Introduction to computer

Dr. Ajab Khan Kasi

Number System
Number System
Number System

Start binary number with last digit. Therefore the binary equivalent of 217 is
11011001
Number System
Number System
 Conversion of Octal number into Decimal equivalent
 Let octal number be (235)8

Hence (235)8 = (157)10

Number System
 Parts of Computer System
A complete computer system consists of three parts
» Hardware
» Software
» Data
Hardware
Hard ware is any part of the computer you can touch. A computer’s
hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that you can use to control
the computer’s operation, input, and output.

Software
Software is a set of instructions that makes the computer perform tasks. In other
words, software tells the computer what to do. (The term program refers to any
piece of software.)
Some programs exist primarily for the computer's use to help it perform tasks and
manage its own resources.

Other types of programs exist for the user, enabling him or her to perform tasks such
as creating documents. Thousands of different software programs arc available for use
on personal computers.
 Parts of Computer System
Data
Data consist of individual facts or pieces of information that by
themselves may not make much sense to a person.
A computer’s primary job is to process these
tiny pieces of data in various ways, converting them into useful
information.

For example, if you saw the average highway mileages of six

different cars, all the different pieces of data might not mean
much to you.

However; if someone created a chart from the data that visually

compared and ranked the vehicles’ mileages, you could probably
make sense of it at a glance. This is one example of data being
processed into useful information.
 Essential Computer Hardware
A computer’s hardware devices fall into one of four categories
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Input and output
4. Storage
Processing Devices
The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called process. To
perform this transformation, the computer uses two components: the processor and
memory.
The processor is like the brain of the computer; it organizes and carries out
instructions that come from either the user or the software.
In a personal computer; the processor usually consists of one or more specialized
chips, called microprocessors. The microprocessor is plugged into the computer’s
motherboard. The mother board is a rigid rectangular card containing the circuitry that
connects the processor to the other hardware.
 Essential Computer Hardware
In most personal computers, many internal components such as video cards,
sound cards, disk controllers, and other devices are housed on their own
smaller circuit boards, which attach to the mother board.

In many newer computers, these devices are built directly into the
motherboard. Some newer microprocessors are large and complex enough to
require their own dedicated circuit boards, which plug into a special slot in the
motherboard. You can think of the motherboard as the master circuit board in
a computer.

A personal computer’s processor is usually a single chip or a set of chips

contained on a circuit board. In some powerful computers, the processor
consists of many chips and the circuit boards on which they are mounted.
People often refer to computer systems by the type of CPU they contain.
A "Pentium 4” system, for example, uses a Pentium 4 microprocessor as its
CPU.
 Memory devices
In a computer, memory is one or more sets of chips
that store data and/or program instructions, either
temporarily or permanently.
Memory is a critical processing component in any
computer.
Personal computers use several different types of
memory, but the two most important are called
random access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM).
These two types of memory work in very
different ways and perform distinct functions.
General Definition

Mainboard
General Definition
General Definition

mainboard
General Definition

processor
General Definition

RAM
For your Information

Bit, Byte, Nibble, Word

Bit : Smallest unit (1)
Byte: 8 bits
Nibble: 4 bits
Word: depends on system
It can be 4, or 8 or 16 bits, etc

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The Basic Semiconductor Memory Array
Each storage element in a memory can retain either a I or a 0 and is called a cell.

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 Memory Address and Capacity
The capacity of a memory is the total number of data units that can be stored.

capacity is 64 bytes
capacity is 64 bits. capacity is 8 bytes

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Basic Memory Operations

 The write operation puts data into a specified address in the memory, and
the read operation copies data out of a specified address in the memory.
 The addressing operation, which is part of both the write and the read
operations, selects the specified memory address.
 Data units go into the memory during a write operation and come out of
the memory during a read operation on a set of lines called the data bus

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2-dimensional memory

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3-dimensional memory

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Write operation

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Read operation

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RAMs and ROMs

RAM (random-access memory) is a type of memory in which all addresses

are accessible in an equal amount of time and can be selected in any order
for a read or write operation. All RAMs have both read and write capability.

Because RAMs lose stored data when the power is turned off, they are
volatile memories.

ROM (read-only memory) is a type of memory in which data are stored

permanently or semi permanently. Data can be read from a ROM, but there
is no write operation as in the RAM. The ROM, like the RAM, is a random-
access memory but the term RAM traditionally means a random-access
read/write memory.

Because ROMs retain stored data even if power is turned off, they are
nonvolatile memories.

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RAMs
RAMs are read/write memories in which data
can be written into or read from any selected
address in any sequence.

When a data unit is written into a given

address in the RAM, the data previously stored
at that address is replaced by the new data.

When a data is read from a given address in

the RAM, the data unit remains stored and is
not erased by the read operation.
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RAM Family

Static RAMs generally use latches as storage

elements and can therefore store data indefinitely
as long as dc power is applied.

Dynamic RAMs use capacitors as storage

elements and cannot retain data very long without
the capacitors being recharged by a process called
refreshing.

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RAM Family

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Transistor as a Switch

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Static RAM Unit cell

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Basic Synchronous SRAM with Burst Feature
Activity

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Cache Memory
 Cache memory is a relatively small, high-speed memory that stores
the most recently used instructions or data from the larger but
slower main memory.
 Cache memory is basically a cost -effective method of improving
system performance without making all of the memory faster.
 The concept of cache memory is based on the idea that computer
programs tend to get instructions or data from one area of main
memory before moving to another area.
 Basically, the cache controller "guesses" which area of the slow
dynamic memory the CPU will need next and moves it to the
cache memory so that it is ready when needed.
 If the cache controller guesses right, the data are immediately
available to the microprocessor. (hit)
 If the cache controller guesses wrong, the CPU must go to the
main memory and wait much longer for the correct instructions or
data. (miss)

 Fortunately, the cache controller is right most of the time.

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Cache Analogy

A home refrigerator can be thought of as a

"cache" for certain food items while the
supermarket is the main memory where all
foods are kept.
Each time you want something to eat or drink,
you can go to the refrigerator (cache) first to
see if the item you want is there.
If it is, you save a lot of time. (hit)
If it is not there, then you have to spend extra
time to get it from the supermarket (main
memory). (miss)
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L 1 and L2 Caches

 A first-level cache (Ll cache) is usually integrated into

the processor chip and has a very limited storage
capacity. L I cache is also known as primary cache.
 A second-level cache (L2 cache) is a separate memory
chip or set of chips external to the processor and
usually has a larger storage capacity than an Ll cache.
L2 cache is also known as secondary cache.
 Some systems may have higher-level caches (L3. L4,
etc.), but Ll and L2 are the most common.
 Also, some systems use a disk cache to enhance the
performance of the hard disk because DRAM, although
much slower than SRAM, is much faster than the hard
disk drive.

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L 1 and L2 Caches

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Memory Cells

 Dynamic memory cells store a data bit in a small

capacitor rather than in a latch.
 The advantage of this type of cell is that it is very
simple, thus allowing very large memory arrays
to be constructed on a chip at a lower cost per
bit.
 The disadvantage is that the storage capacitor
cannot hold its charge over an extended period
of time and will lose the stored data bit unless its
charge is refreshed periodically.

 To refresh requires additional memory circuitry

and complicates the operation of the DRAM.
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DRAM unit Cells

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DRAM unit Cells

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ROM
A ROM contains permanently or semi
permanently stored data, which can be read from
the memory but either cannot be changed at all
or cannot be changed without specialized
equipment.
 A ROM stores data that are used repeatedly in
system
 application&, such as tables. conversions, or
programmed instructions for system initialization
and operation.
 ROMs retain stored data when the power is off
and are therefore nonvolatile memories.
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 ROM Family

 The mask ROM is the type in which the data are permanently stored in the
memory during the manufacturing process.
 The PROM, or programmable ROM, is the type in which the data are electrically
stored by the user with the aid of specialized equipment.
 Both the mask ROM and the PROM can be of either MOS or bipolar technology.
 The EPROM, or erasable PROM. is strictly a MOS device.
 The UV EPROM is electrically programmable by the user, but the stored data must
be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light over a period of several minutes.
 The electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM or E 2 PROM) can be erased in a few
milliseconds.

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 Storage Hard Disc/Disk
A hard disk is also known as a hard drive
or fixed disk. It is said to be rigid
magnetic disc that stores data. It is
located within a drive unit. Hard disk is a
non-volatile storage device that contains
platters (magnetic disks) rotating at high
speeds. Non-volatile means the data
retains when the computer shuts down.

Its main components include a read/write

actuator arm, head actuator, read/write
head, spindle, and platter. A circuit board
(also called as the interface board or disk
controller) is present on the back of a
hard drive. It lets the hard drive to
communicate with the computer.
Hard Disc/Disk
 Function of Hard disk

The hard disk is a secondary storage device, which is designed to

store data permanently. The secondary storage devices include a large
storage capacity as compared to the primary storage devices. The
data stored in a hard disk is retained when our computer system
shuts down. The data stored in the hard disk can be of many types
such as the operating system, installed software, documents, and
other files of computer.

Hard disk was introduced in the year 1956 by IBM. The first personal
computer contains a hard drive of less than 1 megabyte, while
modern computers contain a hard drive of 1 terabyte.

The size of hard drives is measured in gigabytes and terabytes.

Usually, 500GB hard disks are common in modern computers. As an
instance, a song of length four-minute is approx. 4MB in size, and in 1
gigabyte, there are 1,000 megabytes, it means that a 500GB hard
drive can store approx. 250,000 songs.
Hard Disc/Disk
Advantages of the hard disk
One of the significant advantages of a Hard Disk drive is that its cost
is low.
Another advantage of a Hard Disk is that it is readily available in the
market.
Hard Disk is faster than optical disks.
The capacity for storing the data in HDDs is large.

Disadvantages of the hard disk

The speed of reading and writing in HDD is slower than the RAM.
HDDs are noisy.
HDDs consume more power.

The hard disks are robust and can be used for a long time. But hard
disks can be crashed, and the main reason is head crash. If the hard
drive is crashed, we may lose all our documents, photos, etc., stored
in it.
 Hard Disc/Disk
A hard drive has only a few basic parts. There are one or more shiny
silver platters where information is stored magnetically, there's an
arm mechanism that moves a tiny electro magnet called a read-write
head back and forth over the platters to record or store information,
and there's an electronic circuit to control everything and act as a
link between the hard drive and the rest of your computer.

The platters are the most important parts of a hard drive. As the
name suggests, they are disks made from a hard material such as glass,
ceramic, or aluminum, which is coated with a thin layer of metal that
can be magnetized or demagnetized. A small hard drive typically has
only one platter, but each side of it has a magnetic coating. Bigger
drives have a series of platters stacked on a central spindle, with a
small gap in between them. The platters rotate at up to 10,000
revolutions per minute (rpm) so the read-write heads can access any
part of them.

There are two read-write heads for each platter, one to read the top
surface and one to read the bottom, so a hard drive that has five
platters (say) would need ten separate read-write heads. The read-
write heads are mounted on an electrically controlled arm that
moves from the center of the drive to the outer edge and back again.
To reduce wear and tear, they don't actually touch the platter: there's
a layer of fluid or air between the head and the platter surface.
 Hard Disc/Disk
1. Actuator that moves the read-write arm. In older
hard drives, the actuators were stepper motors. In
most modern hard drives, voice coils are used
instead. As their name suggests, these are simple
electromagnets, working rather like the moving
coils that make sounds in loudspeakers. They
position the read-write arm more quickly,
precisely, and reliably than stepper motors and
are less sensitive to problems such as
temperature variations.
2. Read-write arm swings read-write head back and
forth across platter.
3. Central spindle allows platter to rotate at high
speed.
4. Magnetic platter stores information in binary form.
5. Plug connections link hard drive to circuit board in
personal computer.
6. Read-write head is a tiny magnet on the end of
the read-write arm.
7. Circuit board on underside controls the flow of
data to and from the platter.
8. Flexible connector carries data from circuit board
to read-write head and platter.
9. Small spindle allows read-write arm to swing
across platter.
Hard Disc/Disk
Reading and Writing Data
The data is stored in a very orderly pattern on each platter. Bits of
data are arranged in concentric, circular paths called tracks.
Each track is broken up into smaller areas called sectors.
Part of the hard drive stores a map of sectors that have already been
used up and others that are still free. (In Windows, this map is called
the File Allocation Table or FAT.)
When the computer wants to store new information, it takes a look
at the map to find some free sectors. Then it instructs the read-write
head to move across the platter to exactly the right location and
store the data there.
To read information, the same process runs in reverse.
There is an interface (a connecting piece of equipment) called a
controller. This is a small circuit that operates the actuators, selects
specific tracks for reading and writing, and converts parallel streams
of data going from the computer into serial streams of data being
written to the disk (and vice versa). Controllers are either built into
the disk drive's own circuit board or part of the computer's main
board (motherboard).
Hard Disc/Disk
Disadvantages of Hard Disk
With so much information stored in such a tiny amount of
space, a hard drive is a remarkable piece of engineering.
That brings benefits (such as being able to store 500 CDs on
your HDD)—but drawbacks too.
One of them is that hard drives can go wrong if they get dirt
or dust inside them.
A tiny piece of dust can make the read-write head bounce up
and down, crashing into the platter and damaging its
magnetic material. This is known as a disk crash (or head
crash) and cause the loss of all the information on a hard
drive.
A disk crash usually occurs without any warning.
That's why you should always keep backup copies of your
important documents and files, either on another hard drive,
on a compact disc (CD) or DVD, or on a flash memory stick.
 Flash memory
Flash works using an entirely different kind of transistor that stays switched on
(or switched off) even when the power is turned off.
A normal transistor has three connections (wires that control it) called the
source, drain, and gate. Think of a transistor as a pipe through which electricity
can flow as though it's water. One end of the pipe (where the water flows in) is
called the source—think of that as a tap . The other end of the pipe is called the
drain—where the water drains out and flows away.
In between the source and drain, blocking the pipe, there's a gate. When the gate
is closed, the pipe is shut off, no electricity can flow and the transistor is off.
In this state, the transistor stores a zero. When the gate is opened, electricity
flows, the transistor is on, and it stores a one.
But when the power is turned off, the transistor switches off too. When you
switch the power back on, the transistor is still off, and since you can't know
whether it was on or off before the power was removed, you can see why we
say it "forgets" any information it stores.
A flash transistor is different because it has a second gate above the first one.
When the gate opens, some charge leaks up the first gate and stays there, in
between the first gate and the second one, recording a number one. Even if the
power is turned off, the charge is still there between the two gates.
That's how the transistor stores its information whether the power is on or off.
The information can be erased by making the "trapped charge" drain back down
again.
 Flash memory
That's a very glossed over, highly simplified explanation of
something that's extremely complex. If you want more detail, it
helps if you read our article about transistors first, especially the
bit at the bottom about MOSFETs—and then read on.

The transistors in flash memory are like MOSFETs only they have
two gates on top instead of one. This is what a flash transistor
looks like inside.You can see it's an n-p-n sandwich with two
gates on top, one called a control gate and one called a floating
gate. The two gates are separated by oxide layers through which
current cannot normally pass:
In this state, the transistor is switched off—and effectively storing
a zero. How do we switch it on? Both the source and the drain
regions are rich in electrons (because they're made of n-type
silicon), but electrons cannot flow from source to drain because
of the electron deficient, p-type material between them. But if we
apply a positive voltage to the transistor's two contacts, called the
bitline and the wordline, electrons get pulled in a rush from
source to drain. A few also manage to wriggle through the oxide
layer by a process called tunneling and get stuck on the floating
gate.
The presence of electrons on the floating gate is how a flash
transistor stores a one. The electrons will stay there indefinitely,
even when the positive voltages are removed and whether there
is power supplied to the circuit or not. The electrons can be
flushed out by putting a negative voltage on the wordline—which
repels the electrons back the way they came, clearing the floating
gate and making the transistor store a zero again.
 SSD
All problems of hard disk such as —weight, power consumption, access
times, and reliability—can be solved by using solid-state drives (SSDs),
which typically use flash memory chips instead of spinning magnetic
platters.
Computer makers have been moving away from hard drives, and toward
SSDs, for at least the last decade, largely driven by the trend away from
desktop computers and toward mobile devices. Apple iPods are a good
example of how times have changed.The original "Classic" iPods,
launched in 2001, are little more than hard drives, sound cards, and
batteries (you can see what an iPod hard drive looks like in the photos
above); the hard drive, in particular, was an obvious excuse for failure if
you took them jogging or tossed them around in your bag. With the iPod
Touch, which launched in 2007, Apple switched decisively to SSD
technology, making music players thinner and lighter in your pocket, less
prone to mechanical failure, and giving far better battery life.You're more
likely to wear out the buttons or crack the screen on a modern iPod or
iPhone than do any damage to the memory chips inside.

No contest? SSDs win hands down? Not so fast! If you're looking to buy
as much storage as you can for as little cash, and you're less fussy about
things like power consumption and speed, traditional hard drives are still
the best value for money. As of 2020, SSDs are still quite a bit more
expensive per gigabyte than traditional hard drives, though there are big
variations in price among the different types of SSDs and the difference
between SSDs and hard drives is closing year by year. Don't expect old-
style hard drives to disappear until that price difference closes
substantially
 MICROPROCESSORS

 The microprocessor is a digital integrated circuit that can be programmed

with a series of instructions to perform various operations on data
 A microprocessor is the CPU of a computer.
 It can do arithmetic and logic operations, move data from one place to
another, and make decisions based on certain instructions.
 Alll microprocessprs have four basic units
 arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
 instruction decoder,
 register array,
 the control unit

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 Arithmetic Logic Unit:
The ALU is the key processing element of the microprocessor. It is directed by the control
unit to perform arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction. multiplication, and division)
and logic operations (NOT, AND, OR, and exclusive-OR), as well as many other types of
operations. Data for the ALU are obtained from the register array.
 Instruction Decoder:
The instruction decoder takes each binary instruction in the order in which it appears in
memory and decodes it.
 Register Array:
The register array is a collection of registers that are contained within the microprocessor.
During the execution of a program, data and memory addresses are temporarily stored in
registers that make up this array.
Some registers are classed as general-purpose, they can be used for any purpose dictated
by the program.
Other registers have specific capabilities and functions and cannot be used as general-
purpose registers.
 Control Unit :
The control unit is "in charge" of the processing of instructions once they
are decoded. It provides the timing and control signals for getting data into and out of the
microprocessor and for synchronizing the execution of instructions.

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Flow chart
A flowchart is simply a graphical representation of steps. It
shows steps in sequential order and is widely used in presenting
the flow of algorithms, workflow or processes. Typically, a
flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their
order by connecting them with arrows.
What is a Flowchart?
 A flowchart is a graphical representations of steps. It was
originated from computer science as a tool for representing
algorithms and programming logic but had extended to use in
all other kinds of processes. Nowadays, flowcharts play an
extremely important role in displaying information and
assisting reasoning. They help us visualize complex processes,
or make explicit the structure of problems and tasks. A
flowchart can also be used to define a process or project to
be implemented.
Flow Chart
 Flowchart Symbols
 Different flowchart shapes have different conventional meanings. The meanings of
some of the more common shapes are as follows:
 Terminator

 The terminator symbol represents the starting or ending point of the system.
 Process

 A box indicates some particular operation.

 Document

 This represents a printout, such as a document or a report.

 Decision

 A diamond represents a decision or branching point. Lines coming out from the
diamond indicates different possible situations, leading to different sub-processes.
Flow Chart
 Data

 It represents information entering or leaving the system. An input might be an

order from a customer. Output can be a product to be delivered.
 On-Page Reference

 This symbol would contain a letter inside. It indicates that the flow continues on a
matching symbol containing the same letter somewhere else on the same page.
 Off-Page Reference

 This symbol would contain a letter inside. It indicates that the flow continues on a
matching symbol containing the same letter somewhere else on a different page.
 Delay or Bottleneck

 Identifies a delay or a bottleneck.

 Flow
 Lines represent the flow of the sequence and direction of a process.
Flow Chart
 When to Draw Flowchart?
 Flowchart has a variety of benefits:
 It helps to clarify complex processes.
 It identifies steps that do not add value to the internal
or external customer, including delays; needless storage
and transportation; unnecessary work, duplication, and
added expense; breakdowns in communication.
 It helps team members gain a shared understanding of
the process and use this knowledge to collect data,
identify problems, focus discussions, and identify
resources.
 It serves as a basis for designing new processes.
 Flow Chart
 Flowchart Example – Simple
Algorithms
 A flowchart can also be used in visualizing
algorithms, regardless of its complexity. Here
is an example that shows how flowchart can
be used in showing a simple summation
process.
Flow Chart
 Flowchart
Example –
Medical Service
 This is a hospital
flowchart example
that shows how
clinical cases shall
be processed. This
flowchart uses
decision shapes
intensively in
representing
alternative flows.
Algorithm
 An algorithm is a step by step method of solving a problem. It is commonly used
for data processing, calculation and other related computer and mathematical
operations. An algorithm is also used to manipulate data in various ways, such as
inserting a new data item, searching for a particular item or sorting an item.

The word algorithm itself is derived from the

9th-century Persian mathematician
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, Latinized
Algoritmi.
Addition and subtraction Algorithm
Half adder and full adder
Full Adder
 4 Bit binary adder subtractor
In Digital Circuits, A Binary Adder-Subtractor is one which is capable of both addition and subtraction of binary numbers in one
circuit itself. The operation being performed depends upon the binary value and the control signal . It is one of the components of
the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit).
Lets consider two 4-bit binary numbers A and B as inputs to the Digital Circuit for the operation with digits
A0 A1 A2 A3 for A
B0 B1 B2 B3 for B
The circuit consists of 4 full adders since we are performing operation on 4-bit numbers. There is a control line K that holds a binary
value of either 0 or 1 which determines that the operation being carried out is addition or subtraction.

As shown in the figure, the first full adder has control line directly as its input(input carry Cin), The input A0 (The least significant bit
of A) is directly input in the full adder. The third input is the exor of B0 and K. The two outputs produced are Sum/Difference (S0)
and Carry (C0).
 4 Bit binary adder subtractor
If the value of K (Control line) is 1, the output of B0(exor)K=B0′(Complement B0). Thus the operation would be
A+(B0′). Now 2’s complement subtraction for two numbers A and B is given by A+B’. This suggests that when K=1,
the operation being performed on the four bit numbers is subtraction.

Similarly If the Value of K=0, B0 (exor) K=B0. The operation is A+B which is simple binary addition.This suggests
that When K=0, the operation being performed on the four bit numbers is addition.

Then C0 is serially passed to the second full adder as one of it’s outputs. The sum/difference S0 is recorded as the
least significant bit of the sum/difference. A1, A2, A3 are direct inputs to the second, third and fourth full adders.
Then the third input is the B1, B2, B3 EXORed with K to the second, third and fourth full adder respectively.The
carry C1, C2 are serially passed to the successive full adder as one of the inputs. C3 becomes the total carry to the
sum/difference. S1, S2, S3 are recorded to form the result with S0.
 4 Bit binary adder subtractor
Example:
Lets take two 3 bit numbers A=010 and B=011 and input them in the full adder with both values
of control lines.
For K=0:
B0(exor)K=B0 and C0=K=0
Thus from first full adder
= A0+B0
= 0+1
= 1,
S0=1
C1=0
Similarly,
S1=0 with C2=1
S2=1 and C2=0
Thus,
A = 010 =2
B = 011 = 3
Sum = 0101 = 5

For K=1
B0(exor)K=B0' and C0=k=1

Thus
S0=1 and C1=0
Similarly
S1=1 and C2=0
S2=1 and c3=0

Thus,
A = 010 = 2
B = 011 = 3
Sum(Difference) = 1111 = -1
Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction Algorithm
The flowchart is shown in Figure . The two signs A, and B, are compared by an exclusive-OR gate. If the
output of the gate is 0 the signs are identical; If it is 1, the signs are different. For an add operation,
identical signs dictate that the magnitudes be added. For a subtract operation, different signs dictate
that the magnitudes be added.The magnitudes are added with a microoperation EA= A + B, where EA
is a register that combines E and A. The carry in E after the addition constitutes an overflow if it is
equal to 1. The value of E is transferred into the add-overflow flip-flop AVF.The two magnitudes are
subtracted if the signs are different for an add operation or identical for a subtract operation. The
magnitudes are subtracted by adding A to the 2's complemented B. No overflow can occur if the
numbers are subtracted so AVF is cleared to 0. 1 in E indicates that A >= B and the number in A is the
correct result. If this numbs is zero, the sign A must be made positive to avoid a negative zero. 0 in E
indicates that A < B. For this case it is necessary to take the 2's complement of the value in A. The
operation can be done with one microoperation A =A' +1.
Addition and subtraction Algorithm
However, we assume that the A register has circuits for microoperations
complement
and increment, so the 2's complement is obtained from these two microoperations.
In other paths of the flowchart, the sign of the result is the same as the sign of A. so
no
change in A is required. However, when A < B, the sign of the result is the
complement of the original sign of A. It is then necessary to complement A, to obtain
the correct sign.
The final result is found in register A and its sign in As. The value in AVF provides an
overflow indication. The final value of E is immaterial.
Figure shows a block diagram of the hardware for implementing the addition and
subtraction operations.
It consists of registers A and B and sign flip-flops As and Bs.
Subtraction is done by adding A to the 2's complement of B.
The output carry is transferred to flip-flop E , where it can be checked to determine
the relative magnitudes of two numbers.
The add-overflow flip-flop AVF holds the overflow bit when A and B are added.
The A register provides other microoperations that may be needed when we specify
the sequence of steps in the algorithm
Addition and subtraction
 High and low level languages
Difference between High Level and Low level HIGH LEVEL LOW LEVEL
languages S.NO
LANGUAGE LANGUAGE
It is
It is a machine
Both High level language and low level 1.
programmer
friendly
language are the programming languages’s types. friendly
language.
language.
It is easy to It is tough to
The main difference between high level 3
understand. understand.
language and low level language is that,
It is complex
It is simple to
4. to debug
Programmers can easily understand or interpret or debug.
comparatively.
compile the high level language in comparison of It is complex
It is simple to
machine. 5.
maintain.
to maintain
On the other hand, Machine can easily understand comparatively.
the low level language in comparison of human 6.
It can run on It is machine-
beings. any platform. dependent.
It needs
compiler or It needs
Examples of high level languages 7. interpreter assembler for
are C, C++, Java, Python, etc for translation.
Exmaple of low level language is Assembly Language translation.
 Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections
of computer data and instructions, often broken into
two major categories: system software that provides
the basic nontask-specific functions of the computer,
and application software which is used by users to
accomplish specific tasks.
 System software
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and
managing the individual hardware components of a computer
system
so that other software and the users of the system see it as a
functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-
level details
such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering
text onto a display.

Generally, system software consists of an operating system and

some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file
managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication
(login) and management tools, and networking and device
control software.
 Application software
Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just
running the computer system.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer;
Or
a small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work
closely together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text
processing system;
Or
a larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent
programs and packages that have a common user interface or shared data
format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of closely integrated word
processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.;
Or
a software system, such as a database management system, which is a
collection of fundamental programs that may provide some service to a
variety of other independent applications.
Comparison
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

OPERATING SYSTEMS
 OS General Definition
 An OS is a program which acts as an interface between computer system users and the computer hardware.
 It provides a user-friendly environment in which a user may easily develop and execute programs.
 Otherwise, hardware knowledge would be mandatory for computer programming.
 So, it can be said that an OS hides the complexity of hardware from uninterested users.

 In general, a computer system has some resources which may be utilized to solve a problem. They are
 Memory
 Processor(s)
 I/O
 etc.

The OS manages these resources and allocates them to specific programs and users.
With the management of the OS, a programmer is rid of difficult hardware considerations.
An OS provides services for
 Processor Management
 Memory Management
 File Management
 Device Management
 Concurrency Control (the execution of the multiple instruction sequences at the same time)
General Definition

Mainboard
General Definition
General Definition

mainboard
General Definition

processor
General Definition

RAM
General Definition

A more
A simple program sophisticated Hardware
segment with no OS program segment Machine response
hardware with hardware Language
consideration consideration
General Definition
 In a more simplistic approach, in fact, OS itself is a program.
 OS uses the kernel mode of the microprocessor, whereas other programs use the
user mode.
 The difference between two is that; all hardware instructions are valid in kernel mode,
where some of them cannot be used in the user mode.
 Kernal
Definition: The operating system provides us a graphic interface to give the command to the
computer system. But system can’t understand these commands directly.

Translation of code into binary language done by the core component of an operating system
(OS), i.e., KERNEL. User deal with the lowest layer of kernel and then kernel deal with system.

Kernel plays a role of mediator between system hardware and software.

The kernel is a central module of operating system.

It is the first program that loaded into protected memory area during the booting process. It
remains present in memory till the system power is on.

User’s operation used a system call to interact with system. System calls invoke kernel, and
then kernel executes user’s operation.
Kernel use space to manage all the working of a system like process management, memory
management, device management, I/O management and the user using user space for running
program or writing a program.

A full kernel controls all hardware resources (e.g. I/O, memory, CPU) via device drivers,
arbitrates conflicts between processes concerning such resources, and optimizes the utilization
of common resources e.g. CPU & cache usage, file systems, and network sockets.
Classification of Computers

 Personal computer :

 A single-user computer
 Can be useful at School, Home, etc.
 Known as Micro Computer
 Laptop, Desktop

 Workstation :
 A powerful, single-user computer.
 A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more
powerful microprocessor
 higher-quality monitor.
 Can be found in companies etc.
Classification of Computers
 Minicomputer
 A multi-user computer
 Capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously.
 Can be found in banks, government departments etc.
 Mainframe
 A powerful multi-user computer
 Capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer
 An extremely fast computer
 Can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second
 Weather, scientific research can be done by these types of computer.
Characteristics of Computer

 Speed  Retrieving Data and

 Arithmetical and Programme

Logical Operations  Automation

 Accuracy  Versatility (Flexible)
 Reliability  Consistency
 Storage  Communications
Memory Units
 Applications of Computer

 Science research • Management aids

 Education • Engineering designing

 Business applications • Road traffic control

 Banking • Railway

• Medicine
 Office Automation
• Information services
 Desktop publishing
 History of Computer (Generations)
 First(1945-1955): Used vacuum tubes. Were very large. Generated
immense heat.Very expensive.

 Second(1955-1965): Used transistors. Continued to be large and

expensive.

 Third(1965-1975): Used integrated circuits. Significant reduction in

size and cost

 Fourth(1975-1995): Uses Very Large Scale Integration. Desktop

computers would not have been possible without
VLSI. It used Microprocessor minimizing the size
of P.C.

 Fifth (in progress): Will provide us with Artificial intelligence. Also

called knowledge information processing system
 History of Computer
 In 1941, the z3 computer was created by an engineer from Germany
known as Konrad Zuse. The Z3 can perform floating point binary
arithmetic, and has a 22 bit word length. However it was destroyed
by a bombing raid in 1943.
History of Computer

 It all started with computer hardware in

about 1940s.

ENIAC 1943-46
History of Computer

 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator

and Computer), at the U.S. Army's
Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland.
◦ built in the 1940s,
◦ weighed 30 tons,
◦ was eight feet high, three feet deep, and 100
feet long
◦ contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes that
were cooled by 80 air blowers.
History of Computer

 Computers were using vacuum tube

technology.

ENIAC’s vacuum tubes

History of Computer

ENIAC’s backside
History of Computer

Programs were loaded into memory manually using switches, punched

cards, or paper tapes.

ENIAC : coding by cable connections

History of Computer

punch card
History of Computer
Paper tape
History of Computer
History of Computer

 As time went on, card readers, printers, and

magnetic tape units were developed as additional
hardware elements.
 Assemblers, loaders and simple utility libraries
were developed as software tools.
 Later, spooling and channel program methods
were developed sequentially.
 (Spooling refers to placing data into an intermediate storage area, where it is held
until the computer (or the user) is ready to process it)
 (In computing, a channel is a model for innerprocess communication and
synchronization via message passing. A message may be sent over a
channel, and another process or thread is able to receive messages sent
over a channel it has a reference to, as a stream)
 History of Computer

1949
 In 1949 the EDSAC is completed by Maurice Wilkes. This
computer could perform common repetitive calculations.
 EDSAC stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator.
 The MADDIDA was created to help with mathematical
equations.
History of Computer

1950
 In 1950, the SEAC and the SWAC were
completed to be the first stored-program
computers.
History of Computer

1961
 In 1961, the military started to use
computers to continuously calculate their
position in flight.
History of Computer

1962
 In 1962, Tom Kilburn an his team
permitted a computer to use its storage
capacity
History of Computer
1964
 In 1964, three computers were introduced, let’s take a look:
 The CDC 6600 performs up to 3 million instructions per second. The
speed came from the computers design which used 10 mini computers
to offload the workload from the cpu (central processing unit).
 The PDP-8 was designed by Gordon bell and Edson de Castro. This
became the first commercially successful minicomputer and sold for
18,000 dollars.
 IBM released the System/360 on April 7, and it became a major event in
the history of computer. All the models could run the same software
and had a 50-to-1 performance range.
History of Computer

The rest of the 1960s

 The 3c DDP-116 was introduced as a
general purpose computer that costed
28,500.
 The 2116A was HP’s first computer and
was HP’s first recorded use of integrated
circuits in a commercial product.
 History of Computer

The 1970s
 IBM released a read/write floppy disk . This became an industry
standard.
 The pascal programming language was presented by Professor
Niklaus Wirth. This language is applicable to both commercial and
scientific applications.
 The C programming language is released by Dennis Ritchie and his
team. C is one language in programming being used today.
 The first computer installed in the white house was a Xerox Alto.
 History of Computer

The 1980s
 The Sinclair ZX80 was introduced in Britain for 79 pounds.
 The first CD was released in 1983, and this game-changer still plays a role in todays
world.
 The C++ language by Bjarne Stroustrup.This is an important language in today’s
world as many people use it.
 The Macintosh was introduced. This was a failure and was shut down soon.
 Nintendo releases the Gameboy.
 History of Computer

The 1990s
 Windows 3.0 is released by Microsoft. This was the first windows to
really satisfy PC users.
 Photoshop is released by brothers John and Thomas Knoll.
 The world-wide-web (www) is introduced by CERN.
 Java 1.0 is made by sun microsystems.
 The first PlayStation is Released.
 Wi-Fi is available at home for the first time.
 History of Computer

The 2000s
 The USB drive, and a camera with a phone
is released.
 The first XBOX is released.
 Windows XP is released.
 Blue-ray discs and the PowerMac G5 are
released.
 History of Computer

The 2010’s
 The iPad is released by apple in
2010.
 Office 365 is released
 The ps4 and Xbox one are
released.
 The apple watch is introduced.
History of Computer

Finally, the idea of multiprogramming

came.
 Multiprogramming means sharing of
resources between more than one
processes.
 By multiprogramming the CPU time is
not wasted, because, while one process
moves on some I/O work, the OS picks
another process to execute till the
current one passes to I/O operation.
History of Computer

 With the development of interactive

computation in 1970s, time-sharing
systems emerged.
 In these systems, multiple users have
terminals (not computers) connected to a
main computer and execute their task in
the main computer.
History of Computer

Main computer; having a CPU

executing processes by
utilization of the OS, (e.g. UNIX).

Terminals are connected

to the main computer and
used for input and output.
No processing is made.
They do not have CPUs.
History of Computer

 Another computer system is the

multiprocessor system having multiple
processors sharing memory and
peripheral devices.
 With this configuration, they have greater
computing power and higher reliability.
History of Computer

 Multiprocessor systems are classified into

two as tightly-coupled and loosely-
coupled (distributed).
 In the tightly-coupled one, each
processor is assigned a specific duty but
processors work in close association,
possibly sharing the same memory.
 In the loosely coupled one, each
processor has its own memory and copy
of the OS.
History of Computer

 Use of the networks required OSs

appropriate for them.
 In network systems, each process runs in
its own machine but the OS have access to
other machines.
 By this way, file sharing, messaging, etc.
became possible.
 In networks, users are aware of the fact that
s/he is working in a network and when
information is exchanged. The user explicitly
handles the transfer of information.
History of Computer

Each is a computer having its own

CPU, RAM, etc. An OS supporting
networks is installed on them.
History of Computer

 Distributed systems are similar to

networks. However in such systems, there
is no need to exchange information
explicitly, it is handled by the OS itself
whenever necessary.
DBMS
Database Management System or DBMS in short refers to the technology of
storing and retrieving users data with greatest efficiency along with appropriate
security measures.

Why to Learn DBMS?

Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept
then, and all the research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in
traditional style of data management. A modern DBMS has the following
characteristics −

Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world

entities to design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For
example, a school database may use students as an entity and their age as an
attribute.

Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to

form tables. A user can understand the architecture of a database just by
looking at the table names.
DBMS
Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different
than its data. A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive,
on which the database works and organizes. DBMS also stores meta data,
which is data about data, to ease its own process.

Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database

remains consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect
attempt of leaving database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide
greater consistency as compared to earlier forms of data storing applications
like file-processing systems.

Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it

more efficient to retrieve manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as
different filtering options as required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it
was not possible where file-processing system was used.
Applications of DBMS
Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of
facts and figures that can be processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data helps in producing

information, which is based on facts. For example, if we have data
about marks obtained by all students, we can then conclude about
toppers and average marks.

A database management system stores data in such a way that it

becomes easier to retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.
Following are the important characteristics and applications of DBMS.

ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity,

Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (normally shortened as ACID).
These concepts are applied on transactions, which manipulate data in
a database. ACID properties help the database stay healthy in multi-
transactional environments and in case of failure.
 Applications of DBMS

Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and

allows them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions
on transactions when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are
always unaware of them.
Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the
Sales department will have a different view of database than a person working in the
Production department.This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of
the database according to their requirements.
Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are
unable to access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to
impose constraints while entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a
later stage. DBMS offers many different levels of security features, which enables
multiple users to have different views with different features. For example, a user in
the Sales department cannot see the data that belongs to the Purchase department.
Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the Sales department should
be displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file
systems, it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.
 Computer Viruses
A virus is a small piece of software that attached with a real program and
run/replicate when the real program is started.

For example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program.
Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs too, and it has the chance to
reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or create disaster.

E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and usually
replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail
address book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double-click -- they launch
when you view the infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software.

Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do
one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may
erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.

Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and
security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another
machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the
security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.
 some tips to avoid viruses
 Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it regularly.

 In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access" scanner
(included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start each time
you start up your computer. This will protect your system by checking for viruses
each time you run an executable file.

 Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain
executable code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store as
well as any program you might download from the Internet.

 If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about
accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you within the
community.

 Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email
messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose
valuable work.
What is Internet

 Inter connection of many computers via network.

 Global connected through network (through LAN or WAN)

 To provide the various application services i.e. E-Mail, Usenet

(News), WWW,Telnet, FTP, etc

 At any time millions user connected to the internet from many

countries.
Uses of Internet
 Searching
 E-mail service
 Commercial Services
 Electronic books & Publication
 Video Conferencing
 Sharing data and results quickly
 Retrieving files & Program of all types
 Find information databases and tutorials
 News paper columns
 Banking
 Downloading / Uploading any information
 News, sports, stocks, music etc.
 Use of internet in various fields like education, Business, governance, etc.
 And many more ………………..
Useful Keys Internet
 Network: Connecting computers with each other For exchanging
information

 Client : It is a programme or computer for getting special

information from another compute.

 Server: It is a programme or computer, which gives information

to the client computer.

 Protocol: It’s a rules for connecting to the internet. (TCP/IP)

 Portal: It is a website. Known as a gateway of internet.

(Search engine)

27/06/2024 129
 Useful Keys Internet

Router: It is a device, which decides where data will be send

(Network point)

www : World Wide Web

Browser: It is a programme which helps us to use internet

Website: Group of different web pages.

URL : Universal Resource Locator

Types of Website (Domain No.)

.com : Commercial organization

.net : Large Networks
.gov : Government organization
.org : non-profit making organization
.edu : educational organization
.mil : military organization
.in : India
.au : Australia
.us : United States
.uk : United Kingdom
Internet as a ICT tools
What is ICT?

 Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are the

technologies used in the conveying, manipulation and storage of
data by electronic means.

 During last decade of twentieth century there was extraordinary

development in information and communication technology
(ICT) which led to a transformation of processes and practices in
almost all aspects of human activities.

133
Information and Communication Technologies

 Information is data that has been sorted and arranged.

 It consists of organized facts and opinions people receive during daily

life.

 Changing data into information is called data processing or information

processing.

 It involves gathering, organizing, and reporting data so it is useful to

people.

 It is often done using information technology.

 ICT Tools

 Radio, television, video, DVD, telephone (fixed line & mobile), satellite
systems, computer and network hardware and software; (equipment and
services associated with these technologies, such as videoconferencing and
electronic mail.) , blogs

135
Information and Communication Technologies

 People often use the terms information and communication together.

 These terms are related, but each means something different.

 Two words we need to know to understand communication technology

are data and information.

 Data includes individual facts, statistics (numerical data), and ideas.

 These facts and ideas are not sorted or arranged in any manner.
What is Communication?

 Communication is simply the act of transferring

information from one place to another.

 Exchanging Information from computer to

another computer

 The classic communication system is made up

of an information source, an encoder, a transmitter, a
receiver, a decoder, storage, retrieval, and an
information destination.

Synchronous Communication

 Online Chat
◦ Text based
◦ Audio based
◦ Video based

 Mobile Technology
◦ Conferencing
◦ Phone

 Satellite
◦ Television channel
◦ Video Conferencing

138
Asynchronous Communication

 Discussion Forums
 Blogs
 e-Groups
 Wikepedia (Knowledge base)
 Google (search engine)
 Mobile SMS etc.

139
Scope of Internet as a ICT

 Education
 Research
 Communication
 Leisure and Entertainment
 Exploring the world
 Finance
 Shopping

 And many more ….

140
Scope of Internet as a ICT in Education

 ICT as a tool to innovate teaching-learning practice via

Internet (i.e. digital content, multimedia, teaching-learning
methods, learning environment)
 ICT as an administrative tool (i.e. education management
information systems (EMIS)
 ICT as an expanding learning opportunity (i.e. distance
learning, e-Learning)
 ICT as a facilitator of higher-order thinking skills

141
ICT can help learning

 Develop understanding

 Speed and automatic functions of ICT can enable teachers to

demonstrate, explore or explain aspects of their teaching, and

students learning, more effectively e.g. use of a spread sheet to

perform calculations in order that patterns can be

concentrated on rather than the calculating.

ICT can help learning

 Extend access to sources

 the capacity and range of ICT can enable teachers and

students to gain access to historical, recent or immediate

information, through, for example, accessing information on

CD-ROM or the Internet

 Enhance enquiry skills

 search for and compare information from different sources
ICT can help learning

 Enhance the communication of ideas

 communicate with other people, locally and over distances,

easily and effectively

 present information in ways which are accessible in different

forms for different audiences.

Does ICT increase access to learning
opportunity?

 Education opportunities in dispersed locations where

conventional schools are not viable;

 A choice to students and parents of what they want to learn i.e.

Choice based credit system (CBCS);

 A safety net for school drop-outs so they do not lapse into

illiteracy;

 Alternative venue to schools.

 Second chance education.

 Standardised curriculum materials

 Lifelong learning concept

145
Thank you