
nmangoesandt
omat
oes.

 I
tgi
vesaconveni
enthei
ghtf
orwor
ker
sforeasyhar
vest
ing.

 Toimpr
oveont helongevi
tyofcr
op’
sproduct
ivel
if
emaki
ngt
hepl
antt
o
pr
oduceregul
arlyandyearl
y.egi
ncof
fee.
12.Staki
ng:Thisr
efer
st ot
hepr
ocessofsuppor
ti
ngweakstemmedpl
ant
sabovet
he
groundtoaccesssunl
ightf
orgr
owth.E.
g.i
npassionf
rui
t,t
omat
oeset
c.
Advant
agesofst
aki
ng

 I
texposespl
ant
stogetenoughsunl
ightf
ormaxi
mum yi
eld.

 Iti
mprovesont
hequal
it
yoft
hef
rui
tsbyr
emovi
ngt
hem f
rom cont
actwi
tht
he
ground.

 I
treducestheinci
denceofpestanddi
seaseexi
sti
ngwi
thi
nthesoi
lespeci
all
y
f
ungaldisease.

 I
tfaci
l
itat
eseasymanagementofcr
oppl
ant
se.
g.weedi
ng,
spr
ayi
ng.

 I
tal
sopr
omot
esf
reeai
rci
rcul
ati
onbet
weent
hepl
ant
s.

26
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
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andar
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ghschoolZzanamai
ncampus
Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Thequal
it
yoff
rui
tsi
smai
ntai
nedsi
ncet
heyar
enott
rampl
edonbyt
hef
armer
s.
13.Earthi
ngup:Thi
sist
hedr
awingofenoughsoi
laroundthebaseofshal
lowr
ooted
crops.Ear
thi
ngupiscommonincabbage,
eggpl
ant
s,onionetc.
It
sacommonpr act
ice
duringweeding.
Advant
agesofear
thi
ngup.

 I
tpr
event
slodgi
ngofcr
oppl
ant
s.

 I
tfaci
l
itat
esgr
owt
hofpr
opr
oot
sespeci
all
yincer
eal
sthatsuppor
tthepl
ant
s.

 Thesoi
lheapedpr
event
sther
oot
sfr
om bei
ngdamageddur
ingweedi
ng.

 I
tenabl
ethepl
antt
owi
thst
ander
osi
oni
ncaseofr
unof
f.

 I
tal
socr
eat
essui
tabl
econdi
ti
onf
orbul
bfor
mat
ioni
noni
on.
14.Pestanddi
seasecontrol:Pestanddiseaseshoul
dbeef
fect
ivel
ycont
rol
ledas
theyl
owerthequal
it
iesofcropinthefiel
d.
15.Appl
icat
ionofmanur
etoenr
ichonsoi
lnut
ri
ent
sforbet
teryi
eld.
16.I
rrr
igat
ion:Thi
sist
hearti
fi
cialappl
icati
onofwat
erfr
om areliabl
esourcetoadr
y
l
and.It
’sdonetomaint
ainadequatemoi st
urei
nthesoi
lforbet
tercropyi
eld.
17.Drainage:Thi
sisdonet
oremoveexcesswat
erf
rom t
hesoi
lsoast
ocr
eat
e
sui
tableforcropgrowt
h.
18.Mulchi
ng:Thi
sisthecover
ingofsoilsur
faceusi
ngmulchest
opreventi
tfr
om
excessi
veevapor
ati
on,cont
rolweedgrowthandsoiler
osi
onwhichl
owerscropyi
eld.
19.Timelyweedi
ngofcr
oppl
ant
stomi
nimi
zeoncompl
eti
onf
ornut
ri
ent
swi
tht
he
cropplant
s.
20.Timel yharvesti
ng:Harvesti
ngr ef
erstoremovalofmaturedplant’spar
tsfrom t
he
parentplants.I
tstheclimaxofcrop’sproducti
veli
feint
hefield.Cropsshouldbe
harvestedintimet oreducecroplossescausedbyinsect
spest s,bir
ds,thi
eves,
rodents,shatt
eringandger mi
nationofseedsfrom t
hegarden.
Thepl
anti
sconsi
deredmaturedwhentherepr
oducti
vepar
tshasaccumul
ated
maxi
mum drymatt
erorchangeincol
ourespeci
all
yforf
rui
ts.
Ef
fect
soft
ooear
lyhar
vest
.

 I
tleadst
oinadequat
edr
yingofpr
oduceduet
ohi
ghmoi
stur
econt
ent
.

 Seedshar
vest
edpr
emat
urel
yhavepoorqual
it
yiet
heseedsar
edef
ormed.

27
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
e.St
andar
dHi
ghschoolZzanamai
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Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Itl
eadst
oreducedseedviabil
it
yeit
herduet
oimmat
ureembr
yoor
accumul
ati
onoffoodreserveonthestem.

 I
tpr
e-di
sposescr
opt
opestat
tackduet
osof
ttest
a.

 I
t’
sdi
ff
icul
ttopr
ocesspl
antpr
oduceespeci
all
ythr
eshi
ng.
Ef
fect
sofdel
ayedhar
vest
.
Losesofpr
oduceduet
ospl
it
ti
ngofpods,
rot
ti
ngoff
rui
tsandveget
abl
e.
I
tencour
agesbui
ldupofpestanddi
seases.
21.Dryi
ngofcr
ops:Thispract
iceiscar
ri
edoutespeci
all
yongr
aint
oobt
aint
he
corr
ectmoi
stur
econtentf
orstorage.
Reasonsf
ordr
yingofcr
oppr
oduce.

 I
tpr
event
spr
oducef
rom r
ott
inganddecaycausedbyf
ungi
.

 Tor
educei
nsectdamage.

 Topr
eventgr
owt
honcr
oppl
ant
s.

 Tomai
ntai
nseedvi
abi
li
tyandqual
it
y.

 Tor
educebul
kinessofcr
opsf
oreasyt
ranspor
tat
ion.

 Topr
eventger
minat
ionofseesi
nst
ore.

 Toal
loweasypr
ocessi
ngofcr
oppr
oducei
ntoot
herf
ormse.
g.mai
zegr
aint
o
mai
zeflour
.

 Topr
olongt
hest
orageper
iodf
orcr
oppr
oduce.
22.Pr
operstor
age:Thispr
eventsspoi
lageofseedscausedbyst
oragepestandi
tal
so
makeproduceavai
labl
eforfut
ureuse.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodcr
opst
ore.

 Thest
oremustbeofgoodconst
ruct
ionandr
ainpr
oof
.

 Thest
oremustal
waysbecl
easn,
aer
atedanddr
y.

 I
tshoul
dbever
minpr
oof
.

 I
tshoul
dbesecur
elyl
ocat
edt
opr
eventt
hieves.

 I
tshoul
dbet
reat
edagai
nstpestanddi
seases.

28
Depar
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icul
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andar
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ncampus
Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Thestor
emustber ai
sedof
fabovet
hegr
ound50cm t
opr
eventdampness
causedbycapi
ll
ari
ty.

 I
tshoul
dnothaveanycr
acksont
hesur
faceorf
rom t
hewal
l.Thi
sat
tr
act
spest
.

 I
tshoul
dbet
hor
oughl
ysmear
edbef
orenewcr
oppr
oducear
ebr
oughti
n.
Measur
est
hatcanmi
nimi
zecr
opl
ossesdur
ingst
orage.

 Pr
operdr
yingofpr
oducet
oappr
oxi
mat
emoi
stur
econt
ent
.

 Propervent
il
ati
onoft
hest
oret
oal
lowf
reeai
rci
rcul
ati
onandt
opr
event
accumulati
onofheat
.

 Carr
youtseeddr
essi
ngbef
oreordur
ingst
orageusi
ngsui
tabl
echemi
cal
sto
cont
rolpest
s.

 Regul
archecki
ngofst
oresshoul
dbedoneandavoi
dmi
xingol
dpr
oducewi
th
newones.

 Sealoffallt
hecrackswit
hmot
ors/
cowdungt
odest
roybr
eedi
nggr
oundf
or
pestthatdestr
oycrops.

 Cl
eant
hest
orepr
oper
lybef
orei
ntr
oduci
ngnewcr
oppr
oducei
n.

 Rai
set
hest
oreabovet
hegr
oundt
oavoi
ddampness.
23.Processing:Thi
sisthetransf
ormati
onofrawmateri
alsi
ntof
inaluti
li
zabl
e
product
s.Itincl
udesacti
vit
iesli
kethr
eshing,
winnowi
ng,sor
ti
ng,
gradingand
packagi
ngt hecropproduct
s.
Reasonsf
orpr
ocessi
ng.

 Tor
educebul
kinessandmaket
ranspor
tat
ioneasi
er.

 Tor
educewast
ageduet
ospoi
lage.

 I
taddsval
uest
ocr
oppr
oducebyi
mpr
ovi
ngi
tsqual
it
y.

 I
tconver
tsproduct
sint
oaf
ormt
hatcanbeusedeasi
lye.
g.mai
zef
lourf
rom
maizegr
ain,
.

 I
tprol
ongst
hel
if
espanofcr
oppr
oducemaki
ngi
tavai
labl
eforl
ongt
imee.
g.
mil
k.

29
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
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Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
CROPPROTECTI
ON
WEEDANDWEEDCONTROL
Aweedisaplantgr
owingwher
ei ti
snotwantedi.
e.aplantwhi
chi
soutofpl
aceand
i
sincompet
it
ionwitht
hecropplante.
g.abeanplantgrowi
nginast
andofmaizei
s
consi
der
edasaweedbecauseitwasnotplantedther
e.
Economi
cimpor
tanceofweedsi
ncr
oppr
oduct
ion/
Eff
ect
sofweeds.
Theeconomi
ceff
ectsr
efert
obot
hposi
ti
veandnegat
iveaspect
sofweedsi
n
agr
icul
tur
epr
oducti
on.
Posi
ti
veef
fect
sofweeds.

 Theypr
ovi
deor
gani
cmat
terandmi
ner
alnut
ri
ent
stot
hepl
antwhenr
ott
en.

 Theycareusedasr
oof
ingmat
eri
alsi
nrur
alar
ease.
g.Speargr
assandt
hat
ch
grass.

 Theyprovideagoodsur
facecoverwhi
chmi
nimi
zeont
her
ateofevapor
ati
on
andcontrolsoi
ler
osi
on.

 I
tisasour
ceoff
oodf
orwi
ldgame.

 Somear
eusedf
orhousehol
dpur
posee.
g.f
orsweepi
ngasbr
ooms.

 Somespeci
esofweedsareusedasher
balmedi
cinee.
g.bl
ackj
ackwhi
chi
s
usedt
odressf
reshwound.

 Somear
eusedasveget
abl
esi
ndi
ff
erentl
ocat
ione.
g.pi
gweeds(
Amar
ant
hus
ssp)

 Theyal
sohel
pinnut
ri
entr
ecycl
ingsi
ncet
heyar
edeepr
oot
ed.
Negat
iveef
fect
sofweeds.

 Theycompet
ewi
thpl
ant
sfornut
ri
ent
s,space,
li
ghtandwat
er.

 Someweedsar
epoi
sonoust
omanandl
ivest
ocke.
g.t
hor
nappl
eandl
ant
ana
camar
a

 Theyreducepalat
abi
li
tyofpast
uref
ort
heanimal
sleadi
ngt
opoorqual
it
y
product
ionbytheani
malsinter
msofmilkandmeat.

30
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
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andar
dHi
ghschoolZzanamai
ncampus
Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Theycontaminatef
arm pr
oducereduci
ngthei
rqual
it
ye.
g.bl
ackj
ackseedsi
n
cot
tonli
nt,whil
ecott
onwhichtai
ntmi l
kincows.

 Theyi
ncr
easecostofpr
oduct
ionasf
armer
str
iest
ocont
rolt
hem onaf
arm.

 Weedshar
borpesti
.e.someweedsactashi
dinggr
oundf
orpestwhi
chat
tacks
cr
ops.

 Weedshighl
yaffectt
hef
ormat
ionanddi
str
ibut
ionofr
oot
sofcr
oppl
antunder
heavyi
nfest
ati
on.

 Theyr
educescr
opyi
eldbydepr
ivi
ngcr
oppl
ant
soft
heessent
ialnut
ri
ent
s.

 Theyal
sor
educet
hemar
ketval
ueoft
hecr
oppl
ant
sduet
opoorqual
it
y.

 Theyincr
easethefrequencyofsecondar
yculti
vati
onandweedi
ngwhi
chal
so
i
ncreasesproduct
ioncosttothefar
mere.g.speargrass.

 Weedsal
soaf
fectcr
ophar
vestunderheavyi
nfest
ati
on.

 Theymakecul
ti
vat
iondi
ff
icul
tbyst
icki
ngont
hebl
adeoff
armi
mpl
ement
s.

 Theyareal
lel
opat
hici
.e.t
heyproducepoi
sonoussubst
ancewhi
chaf
fect
s
germi
nati
onandgrowthofcropplant
s.E.
g.st
ri
ga.
Factor
s/charact
eri
sti
cs/adapt
ati
onsofweedswhi
chmaket
hem mor
esuccessf
ul
thancropplanti
nthefiel
d.

 Weedshaveext ensiver
ootsyst
em whi
chenabl
est
hem t
odr
awnut
ri
ent
sfr
om
deepersoi
llayersthancrop.

 Theyar
etol
erantt
ohar
shcondi
ti
onehdr
ought
.

 Weedsareadaptedt
ogrowinal
ltypesofsoi
landcansur
viveeasi
lyonf
ew
nut
ri
ent
se.g.speargr
ass.

 Someweedseedcanger
minat
eeveni
ftheyar
eimmat
uremaki
ngt
hem
out
compet
ecropsi
nnumbers.

 Weedsareprol
if
ici.e.t
heypr
oducever
ymanyseedswhi
chi
ncr
easet
hei
r
chancesofmul
tipl
icati
on.

 Theyhaveaggr
essivegr
owt
hhabi
ti.
e.t
heygr
owf
ast
ert
hancr
oppl
ant
se.
g.
bl
ackjack,
pigweed.

 Weedsar
elessaf
fect
edbypestanddi
seaset
hancr
ops.

 Theyhavehi
ghr
epr
oduct
ivecapaci
tye.
g.t
heyhavemanyper
enat
ingor
gansf
or
31
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
 r
epr
oduct
ionsuchasst
olonf
orcouchgr
ass,
rhi
zomef
orspeargr
ass.

 Theyhavespr
eadi
nggr
owt
hhabi
ti.
e.t
heyf
orm manybr
ancheswhi
chcover
s
thecr
opplant
s.

 Theyareunpal
atabl
etotheani
malsmaki
ngt
hem t
ocont
inuegr
owi
ngascr
op
pl
antsaredest
royeddownbyanimal
s.

 Theyhavevar
iousdisper
salmechani
smswhi
chi
ncr
easet
hei
rchancesof
col
oni
zingnewplacesinthefi
eld.

 Someweedsar eall
olopat
hici.
e.theyproducepoisonoussubstancewhi
ch
makesithar
dfortheplantgrowingaroundthem togrow.Weedshavelong
dormancyperi
odsi.
e.theycanremai ndormantinthesoilf
orlongwit
hout
dyei
ng.

 Someweedshavepr
otecti
vestr
uct
ureswhichpreventt
hem f
rom bei
ng
dest
royedbyani
mal
se.g.t
hornappl
e,doublet
horn.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofweeds
Theweedsar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
nto2waysi
.e.

 Accor
dingt
othel
if
ecycl
e.

 Accor
dingt
othemor
phol
ogy

Accor
dingt
othel
if
ecycl
e
I
nthi
scl
assi
fi
cat
ion,
weedsar
eclassi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othel
engt
hoft
hei
rli
fecycl
ei.
e.
t
heti
metheyt
aketogrow,
matur
eanddie.
Undert
hiscl
assi
fi
cat
ion,
thef
oll
owi
nggr
oupsofweedsexi
st;
Annualweeds;Theseweedscompl
etet
hei
rli
fecycl
ewi
thi
nayearorl
esse.
g.bl
ack
j
ack,goatweed,pi
gweedetc.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofannualweeds

 Theycompl
etet
hei
rli
fecycl
einoneyear

 Repr
oducesonl
ybymeanofseeds

 Pr
oducesabundantnumberofseeds

32
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
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Pr
epar
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ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
  Theybecomedi
ff
icul
ttor
emovei
flef
tinanar
eaf
orl
ong
Bi-Annualweeds;t
hesecompl et
ethei
rli
fecyclei
nmorethanoneyearbutnotmore
than2years.I
nthefir
styear
,itmayexhibitveget
ati
vegr
owthandfl
owersandproduce
seedsinthesecondyear.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofbi
-annualweeds

 Theycompl
etet
hei
rli
fecycl
eint
woyear
sti
me.

 Theyproduceveget
ati
vegr
owt
hint
hef
ir
styearandpr
oduceseedsi
nthe
secondyearthendi
e.

 Theyr
epr
oducef
rom seedsonl
y.
Perennialweeds;theycompl et
ethei
rli
fecycl
einmorethantwoyear s.E.
g.coach
grass,t
ickberry,oxal
is.Perenni
alareoft
enverydi
ff
icul
ttocontrolbecausethey
possesper enati
ngorganse.g.rhi
zomes,bulbs,
cor
nsetc.Perennialweedsreproduce
fr
om bot hseedsandveget ati
vepart
s.
Accor
dingt
omorphol
ogy;Classi
ficat
ionundert
hisonei
sbasedont
hest
ruct
ureof
t
heweedplant
s.I
tcanbeclassif
iedas

Sedges;Theseareweedswhi
chgr
owsmostl
yinwaterl
oggedareaswher
ewat er
st
andmostoft heti
me,thi
sgr
ouphasat
ri
angul
arst
em e.g.Cypr
usrot
undas,
nut
grasset
c.
Woodweeds;theyhavestr
ongwoodyst emsandt heyar
emainl
ycont
rol
led
mechani
cal
lybyuproot
inge.g.Sodom appl
e,Lant
anacamar
aetc.
Her
baceousweeds;Thesear
etheweedswi
tht
hickwat
erf
il
ledsuccul
entst
emse.
g.
wat
erhyaci
nth,
wanderi
ngJew,pi
gweeds,
Grassweedse.
g.Spear
,st
ar,
couchgr
ass.Theyhaveweakst
em andl
ongnar
row
l
eaves.

Accor
dingt
obot
ani
calnat
ure
33
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
Gr
oup Commonname Bot
ani
cal Li
fespan Pr
opagat
ion
name mode
Gr
ass Wi
ldfi
nger El
eusi
nei
ndi
ca Annual Seed
mi
ll
et
Imperet
ta Per
enni
al Rhi
zome
Speargr
ass cyl
indri
Annual Seed
Lovegr
ass Sit
eria
Per
enni
al St
olon
vert
ici
lat
ta
St
argr
ass
Per
enni
al Rhi
zome
Cynodon
Couchgr
ass
dact
ylon Per
enni
al Seed
Nutgr
ass
Her
baceous Digi
tar
ia Annual Seed
Pi
gweed scal
arum
Per
enni
al spl
it
s
Wandr
ingj
ew Cyper
us
Annual Seed
rot
undus
Bl
ackj
ack
Per
enni
al Seed
Amarant
hus
Oxal
is
ssp Annual Seed
Goatweed
Commeli
na Annual Seed
Thor
nappl
e bengh
Per
enni
al Seed
Sodom appl
e Bi
denpi
losa
Annual Seed
Mi
lkweed Oxal
isl
ati
fol
ia
Ageratum
conyzoi Bi
annual Seed
Doubl
ethor
n
Datur
a annual seed
Macdonald’
s st
ramoni
u
eye/Gal
lant
soldi
er Sol
anum
i
ncanum
Euphorbi
a
het
eropyl
la
Oxygonum
si
nuatum
Gali
nsoga
pavi
fl
ora

34
Depar
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.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
Met
hodsofcont
rol
li
ngweeds
Thesear
enumberofmet
hodsusedt
ocont
rolweedsbyf
armer
sandt
hesei
ncl
ude:

 Cul
tur
almet
hod.

 Mechani
calorphysi
calmet
hod.

 Bi
ologi
calmet
hod.

 Chemi
calmet
hod.

 Legi
slat
ivemet
hod.

 I
ntegr
atedweedcont
rol
.
Theuseofanyoftheabovemethodskeepsonvaryi
ngfr
om oneplacet
oanother
dependi
ngon;thetypeofweed,t
hetypeofpl
antgrown,
theeconomicst
atusoft
he
far
merandenvi
ronmentalcondi
ti
ons.
Cul
tur
almethods:Thi
saimstogi
vet
hecropt hebestcondi
ti
onswhi
chwi
llf
avouri
ts
gr
owthsothati
tcanoutcompet
eweeds.Theseincl
ude;
Cr
oprot
ati
on:thi
shel
pstodest
royt
hel
if
ecycl
eofweedst
hatt
endt
ofol
lowpar
ti
cul
ar
cr
opse.
g.st
ri
gasppincer
eal
s.
Properspaci
ng:Wel
lspacedplantsgi
veagoodgroundcoverqui
ckl
ywit
hthei
rleaves;
t
hisenablest
hecroptosmothertheweedsatanearl
ystagewhentheweedsar
est i
ll
weakandnotyetestabl
i
shed.
Timelypl
ant
ing:enablest
hecr
opst
oest
abl
ishandgr
owear
lybef
oret
heweedsr
each
thei
rcompet
iti
vestage.
Mul
ching:t
hishel
pst
osuppr
essweedgr
owt
h,depr
ivesweedsof
fsunl
ightmaki
ng
t
hem t
odie
Flooding;Thi
skil
lnonwat
erl
ovi
ngweedsespeci
all
ymakingthem t
odi
eof
suffocati
on.Thi
sisusedi
ncr
opsli
kepaddyr
icepl
antat
ion.
Handpul
li
ng:weedsar
eupr
oot
edt
oget
herwi
tht
hei
rroot
sandar
elef
ttodi
eanddr
y.
Trapcr
opping:t
hisal
lowsweedstogrowonahostpl
antwhichi
sthenpl
oughedi
nto
thesoi
lwhentheweedsaresti
llgr
eenbef
orepr
oduci
ngseeds.
Cont
rol
ledgr
azi
ng:t
hisr
educesover
grazi
ngandensur
est
hatdesi
rabl
epast
uresar
e
35
Depar
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Pr
epar
edandcompi
ledby:Mr
.GONZAGAOKUMUTel0759261276
notoutcompet
edbyweeds.
Covercroppi
ng:cr
opswi
thdensef
oli
agear
epl
ant
edt
oshadet
hegr
oundand
smootherweeds.
I
nter
croppi
ng:Thi
sreducesspaceandl
ightavai
labl
efort
heweedst
ogr
ow.
Advant
agesofcul
tur
almet
hodsofweedcont
rol