Discrete Mathematics

set by: ABebaye A.

Yes !
 Course Coverage

Elementary counting principles

 Elementary probability theory
Recurrence relations
Elements of graph theory
Directed graphs
Weighted graphs and their applications

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 Assessment/Evaluation & Grading System

 Assignment 20%
 Mid Exam 30%
 Final Exam 50%

- - Assignment should be submitted in-class on the due date;

- No late Assignment is acceptable;
-

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 Course Policy
A student has to:
 At attend at least 85% of the classes.
 Take all continuous assessments.
 Take final examination.
 Respect all the rules and regulations of the
University

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 Text Books and References:
Text Books
 Steven Roman, An Introduction to Discrete
Mathematics
 Mattson, H.F., Discrete Mathematics with
Application
References:
 N. CH SN Iyengar et al, Discrete mathematics, Vikas
publishing house PVT LTD, 2004
 S. Roman, An introduction to discrete mathematics,
CBS College publishing, 1986
 B. Harris, Graph Theory and its applications,
Academic press, 1970 5
Chapter 1: Elementary counting principles
1.1 Basic counting principle
1.2 Permutations and combinations
1.3 The inclusion-exclusion principles
1.4 The pigeonhole principle
1.5 The binomial theorem

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 CHAPTER 1 ELEMENTARY COUNTING
PRINCIPLES
1.1 Basic Counting Principles
 Combinatorial analysis is concerned with methods and
principles of determining the number of logical possibilities of
some event without necessarily listing and identifying every
logical case. This analysis includes
 The study of permutations, combinations and partitions
 The study of fundamental properties of a known
configuration
 The investigation of unknown configuration
 Enumeration and listing of configuration
 Configuration arises when objects are distributed according to
a certain predetermined constraints.

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 Fundamental counting principles
 There are two fundamental counting principles used
throughout this section in order to develop many other
enumeration techniques. .
1.1.1 Addition principle (AP)
If a first task 𝐸 can be per formed in 𝑛(𝐸) = 𝑟 ways,
while second task 𝐹 can be per formed in 𝑛(𝐹) = 𝑡
ways, and the two tasks ( 𝐸 and 𝐹 ) can not be
accomplished simultaneously, then either task 𝐸 or 𝐹 can
be performed in:
𝑛(𝐸𝑉𝐹) = 𝑛(𝐸) + 𝑛 (𝐹) = 𝑟 + 𝑡 ways.
This principle is sometimes referred to as the sum Rule.
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 Examples 1
Suppose there are 4 male and 3 female instructors
teaching multivariable calculus in our college. In how
many ways can a student choose a calculus instructor
in order to take the course?
Solution The student is faced with two tasks. The task of
either
(i) choosing a female calculus instructor or
(ii) Choosing a male calculus instructor.
If 𝐸 = 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
and 𝐹 = 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,

9
then: 𝑛(𝐸) = 3 --- Number of ways of doing task E, i.e.,
choosing a female instructor
𝑛(𝐹) = 4 --- Number or ways of doing task F, i.e.,
choosing a male instructor.
Since the tasks 𝐸 and 𝐹 cannot be per formed simultaneously,
then 𝑛(𝐸𝑉𝐹) – the number of ways of accomplishing either
task 𝐸 or 𝐹,
By addition principle (AP), is :
𝑛(𝐸𝑉𝐹) = 𝑛 (𝐸) + 𝑛 (𝐹) = 3 + 4 = 7.
Therefore, the student can choose one instructor teaching
multivariable calculus in 7 ways ///
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 Examples 2
If C is the task of choosing a positive composite number
less than 10 and O is the task of choosing a positive odd
number less than 10, then C can be performed in
𝑛(𝐶) = 4 ways since 𝐶 = *4,6,8,9+. The task O can be
performed in 𝑛(𝑂) = 5 ways, Since 𝑂 = *1, 3, 5, 7, 9+.
However, 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑂 cannot be accomplished in
𝑛(𝐶) + 𝑛(𝑂) = 4 + 5 = 9 ways
This is because 9 is both a composite and an odd number
less than 10. Hence there is a possibility of performing
the two tasks C and O simultaneously, which show that
the addition Principle is not applicable. In fact, C or O
can be performed in only 4 + 5 – 1 = 8 ways ///
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 Generalization of AP
Suppose a first task 𝐸1 can be performed in 𝑛( 𝐸2 ) = 𝑟1
ways, a second task 𝐸2 can be performed in 𝑛(𝐸2 ) = 𝑟2
ways, a third task 𝐸3 can be performed in 𝑛(𝐸3 ) = 𝑟3 ways,
etc., and an 𝑛 th task 𝐸𝑛 can be performed in n( 𝐸𝑛 )= 𝑟𝑛
ways. If no two of the tasks can be performed at the same
time, then the number of ways in which any one of tasks 𝐸1
or 𝐸2 or 𝐸3 or … or 𝐸𝑛 can be performed is:
𝑛 𝐸1 𝑉𝐸2 𝑉 … 𝑉 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐸1 + 𝑛 𝐸1 + ⋯ + 𝑛 (𝐸1 )
𝑛

= 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + −− − + 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑖
𝑖<1

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 EXAMPLE 2
A student can choose a computer project from one of three
lists. The three lists contain 23, 15,and 19 possible projects,
respectively. No project is on more than one list. How many
possible projects are there to choose from?

Solution: The student can choose a project by selecting a

project from the first list, the second list, or the third list.

Because no project is on more than one list, by the sum

rule there are 23 + 15 + 19 = 57 ways to choose a project.
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 1.1.2 Multiplication principle (MP)
If an operation consists of two separate steps E and F,
and if the first step E can be performed in n (E) = r ways
and corresponding to each of these r ways , there are
n (F) = t ways of performing the second step F, then the
entire operation can be performed in:
𝑛 𝐸 × 𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑟. 𝑡

different ways

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 Examples 1
A room in a building has four doors that may be
designated as Door A, B, C and D. If a person is
interested in entering the room and leaving it by a
different door, then in how many possible ways can he
fulfill his interest?
Solution: The data in the problem implies that there are
 4 Possible entrances into the room.
Corresponding to each of these entrances, there are
 3 possible exits from the room
Thus, using the following rule called multiplication
principle, we find that there are:4 x 3 = 12 ways of
entering the room by a door and leaving by another.
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 EXAMPLE 2
The chairs of an auditorium are to be labeled with an
uppercase English letter followed by a positive integer not
exceeding 100. What is the largest number of chairs that
can be labeled differently?
Solution: The procedure of labeling a chair consists of two
tasks, namely, assigning to the seat one of the 26 uppercase
English letters, and then assigning to it one of the 100
possible integers.
The product rule shows that there are 26 · 100 = 2600
different ways that a chair can be labeled.
Therefore, the largest number of chairs that can be
labeled differently is 2600.
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 Examples 3
 Suppose a bus line offers 8 routes between New York and Los
Angeles. If a visitor from New York goes to Los Angeles and then
return by a different route, how many possible routes can the visitor
assume for the round trip?
Solution: - The round trip between New York and Los Angles is the
task (or the operation); and it is done in two steps suppose;
• E1 = choosing a route from New York to Los Angles
• E2 = Choosing a route from Los Angles back to New York
Then; n (E1)= 8 and n (E2) = 7
Now, by MP, there are n (E1) x n (E2) = 8x7 = 56
Different ways (or routes) in which a visitor from New York goes to
Los Angles and get back by a different route.

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 Generalization of MP
If an operation consists of 𝑛 separate steps, of which a first step
𝐸1 can be performed in 𝑛( 𝐸1 ) = 𝑟1 ways; following this, a
second step 𝐸2 can be performed in n( 𝐸2 ) = 𝑟2 ways, and,
following the 2nd step 𝐸2 , a third step 𝐸3 can be performed
in n( 𝐸3 ) = 𝑟3 ways, etc., and following all the previous steps,
an 𝑛th step 𝐸𝑛 can be performed in n( 𝐸𝑛 )= 𝑟𝑛 ways, then the
entire operation can be performed and completed in:
𝑛 (𝐸1 ). 𝑛 (𝐸1 ) . … . 𝑛 (𝐸1 ) == 𝑟1 × 𝑟2 × … × 𝑟𝑛

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 Examples 3
Suppose a restaurant menu offers a choice of three
soups, five meat dishes, four desserts, and a choice of
coffee, tea or milk. In how many ways can one order a
meal consisting of a soup, a meat dish, desert and a
beverage?
Solution Here our operation is ORDERING A MEAL.
This operation consists of 4 separate steps.
Suppose The first step E1 = choosing a soup
The second step E2 = choosing a meat dish
The third step E3 = Choosing a desert; and
The fourth step E4 = choosing a beverage
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 Exam can't
Then; n(E1) = 3, n(E2) = 5, n(E3) = 4 and n(E4) = 3
and by EMP, one can order a meal consisting of a soup,
a meat dish, a dessert and a beverage in.
n (E1) . n (E2). n(E3). n(E4) = 3 x 5 x 4 x 3 = 180
possible ways ///

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 1.2 Permutations and combinations
1.2.1. Factorial Notations
Definition 1:- The product of the first n consecutive positive
integers is called n-factorial, denoted by n!, and defined
as:
𝑛! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × … × 𝑛 − 1 × 𝑛
= 𝑛 × 𝑛 −1 × ⋯× 3 × 2 × 1
Note
 n! = n(n-1)!
 If n=0, then we define 0! =1.
 In particular 1! = 1 , 2! = 2 × 1 = 2 ,
3! = 3 × 2 × 1, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24, etc.
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The factorial notation is very useful for representing
large numbers of the type frequently encountered in
the study of permutations and related topics.
Self test exercises
1. Show that 8x7x6 =! 5!/8!
2. Show that 8x7x6 =! 5!/8!

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 1.2.2. Permutation principles
Definition 2:- Any arrangement of 𝑟 objects taken from a
collection of 𝑛 objects is called a permutation of 𝑛
objects taken 𝑟 at a time or an r-permutation of n
objects.

Notation: The number of permutations (or possible

arrangements in any order) of 𝑛 objects taken 𝑟 at a time
is denoted by 𝑛𝑃𝑟 or 𝑝 (𝑛, 𝑟) frequently; where 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤
𝑛. Other notations are 𝑃𝑛,𝑟 and (𝑛)𝑟 .
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 Examples
1. Evaluate
a) 8𝑃5
b) 6𝑃4
2. Solve for 𝑛 in each of the following
a) 𝑛𝑃2 = 56
b) 𝑛𝑃3 = 20𝑛
c) 2𝑛𝑃3 = 100 × 𝑛𝑃2
3. If 𝑚 + 𝑛𝑃2 = 90 and 𝑚 − 𝑛𝑃2 = 30, then find (𝑚, 𝑛)

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 Permutations without repeating objects
Preposition 1 (Permutations without repeating objects)

The number of permutations of 𝑛 different objects taken 𝑟 at

a time, when none of the objects is repeated in an
arrangement is:

𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 =𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2 … 𝑛−𝑟+1 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
Examples1. How many “words” of three letters can be
formed from the letters a,b,c,d, and e, using each letter only
once?
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 Examples
2. What is the number of ways in which six students be
seated in a classroom with 25 desks?
3. In how many ways can six pupils stand in a line or
linearly arranged to pay their college fees at the finance
office counter?
Remark: - In general, the number of permutations of n
objects taken all at time (or taken altogether) is: 𝑛𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!
ExamplesIn how many ways can n married couples stand
on a line alternating man-woman-man- … -woman? If
no same sex stands neighborly, find the number of
arrangements.
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 Permutations with objects repeated
Proposition 2 (Permutations with objects repeated)

The number of permutations of 𝑛 different objects taken 𝑟

at a time, when each object can be repeated any number of
times in an arrangements is:
𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 … 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟

since 𝑛 is used 𝑟-times as a factor.

Examples 1. A multiple-choice test has 100 questions with four
possible answers for each question. How many different sets of 100
answers are possible

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 Examples
1) In how many ways can five prizes be given away to four boys
a) When each boy is eligible for all the prizes?
b) When any boy may win all but one of the prizes?
2) How many positive numerals less than 1000 can be formed from
the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 when digits may be repeated?
3) A combination lock consists of four rings each marked with the
five digits 1,2,3,4 and 5. What is the largest possible number of
unsuccessful attempts in opening the lock if one tries to guess the
combination?

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 Permutations with alike objects
Preposition 3 (Permutations with alike objects)

The number of permutation of 𝑛 objects taken all together

and where 𝑝 of the 𝑛 objects are alike and of one kind; 𝑞
others are alike and of another kind, and so on, up to t
others alike and of still another kind such that 𝑝 + 𝑞 + ⋯ +
𝑡 = 𝑛, is given by:

𝑛!
𝑝 𝑛; 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, … , 𝑡 =
𝑝! 𝑞! 𝑟! … 𝑡!
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 Examples
1) In how many ways can 10 cars be placed in a stock
car race if three of them are Chevrolet, four are
Fords, two are Plymouths, and one is a Buick?
2) How many signals can be given using 10 flags of
which two are red, five are blue, and three are
yellow?

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 Circular permutations
Proposition 4 (Circular permutations)
The number of permutations of n objects around a circle,
taken altogether, is given by:
𝐶 = 𝑛−1 !
Examples
1. In how many ways can eight gents (gentlemen) and eight
ladies be seated for a round- table conference so that no
two ladies sit together?
2. In how many ways can eight gents and seven ladies be
seated for a dinner around a circular table so that no two
ladies sit together?
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 1.2.3 Combinations
In previous sections, we obtained formulas which enabled
us to count the number of ways in which r objects can be
arranged in a row or a circle from a set of n different
objects. There are many problems that require us to make
a selection of r objects from the set of n objects without
any regard to the “order”.

 In a permutation, order is taken into consideration, while

in combination problems; the order is of no significance
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 Combinations
Definition: Any subset of 𝑟 objects selected with complete
disregard to their order from a collection of 𝑛 different
objects is called an r-combination of the n objects or a
combination of n objects taken r at a time

Notation: The number of 𝑟- combination of 𝑛 objects is

𝑛
frequently denoted by either 𝑛𝐶𝑟 or . The symbols
𝑟
(𝑛, 𝑟) , 𝐶𝑛,𝑟 and 𝐶𝑟𝑛 also appear in various texts.

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 Examples
1) Find the number of combinations of the four objects a,
b, c, & d taken three at a time
Solution: Each combination consisting of the three
objects determines 3!=6 permutations of the objects in the
combination as shown in table 1.1. Thus the number of
combinations multiplied by 3! equals the number of
permutations, that is,
Combination Permutations
abc abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba
abd abd, adb, bad, bda, dab, dba
acd acd, adc, cad, cda, dac, dca
bcd bcd, bdc, cbd, cdb, dbc, dcb
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 Solution
4 4 𝑃 4,3
× 3! = 𝑃 4,3 ⇔ =
3 3 3!
4!
But 𝑝 4,3 = = 4! = 24 and 3! = 6
4;3 !
4 𝑝 4,3
Therefor, = = 4, beneath table1.1 in noted as
3 3!

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 Number of r-combinations
Proposition 1 (number of r-combinations)

The number of combinations of 𝑛 different objects taken 𝑟

at a time (i.e., the number of r- combinations of n objects)
is given by:

𝑛 𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 𝑛!
= =
𝑟 𝑟! 𝑟! 𝑛 − 𝑟 !

where 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛.

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 Example 1
In how many ways can a committee of five be chosen from
a group of 10 members of an association?
Solution:- From proposition 1, the number of possibilities
of selecting five-person committee from a group of 10
association members is given by the formula (Where
𝑛 = 10 and 𝑟 = 5):

10 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6
= = = 252
5 5! 10 − 5 ! 5×4×3×2×1

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 Example 2
There are 16 points in a plane, no three collinear.
Determine the number of straight lines that can be formed
by joining them. ?
Solution: - Any two distinct points determine one straight
line, uniquely. Hence, the required number of straight
lines is given by:

16 16! 16 × 15 × 14!
= = = 120
2 2! 16 − 2 ! 2 × 14!

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 Example
From a deck of 52 cards
i. In how many ways can a hand of 5 cards be selected
ii. How many 5 card hands contain 2 Ace and 3 kings in a
single suit
Solution:
i. n =52 r = 5
52! 52𝑥51𝑥50𝑥49𝑥48
𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝐶 52,5 = =
5! 52 − 5 ! 5!
ii. We have only 4 Ace and 4 kings in a single suit , hence
4! 4!
𝐶 4,2 𝐶 4,2 = = 24
2! 4 − 2 ! 3! 4 − 3 !
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 Example 3
A committee of two Republicans and two Democrats is to be
selected from seven Republicans and nine Democrats. In
how many ways can the committee be formed?
7
Solution: - The Republicans can be chosen in ways ,
2
9
while Democrats can be selected in any of the ways .
2
An application of the multiplication rule yields

7 9 7! 9! 9×8×7×6
= × = = 𝟕𝟓𝟔
2 2 2! 5! 2! 7! 4

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 Complementary Combinations
𝑛 𝑛
Two combinations and are said to be
𝑟 𝑠
complementary combinations if 𝑛 = 𝑟 + 𝑠.
Remarks
Two complementary combinations are equal. That is
𝑛 𝑛
= ,𝑟 ≤ 𝑛
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
𝑛
A finite set with n-elements has subsets each with
𝑟
r-elements.

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 Summary
select or order r objects from n distinct objects

order is repetitions
relevant are allowed type of result formula
P( n , r )  n !/ ( n  r ) !,
YES NO permutation
0 r  n
YES YES arrangement n r , n, r  0

NO NO combination C( n, r )  n !/[ r !( n  r ) !]
0 r  n
combination  n  r  1
NO YES with repetition  
 r 
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 1.3 The inclusion-exclusion principles
In this section we develop and state a new counting
technique called the Inclusion-exclusion Principle.
Examples will be used to develop the technique and as
well as to further demonstrate how the principle is applied
Proposition 1(Inclusion-Principles): Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be any
finite sets. then:
i. 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
ii. 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = 𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑛 𝐵 + 𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
−𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

43
Proposition 2( Exclusion Principles): Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be
any finite sets and 𝑈 a universal set. If 𝑛(𝑈) = 𝑁, then:
i. 𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑁 − 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
ii. 𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑁 − 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶
Examples 1Suppose that in a group of 100 students; 50
taking mathematics, 40 taking computer science, 35 taking
information science, 12 taking maths and computer science,
10 taking maths and information, 11 taking computer
science and information science and 5 taking all.
a) How many students are taking at least one subject
b) How many of them taking none of the subjects
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 Solution:
i. Let M = students taking mathematics
C = students taking computer science
I = students taking information
Then by proposition 1
𝑛 𝑀∪𝐶∪𝐼 =𝑛 𝑀 +𝑛 𝐶 +𝑛 𝐼 −𝑛 𝑀∩𝐶
−𝑛 𝑀 ∩ 𝐼 − 𝑛 𝐶 ∩ 𝐼 + 𝑛 𝑀 ∩ 𝐶 ∩ 𝐼
= 50 + 40 + 35 − 12 − 11 − 10 + 5
= 97

ii. using proposition 2 :

𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑁 − 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = 100 − 97 = 3

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 Example
In a certain sport center there are 150 runners of these
50 can race in 10,000 and 70 can race in marathon and
only 30 can race in both 10,000 and marathon. How
many of these can neither race in 10,000 nor in
marathon
Solution:
𝑁 = 150, 𝑁 𝑇 = 50, 𝑁 𝑀 = 70, 𝑁 𝑇 ∩ 𝑀 = 30
Now, 𝑁 𝑇 ′ ∩ 𝑀′ = 𝑁 − ,𝑁 𝑇 + 𝑁 𝑀 − 𝑁(𝑇 ∩ 𝑀)-
= 150 − 50 + 70 − 30
= 60

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 Greatest Integer Function
Definition: For 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅, the greatest integer function in 𝑟
(or simply the greatest integer in 𝑟) is denoted by 𝑟 and
defined as:
𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑟 =
the largest integer smaller than r, if r is not an integer
For Instance
i. 5 = 5
81
ii. 3
= 10
1
iii. −8
3
= −9
iv. 0.23 = 0
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 Example 2
Determine the number of integers n such that 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100
that are neither divisible by 3 nor by 5
Solution: Here 𝑈 = *1,2,3, … , 100+ and 𝑛 (𝑈) = 𝑁 = 100.
For 𝑛 ∈ 𝑈, let 𝐶1 be the condition that 𝑛 is divisible by 3.
𝐶2 be the condition that 𝑛 is divisible by 5.
Then the answer to this problem is 𝑁 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 , which is the
number of integers 𝑛 ∈ 𝑈 that are not divisible by 3 or 5.
Thus:
𝑁 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 = 𝑁 − 𝑁 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2
= 𝑁 − 𝑁 𝐶1 + 𝑁 𝐶2 + 𝑁(𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 ).

48
 Solution
Now N 𝐶1 = Number of integers divisible by three ≤ 100
3
= 33.3
⇒ N 𝐶1 = 33
100
N 𝐶2 = Number of integers divisible by five ≤ = 20
5
⇒ N 𝐶2 = 20
100
N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 = Number of integers divisible by 3 and 5 ≤ = 6.7
15
⇒ N 𝐶1 = 6
Inserting these values in the relation (*) above, we get
𝑁 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 = 100−,33+20-+6=53

There are 53 integers are not divisible by 5 or 3 in 𝑈

49
 Example3
Determine the number of positive integers n where
1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100 and n is NOT divisible by 2, 3, or 5.

Solution: Here 𝑈 = *1,2 … , 100+ and 𝑛 𝑈 = 𝑁 = 100

For 𝑛 ∈ 𝑈, let 𝐶1 be the condition that 𝑛 is divisible by 2.

𝐶2 be the condition that 𝑛 is divisible by 3.

𝐶3 be the condition that 𝑛 is divisible by 5

Here, we want to find 𝑛 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 ∩ 𝐶2 :- the number of

integers 𝑛 ∈ 𝑈 which are not divisible by 2, 3, or 5.
50
 100 100
N 𝐶1 = = 50, N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 = = 16
2 6
100 N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶3 =
100
= 10,
N 𝐶2 = = 33 10
3 100
100
N 𝐶2 ∩ 𝐶3 = =6
N 𝐶3 = = 20, 15
5 100
N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 ∩ 𝐶3 = =3
30
Then by proposition 2:
𝑁 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 ∩ 3 = 𝑁 − 𝑁 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2 ∪ 𝐶3

= 𝑁 − 𝑁 𝐶1 + 𝑁 𝐶2 + 𝑁 𝐶3
+ 𝑁 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 + N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶3 + N 𝐶2 ∩ 𝐶3
−N 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 ∩ 3
= 100 − 50 + 33 + 20 + 16 + 10 + 6 − 3 = 26
51
 1.4 The pigeonhole principle
Definition 1: if 𝑛 pigeonholes are occupied by 𝑛 +
1pigeons then at least one pigeonhole is occupied by more
than one pigeon.
Examples:
1. If a computer department consists of 13 doctors then
two of the doctors (pigeons) were born in the same
month (pigeonholes).
2. Suppose in a dormitory of 8 beds there are 9 students.
Then at least two students share the same bed.
3. If there are 366 people then at least two people must
have the same birth day as there 365 days in a year.
52
 Pigeons
Definition 2: if n pigeonholes are occupied by k*n+1 or more
pigeons, where k is a positive integer, then at least one
pigeonhole is occupied by k+1 or more pigeons.
Examples:
1. Find the minimum number of students in a class to be
sure that three of them are born in the same month.
Solution: n = 12, number of months in a year (pigeonholes)
𝑘 + 1 = 3 → 𝑘 = 2.
Hence 𝑘 ∗ 𝑛 + 1 = 2 ∗ 12 + 1 = 25
Therefore the minimum number of students in a class to be
sure that three of them are in the same class is 25.
53
 Example
Suppose a laundry bag consists of many red, white, and
blue socks. Find the minimum number of socks that one
need to grip in order to get two pairs (four socks) of the
same color.
Solution: Pigeonhole: number of colors. That is, n = 3
Pigeons: socks.
Then, 𝑘 + 1 = 4.
Hence 𝑘 = 3
𝑘 ∗ 𝑛 + 1 = 10.
Therefore one needs to grip at least 4 socks of the same
color
54
 Note
𝑁
The smallest integer N with > 𝑟 − 1, 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝐾
𝑁
𝑁 =k(r-1)+1, is the smallest integer satisfying > r.
𝐾
Example
What is the minimum number of students required in a
course to be sure that at least six will be receive the
same grade, if there are 5 possible grades, A, B,C,D
and F?
Solution:
𝑵 = k(r-1)+1
= 5(6-1)+1= 5(5)+1 = 5(5)+1=26
55
 1.5. The Binomial Theorem
𝑛
The quantities are called binomial coefficients
𝑟
because of the fundamental role these quantities play in
the formulation of the binomial theorem.
Expansions of positive integral powers of(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , where
𝑛 = 0,1,2, … are of frequent occurrence in algebra and
are beginning to appear in all phases of mathematics.
Moreover, expansions of this nature are important
because of their close relationship with the binomial
distribution studied in statistics and related fields. We
shall, therefore, under take a systematic development of
the formula that produces such expansions.
56
Of course, the following identities, for example, could be
established by direct multiplication
0
𝑎+𝑏 =1
𝑎+𝑏 1 =𝑎+𝑏

𝑎+𝑏 2 = 𝑎 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

𝑎+𝑏 3 = 𝑎 3 + 3𝑎 2 𝑏 + 3𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3

𝑎+𝑏 4 = 𝑎 4 + 4𝑎 3 𝑏 + 6𝑎 2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4

𝑎+𝑏 5 = 𝑎 5 + 5𝑎 4 𝑏 + 10𝑎 3 𝑏 2 + 10𝑎 2 𝑏 3 + 5𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 5

Note that as we continue expanding larger and larger powers

of (𝑎 + 𝑏), several patterns emerge, leading to a part of the
solution.

57
The following patterns may be evident from the above
process of multiplication:
a) The coefficients of the first and last terms are both 1.
b) There are 𝑛 + 1 terms in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
c) The exponent of 𝑎 starts with 𝑛and then decrease by 1
until the exponent of a has decreased to 0 in the last
term, and exponent of 𝑏 is 0 in the first term and then
continues to increase by 1 with the exponent of 𝑏 is 𝑛
in the last term.
d) The sum of the exponents of a and b in a given term is
𝑛.
58
 Remark
The binomial theorem gives the coefficient of terms in the
expansion of powers of binomial expressions. Binomial
expression is an expression which contains two terms.
Proposition (The Binomial Theorem) If 𝑛, 𝑟 are non-
negative integers, where 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, then
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛;1 𝑛 𝑛;2 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑎 𝑏 +⋯
0 1 2
𝑛 𝑛;𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎 𝑏 +⋯+ 𝑏
𝑛−𝑟 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛;𝑟 𝑟
= 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
𝑟<0

59
 Note
The (𝑛 + 1) terms in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , without
their coefficients, are
𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛;1 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛;2 𝑏 2 , … , 𝑎 𝑏 𝑛;1 , 𝑏 𝑛
In other words, each term in the expansion is of the form:
𝑎𝑛;𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 ,where 𝑟 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛
𝑛
The coefficient of this general term is , since this
𝑟
corresponds to the number of ways in which 𝑟 b’s and
(𝑛 − 𝑟) a’s can be selected, and thus the complete
𝑛 𝑛 𝑟
general term is; 𝑎 𝑏 . A summation of this general
𝑟
term for 𝑟 = 0, 1,2, … , 𝑛 yields the above assertion

60
Corollary 1: From proposition above, with 𝑎 = 1, it
follows that:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛
(1 + 𝑏) = + 𝑏+ 𝑏 + ⋯+ 𝑏 +⋯+ 𝑏
0 1 2 𝑟 𝑛
Corollary 2: With 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1 in proposition above, it
follows that:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2 = (1 + 1) = + + + ⋯+
0 1 2 𝑛
Corollary 3: With 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = −1 in proposition above,
we have:
0 = (1 + (−1)𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= − + − + ⋯ + (−1)
0 1 2 3 𝑛
61
 Examples
Expand (𝑥 + 2𝑦)7
Solutions
7 7 7 7 6 1 7 5
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 (2𝑦) + 𝑥 (2𝑦)2
0 1 2
7 4 3 7 3 4 7 2
+ 𝑥 (2𝑦) + 𝑥 (2𝑦) + 𝑥 (2𝑦)5 +
3 4 5
7 6 7
+ 𝑥(2𝑦) + (2𝑦)7
6 7

= 𝒙𝟕 + 14𝑥 6 𝑦1 + 84𝑥 5 𝑦 2 + 280𝑥 4 𝑦 3

+ 560𝑥 3 𝑦 4 + 672𝑥 2 𝑦 5 + 448𝑥𝑦 6
+ 128𝑦 7
62
 Remark
The calculation of the coefficients is simplified by
making use of the complementary combinations
𝑛 𝑛
= .
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
The 𝑟 + 1 𝑠𝑡 term in the binomial expansion of
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is given by:
𝑛 𝑛;𝑟 𝑟
𝑇𝑟:1 = 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
Examples
i. Expand (1 − 3𝑥)4
ii. Without an actual expansion, find the 10th term of
(2𝑥 − 𝑦)11
63
 Solution
i. With 𝑛 = 4, 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = −3𝑥 in corollary 1, we get
4 4
(1 − 3𝑥)4 = ,1 + (−3𝑥)-4 = + (−3𝑥)1
0 1
4 4 4
+ (−3𝑥)2 + (−3𝑥)3 + (−3𝑥)4
2 3 4
= 1 − 12𝑥 + 54𝑥 2 − 108𝑥 3 + 81𝑥 4
𝑛 𝑛;𝑟 𝑟
ii. Using the above remark, we have: 𝑇𝑟:1 = 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
11
𝑇10 = (2𝑥)11;9 (−𝑦)9
9
11!
= 4𝑥 2 𝑦 9
9! 2!
= −2204𝑥 2 𝑦 9
64
 Exercise
2 6
1. Find the constant term in (𝑥 + 2 )
𝑥
2. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 12 𝑦13 in the expansion of
(2𝑥 − 3𝑦)25
3. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 in the expansion of
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)9

65