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Radical Territories in the
Brazilian Amazon
Native Peoples of the Americas
Laurie Weinstein, Series Editor
Radical Territories
in the Brazilian
Amazon
The Kayapó’s Fight for
Just Livelihoods
Laura Zanotti
TUCSON
Te University of Arizona Press
www.uapress.arizona.edu
Publication of this book is made possible in part by the proceeds from a permanent
endowment created with the assistance of a Challenge Grant from the National
Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency.
Introduction 3
Introduction 3
A’Ukre 14
Making Indigenous Territorialities 24
Loose in the World 39
Just Methods 45
The Exhibition of Chapters 48
6 Returns 217
Introduction 217
Unsettled Geographies 219
Belo Monte 225
Mejkumrei 227
Notes 231
Bibliography 243
Index 273
Illustrations
Tis work would not have been possible without the continuing support and
vision of the community of A’Ukre. I have been honored by the invitation of
the community of A’Ukre to share in their pursuit of just livelihoods, and I have
learned from all whom I have worked with how to consider alternative futures.
I want to express my deepest gratitude and debt to the community, who have
opened and continue to open their lives to me and others. My adopted family,
invited me into their home, and spent countless hours helping me learn what
it means to be beautiful and Kayapó. I want to thank many for ofering time
spent in the forest and savannah, others for teaching me how to fsh, and all
the other countless community members who took me to their gardens, felds,
or enjoined me to dance in the festivals. I have continued to share friendship,
gentleness, laughter, and humor throughout the years with friends made since
2004, and I continue to be inspired by the Kayapó peoples’ vision of a good life.
I received a National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant
and a University of Washington’s Chester Fritz Grant for Research and Exchange
for fnancial support for this research. A Purdue Research Foundation Grant and
College of Liberal Arts, Purdue University Engagement Grant made subsequent
work possible. Since I joined Purdue University, the Department of Anthropol-
ogy, Te American Studies Program, and the Center for the Environment have
all been important strongholds that anchor and ground intellectual engagement
and inquiry. I would like to thank in particular Ellen Gruenbaum, Evie Black-
wood, Michele Buzon, and Melissa Remis for their welcoming comments and
conversations over the years. Leigh Raymond, Linda Prokopy, Kimberly Marion
Suiseeya, and Zhao Ma at the Center for the Environment have been instru-
mental in helping me keep my nose to the ground, and Shannon McMullen,
Rayvon Fouche, and Susan Curtis have been supportive of humanities social sci-
ence hybrids. I’d like to thank my students, who have inspired me to be a better
mentor, scholar, and community partner. Many conversations during my polit-
ical ecology and methods seminars serve as a catalyst for ideas and inspiration.
I began what was to become a longstanding partnership with Dr. Diego Soares
da Silveira on a trip down the Xingu river in 2008. Diego has helped to facilitate
ongoing research permits and cross-institutional dialogue. He has been an indis-
pensible intellectual interlocutor over the past several years. In Brazil, I would
also like to thank Julio Cezar Melatti, Marcela Coelho de Souza, Denny Moore,
and Luis Barbosa. Barbara Zimmerman, at the Wild Foundation’s Kayapó Pro-
gram and Adriano Jerozolimski and Valdeis at the Associação Floresta Protegida
deserve my heartfelt appreciation and respect. Teir logistical support at various
points during feldwork and openness and kindness to share their mission and
x Acknowledgments
goals have been unparalleled. Moreover, I would not have been able to conduct
research without the National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) and the Ministry
of Science and Technology (CNPq) granting permission to conduct this work.
Tis project was seeded at Colgate University where I was an undergraduate.
I owe many things to Mary Moran, Nancy Reis, Peter Balakian and Leila Philip,
who were four inspirational mentors. Mary and Nancy made a professional
career in anthropology seem like a viable and fruitful post-graduate career and
life path. Without their mentorship, this work would not have materialized.
Peter Balakian’s modernist poetry class inspired a life-long interest in Elizabeth
Bishop’s work, which for reasons I was not able to put my fnger on at the time,
crystallized my eventual work in Brazil.
As a book emerged from my doctoral experience, Stevan Harrell, Janet
Chernela, Carol Jolles, and Jonathan Warren were invaluable advisors at the
University of Washington and the University of Maryland. Te advice, pro-
verbial wisdom, and guidance from Stevan Harrell fortifed an interest in envi-
ronmental anthropology. His astute editorial comments and assistance have
greatly improved my theoretical, methodological, and personal ethos as an
engaged anthropologist and a scholar. Without Janet, I would not have had the
chance to become personally acquainted with the Kayapó, an experience that
would determine the course of my future community partnerships. I am deeply
grateful for the energy, opportunities, support, and scholarly counsel Janet has
ofered. Carol Zane Jolles continued to push me on decolonizing, participatory,
and feminist work—a dominant strand that is still present in the way I practice
and advocate for respectful researcher–community interactions.
Te environmental and sociocultural anthropology program at the Univer-
sity of Washington, Seattle, provided a unique interdisciplinary-minded intellec-
tual home. Ismael Vaccaro, Brooke Scelza, Courtney Carothers, Megan Styles,
Heather Lazrus, Amanda Poole, Askel Casson, Karma Norman, Teresa Mares,
Leila Sievanan and many others were formative in this regard. Teir friendship
and, for many, insightful critiques on earlier and later drafts of this manuscript
were indispensible.
Te Society for Lowland Amazonian Anthropology and the Anthropology
and Environment Society have been homes away from home, providing conviv-
iality and an important space to exchange and generate new ideas. In particular,
William Fisher, Juliet Erazo, Jeremy Campbell, Carlos Londoño-Sulkin, Laura
Graham, Beth Conklin, and William Balée, among many others, have been
wonderful colleagues to work with and build an exciting, ethical, and refective
community of practice.
Above all, I would like to thank my partner, my parents, sisters, brothers,
cousins, and extended family, who, despite not knowing much about my career
path, have only ofered their love, compassion, and support over years. Teir
encouragement and patience have been immeasurable, and this work would
have been impossible without them.
A Note on Orthography
Introduction
We were beaders the afternoon Nhakprikti (Nhak), looked at me and exclaimed,
“Sit!” I followed her inside her house and watched as she tucked her dress under
her legs and plopped down on the concrete foor. I was particularly fond of this
dress of hers; it was faded red, with blue and yellow piping and two front pock-
ets. I made myself comfortable across from Nhak; freshly bathed, my wet hair
stuck to the back of my neck. Resting her head against the wall, Nhak grabbed
a balled-up, old foral-print dress and then carefully unwrapped it and spread
the fabric across her lap. In it were brightly colored glass beads and a bracelet in
the making. She got right to work. Picking up the fsh line where she had left
of, she placed one end of the line in her mouth as she continued to weave the
bracelet, which bore geometric shapes made of orange, green, and blue.
Her other family members walked in and out of the house, their sandals
crunching and clicking against the thin layer of red earth on the concrete foor
as they swiftly moved on to other tasks. Every once in a while Nhak would fat-
ten out the wristband on her thigh and even out the beads to count how many
rows until Nhak moved on to the next color. Weaving as she worked, she held
beads between her thumb and index fnger, swiftly stringing them, pulling the
line through the beads again, and then adjusting the piece. Nhak was making
wristbands for her son, who was to be in a naming ceremony later that month,
participation in which is one of the highest honors in the community. However,
4 Introduction
she very well could have been making a bracelet for the handicraft market that
the community was involved with, which takes Kayapó beaded objects to cities
for sale.
It was shortly after midday, one of the sun-choked moments of the after-
noon. I picked up some beads and line and began to work as well, but quickly
my mind fitted around. I looked longingly at the patterned hammock that was
strung between the walls but knew that slipping into it would not help. From
where I sat, outside seemed unbearably bright. Water from a spigot dripped into
a blue plastic barrel. Coconut and mango trees sheltered the still yard. I could
just make out some community members walking on the path that skirted
behind her house.
In retrospect, nothing particular about this moment seemed diferent from
any other day. We had started out as usual with a quick but laborious trip to the
felds to harvest manioc and sweet potatoes, followed by a dip in the river and
an afternoon of beading. As Nhak and I sat together, we talked about the latest
flm shown on the village TV, and Nhak asked,
“Do you know the movie?”
“What was it about?”
“It was about a large monkey that was in love with a woman,” (she said and
looked up at me), “the woman in the movie looked a little bit like you, a kuben
kajaka” (a white, foreign woman).
“I think I know that one, maybe King Kong?”
“Next time you come to the village, can you bring Titanic, the one with the
big boat and the love story?”
“Sure, I will try to remember.”
I made a mental note.
But there was something about the moment of that day, what Canessa
(2012, 32) calls the “small spaces of everyday life” that continued to grab me;
that what was extraordinary, was that this remained entirely ordinary: us in the
house, Nhak beading, her kids in the backyard, her father on the front porch
carving, her husband out fshing, her mother elsewhere, and her sisters down at
the river washing clothes and dishes. Such activities refect the daily rhythms of
Mebêngôkre-Kayapó (Kayapó) village life that are dependent on healthy lands
and waters but also demand creative entrepreneurship and political acumen to
generate income and foster pathways to success. Nhak was intimately aware
of all of this. Indeed, she knew that her capabilities—to raise her kids, to con-
tinue to sponsor naming celebrations, to take pleasure in the creation of beaded
ceremonial items, and to relish evenings with her family watching flms from
Hollywood or made by Kayapó documentarians—correspond to choices that
she could make owing to the successful struggles of her peoples over the past
several decades to demarcate a federally recognized indigenous homeland: the
Kayapó Indigenous Lands.
Introduction 5
In the late 1970s, the Kayapó began to fght for land recognition and rights
through the political, legal, and activist avenues available to them. By the early
2000s, Kayapó communities seemed to have achieved their goals when they
demarcated more than 11 million hectares of their current homeland. Te
results were astounding, as their lands comprise one of the largest protected
spaces in the Americas. Today the heart-shaped territory, with its adjacent but
unconnected northeastern portion, lies in the southern portion of the state of
Pará, Brazil, with a small, but not insignifcant, area that edges into northern
Mato Grosso (fgure 1). Unevenly bisected by the Xingu River, a major tribu-
tary of the Amazon, and veined by many others, the federally demarcated lands
contain both neotropical forest and savannah habitats. Te lands boast plentiful
fshing grounds, game hunting areas, fruit and nut collection sites, savannah
resources, and zones for agricultural production.
Yet, these lands are located on a particularly powerful borderland. Te area
is physically marked by agro-industrial interests, gold mining, illegal timber
operations, public–private energy consortiums, nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs), and multinational mining enterprises—all of whom have stake
in the area. Satellite imagery of the area confrms the lands as a “forest island”
hugged, perhaps too intensely, by severe deforestation and extractivist econo-
mies. Bordered on the west by the BR-364 (Cuiabá–Porto Velho) and BR-163
(Cuiabá–Santarém) highways, on the north by BR-230 (Trans-Amazon) and
PA-279, and on the east by PA-150 and BR-010 (Belém–Brasília). Contiguous
with the Xingu National Park to the south, the borders of the territory are
increasingly threatened by the expanding soy frontier, hydroelectric develop-
ment, and a resurgence in gold mining. Tese industries contrast against fed-
erally demarcated Indigenous Lands and protected areas connected to robust
civil society movements: localized and transnational indigenous activism and
conservationist concerns. Within these lands, Kayapó peoples support village
life, construct their homes, and forge their livelihoods. In doing so, the Kayapó
peoples are redefning what sustainability and development mean not for con-
servation agendas but for the future of indigenous peoples and their lifeways.
Kayapó livelihoods also have been shaped by an invisible but equally pow-
erful, imagined border that separates indigeneity from modernity, forests from
development, tradition from progress, and conservation from extraction. As I
will argue, these dichotomies are fctions of a bygone era. Yet, despite the mul-
ticultural and democratic turn in Latin America and the participatory era of
environmental governance, Kayapó communities continue to endure critiques
of their practices and lifeways. For example, national discourses continue to
fnger indigenous communities and cultural diference as obstacles to develop-
ment and some environmentalist narratives suggest Kayapó peoples are failed
environmental stewards because of their engagement in market activities. Tese
discourses remain frmly entrenched in the way in which indigenous peoples
Figure 1. Map of the Kayapó Indigenous Lands. A’Ukre is located in the upper right-hand portion of the territory.
Introduction 7
and social equity—what it seems the Kayapó peoples are struggling for—other
possibilities for the future that are not predicated on capitalist expansion remain
viable and sometimes radical alternatives. Attentive to the territorial, cultural,
ecological, and economic facets of local livelihoods, I analyze the sociospatial
and political ecological terrains that current Kayapó communities navigate to
make a living in this “post” world. For example, Gibson-Graham (2008, 614;
2011) proposes that we are in a “new moment” where “projects of economic
autonomy and experimentation are proliferating worldwide,” with an attendant
“cultural infrastructure” that is disseminating and supporting them. Similarly,
in his monograph on Cofán peoples and environmental politics in Ecuador,
Michael Cepek (2012, ix) counsels for an anthropology of hope where, “hope
is an essential element in the imagination, investigation, and realization of
alternative futures.” A degrowth society is one that centers on shared notions
of “democracy, justice, meaning of life, and well-being” (Asara, Demaria, and
Corbera 2015, 377). Escobar (2015, 451) suggests that as a collective these
alternative approaches to late liberal logics are “transitional discourses,” which
“call for a signifcant paradigmatic or civilizational transformation.”
Te following quotes from well-established leaders in their respective tribes,
nations, or countries, capture the pulse of what now is being referred to as
a movement for zero growth or de-growth, which when coupled with long-
standing struggles for self-determination honors indigenous cosmovisions and
ways of being in the world: “In nature’s economy and sustenance economy the
currency is not money, it is life” (Vandana Shiva 2005, 33). “In the time of the
sacred sites and the crashing of ecosystems and worlds, it may be worth not
making a commodity out of all that is revered” (Winona LaDuke 2013, np).
Finally, Mayalú Txucarramãe, a young Kayapó leader who is the daughter of
renowned chief Megaron and is also related to Chief Raoni, was quoted in an
Amazon Watch (2013, np) feature article on her activism to have exclaimed,
“Resistance is in my blood!”
An “efective politics for transformation” is historically and spatially situ-
ated, and Kayapó peoples ofer possibilities for new geographies of well-being
and living well through a mosaic of livelihood practices (Escobar 2015, 452).
While the Kayapó’s political actions certainly can be framed as addressing
“environmental issues,” more importantly Kayapó strategies are about eforts
for self-determination that acknowledge and honor indigenous ways of being
in the world. I argue that Kayapó visions for their livelihoods are rooted in
the similar sensibilities proposed by proponents of de-growth and postdevel-
opmental paradigms: (1) robust and creative local economies and relational
practices that are guided by indigenous cosmologies and notions of exchange;
(2) new transactional economies based on a mixed portfolio (NTFP markets,
state-based poverty alleviation programs, wage labor) that derives from complex
alliance building (civil society movements, NGO partnerships, alliances with
Introduction 11
A’Ukre
Te Mebêngôkre-Kayapó people’s self-refexivity identifes themselves as the
Mebêngôkre, the name that is theirs, that refers to their people. I heard repeat-
edly and constantly, “We, Mebêngôkre” or “Te Mebêngôkre way is this way,”
while in A’Ukre. Mebêngôkre means “People of the Watery Hole” or “People of
the Watering Place.” Tis name is an important one, as it indicates the relation-
ship between the Mebêngôkre and outsiders, whether indigenous, nonindige-
nous, or nonhuman. Many community members I talked with did not know
the origin of the term, but the connection to water always struck me. Contained
with the name for their peoples were the diverse terrains that make home: water,
land, rivers, and lakes. When I came to A’Ukre, an elder often talked about an
old cave in the savannah that had a river underneath where they used to visit
long ago. Te cave has large, beautiful rooms beneath and traces of other peoples
living there. Not many that were still alive had seen the cave; only a handful of
community members had been there. Tis description of a cave made sinuous
by underground rivers always reminded me of the word Mebêngôkre, people
of the water hole or watery place. When asked, though, no one was sure of any
connection. Years later, the elder still talked of the same place.
While Mebêngôkre is the name of the people I worked with, I have chosen to
use the term Kayapó throughout the book. Kayapó is a name that was designated
by outsiders during colonization, but also one that the Mebêngôkre-Kayapó use
in political contexts. It is the name used that identifes their demarcated terri-
tory, the name that is on many maps, and the name used in ofcial identity doc-
uments. Many villagers have accepted the term Kayapó and have expertly used
it in diferent political situations for environmental and social justice eforts.
When I refer to the Kayapó or Kayapó individuals in this book, I do it with
the understanding that it is a powerful political and legal marker of identity,
one that individuals and leaders have embraced as part of the “slot” within
which they locate themselves for their eforts at self-determination and auton-
omy (Li 2000). Te term Kayapó should not be read as a way to homogenize
individuals or overlook the heterogeneity of the experiences, divisions, personal
biographies, and situated identities within the group. Since the world has come
to know and recognize the Mebêngôkre as the Kayapó, I have kept Kayapó
throughout. I do so with conficted and unsettled feelings, acknowledging the
colonial history it bears, as well as with the desire that readers will come to
understand through this work how Kayapó peoples are the Mebêngôkre.
In 2010, the estimated total population of Kayapó peoples ranged between
fve and seven thousand individuals located in more than forty villages.3 Kayapó
peoples are sometimes referred to as the Northern Kayapó and belong to the Gê
speaking linguistic group.4 Tey live in villages in the middle and upper regions
of the Xingu River valley in Brazil (fgure 2). A’Ukre, where Nhak makes her
A’Ukre 15
Figure 2. Aerial View of A’Ukre. This photo was taken during the dry season. The
community was in the middle of Olympic Games, which is why there is a pronounced
volleyball court in the center. Note the school, clinic, and project houses on the way
to the river.
home, is located east of the Xingu River, in the northeastern portion of the Kay-
apó area. Te lands of A’Ukre are varied. Hillocks rise and undulate in the dis-
tance, unfurling a blanket of mottled greens; rivers and streams ribbon outward,
softly etched into the landscape, expanding and contracting with the rainy and
dry seasons. Te area surrounding A’Ukre is part of the terra frme lands in the
Amazon Basin that have long been distinguished from the fertile várzea soils of
the Amazonian foodplains, both for ecological and cultural reasons (Roosevelt
1989). Te environment is composed of seasonal dry forests, semideciduous
liana forests, transitional forest/savannah corridors, and woodland and grass-
land savannah areas ([both cerrado and campo cerrado] Malcolm et al. 1999).
All of these land covers are considered endangered and encompass two of the
eight major vegetation types found in Amazonia (Hames and Vickers 1983).
Ungrazed but anthropogenically modifed savannah composes approximately
15 percent of the area surrounding A’Ukre, although the dominant land cover
near A’Ukre is the seasonal dry forest (Malcolm et al. 1999).
A’Ukre was established in 1979. Te village founders thought the locale was a
good place to make a home. Migrating from the larger village of Kubenkranken
16 Introduction
the homes, and the men’s house are the canvas upon which everything else sits,
serving as the anchor point from which life radiates inward and outward. In
the heart of the village is the men’s house, also fondly referred to as the com-
munity house; it is a large open building with concrete foors and a fabricated
roof. In the past, some of the larger Kayapó villages had two men’s houses, one
in the east and the other in the west, but at present, most have only one, as in
A’Ukre. Many political, ceremonial, and community activities take place here.
Te men’s house, described as akin to “a congress,” is an important space for the
women, men, and families to gather for ceremonial activities, briefngs, radio
communication, and many other types of meetings. Young kids have marked
their names and phrases as grafti on the inside. Te men’s house, as its name
suggests, is also a gendered space where men meet daily and routinely but also
where kids play soccer, women sometimes—but infrequently—gather, and the
community has meetings (fgure 3).
When I think of A’Ukre, I think of one particular bright blue house that
stands out against all the other weather worn houses, all of which were made
of store-bought wood and materials with logging money that fowed in during
the 1990s. Families have added porches, verandahs, woodsheds, clotheslines,
chicken coops, solar panels, parabolic antennas, and outdoor cooking spots to
their rain-stained, gray homes. Tese modifcations distinguish one home from
another, and more importantly, are functional open-air additions that provide
respite from the almost unbearable midday heat. Outside of this initial ring of
18 Introduction
homes, more homes populate the area. Tese houses, a testament to A’Ukre’s
growing population, are on the east and south sides of the village, uncharac-
teristically hugging the edges of the main plaza in irregular clumps. But the
blue house is the same color as a deep turquoise, similar to the blue yarn that
has replaced the crushed bird eggs that the Kayapó used to decorate the faces
of small children and others during ceremonies. Te house pops with color.
Located on one side of the village, it is just one of over thirty-eight houses that
are more or less equidistant from the men’s house, forming the plaza area and
making the village a whole, contained unit.
Te house that I lived in during my longest stay in A’Ukre was located near
the river across from the pharmacy. Conservation International (CI), an inter-
national environmental NGO that had a long-standing presence in the area,
built the wattle-and-daub house, which hosted researchers and other visitors.
Te house had a palm-thatched roof, a large brown window that I could open
and close with a hitch, a wood burning stove, a two-burner gas stove, a plastic
sink without running water, a pair of shelves, a bench, and a painted tapir on a
sign out front. I slept in a small two-person dome tent in the back.
Te house was also on the way to the river, a well-traversed path that split
20 m from the river’s edge, slicing the bank in two. Tall gray-barked trees with
forked branches straddled the two banks and often hosted black vultures, or
how community members described them, “those that made the earth good
again.” In the dry season, the upriver spot was a rocky place where the boats
docked and women liked to fsh and wash clothes. Downriver, the water was
glassy and smooth with deeper cool and warm pockets—also a good spot to fsh
and bathe. Mist rose from the water in the early morning, one of my favorite
times to visit, bathe, or take photos. Te river was luxurious; the water was
warm in the cold morning air, and in the afternoon it sliced cold on your skin
under the baked heat. “Gwaj ’ỳrỳ djwa,” I often heard my friends call from my
window. And I would see Nhak with her kids and a metal basin full of colorful
plastic plates and aluminum pots stacked above, ready for washing. Sometimes,
we took a bucket of roasted sweet potatoes down and a couple of spools of fsh-
ing wire to fsh by the river.
Along the path from the village to the river sits a defunct Brazil nut process-
ing area, a brightly painted pharmacy, and the NGO house I lived in. Today,
this space includes a pink and yellow elementary school, a large house built by a
local NGO, and a raised Brazil nut drying hut. A payphone that seldom works
stands here, too. I was told that an old missionary house used to exist in this
spot, as well as a school building that burned down long ago.
Sleeping next to the main village, I often heard their hens and roosters crow-
ing and shufing in the early morning. One time I found a newborn dog sleep-
ing in the path between the houses; someone’s daughter had accidently left it
behind. I was often wary of the leaf litter from the mango trees that piled up
A’Ukre 19
behind the houses. During the rainy season a bushmaster traversed the path,
and during the nights as I moved back and forth from the house to the village,
my fashlight often did not penetrate beneath the leaf piles. During the day,
though, I welcomed the way the fruit trees provided shady areas so that chairs,
blankets, and hammocks could be set up to bead, body paint, or work on other
daily tasks.
Flights intermittently but with frequency came in and out of the village. I
often went toward the landing strip to greet the pilots, visit the soccer feld to
watch practice, or get to the felds. Te path from my house to the landing strip
took me by the chiefs’ houses, one of my favorite master craftsman’s home, and
the house of a lovely elderly couple that helped found the village, who were
always up for a visit. All of these houses were made out of locally harvested or
sourced materials: wattle-and-daub-brick, palms, or posts, with palm-thatched
roofs. As one chief would say, “it is cool and nice in these houses, not hot like
the ones the loggers built.” Similar to the houses that abutted against mine, the
elders and chiefs had mango and coconut trees in their yard. One chief had
planted açaí (Euterpe oleracea) and buriti palms (Mauritia fexuosa). I would
walk past genipapo trees (Genipa americana), homemade chicken coops, man-
ioc drying on orange tarps, and urucum (Bixa orellana) drying on black tarps.
I would sometimes see ducks and always bump into sleeping and wandering
dogs. I would bob under hanging laundry that crossed between the old houses
and the new ones. Te satellite dishes gleamed in the sun. Water sparkled as it
came out of the spigots where women would wash dishes and clean their feet,
and young men freshen up, passing their fngers through their quick-soaked,
black hair. Te red, blue, and yellow macaw pets always took my breath away—
their long, vibrant feathers beautiful wherever they were. From the airstrip, I
could cut across to the soccer feld to get to the gardens or circle to the top left
of the village where the chakra was, a location where there were a few houses
and lime trees.
Te insides of the homes are modest, even sparse, by Anglo-European stan-
dards. Matriuxorilocal residences are often multifamily dwellings that provide
homes for one to four families. Most have three bedrooms and one to two
open areas. Te bedrooms have hammocks, tents, or foam mattresses as sleep-
ing areas. Lines are strung up in the homes and flled with the families’ clothes.
Many have ceremonial necklaces, headdresses, and armbands carefully hung
on diferent nails on the walls. If a frstborn child has been recently born, pute
(or Inajá [Elaeis oleifera]) sticks are in the rafters as a constant reminder of the
day and the growth of the child. Family photos, catalog cutouts, movie post-
ers, local music shows, and certifcates of completion are pasted, stapled, and
hung from the walls. Other personal and family items, clothes, shotguns, pipes,
handicrafts, fshing materials, oars, and daypacks are also placed here. Mirrors
are at times perched on a wall, such as the distinctive one in the house of Nhak.
20 Introduction
It was a small mirror framed by orange-colored plastic. I had the same kind,
which I had picked up in a nearby town prior to moving to the village.
Open windows flled in by green mosquito netting only let streaming sun-
light dimly in. Families might have a car battery powered by solar panels for
irregular TV viewing, radio use, or lights in the evening. At times, homemade
wooden shelves hold TVs, DVD players, and electronic gadgets. Other shelves
hold metal pots, colorful and large multiuse plastic bins, buckets of water, and
harvested food. Hand-woven baskets in a variety of sizes hang or lie on the
ground. Sweet potatoes and frewood often spill in segmented areas on the foor.
Te adjacent kitchen hearths often fll the air with a light, smoky smell along
with whatever is in the cooking pot. Noise from the plaza area flters in, and
murmurs of voices can always be heard in the distance.
To live in A’Ukre was to live in a rich soundscape of life. It is a life marked
by ceremonial songs, the clatter of frewood when it hits the ground, radio
chatter on one of the Kayapó frequencies, forró (Northeastern genre of music in
Brazil) and popular hit music, macaw calls, parakeet chirps, and ceremonial cry-
ing. Fish splash in the water, and women pound açaí in large pestles and grate
manioc. Frogs start to sing at sunset, howler monkeys call in the morning, and
planes buzz overhead. Roosters caw and dogs bark. Hammocks creak as they
sway, men whoop as they go out to hunt, and women sing to their children. Te
rich background noise reminds us not to judge afuence by the seemingly spare
material surroundings. Te wealth that the Kayapó have, both material and
immaterial, is not measured by brand names, but by beautiful names along with
leadership abilities, expertise in particular and general skill sets, and knowledge
of diferent worlds and ways of being.
Behind the intimate spaces of the household interiors, interconnected back-
yard gardens form a well-shaded area. In A’Ukre, the long, slender, drooping
leaves of mango trees, the fruit-studded crown of the genipapo tree, and the
occasional bushy crown of coconut palms dominate. Te ground in this area
is kept clean, similar to the plaza area, unless some have lapsed on weeding or
piling leaf litter. Women maintain ki (hearths), spots where they roast sweet
potatoes and yams or cook meat or fsh with manioc in banana leaves. During
the late afternoon, it was common that I would spend time with and see sisters,
mothers, and children sitting on blankets, stools, or chairs to chat, body paint
their kids, or work on their beads together in the shade of the larger fruit trees. In
the dry season or dry moments in the wet season, this area is the preferred space
for women to paint each other or paint their husbands or relatives. Families also
use the edge of this space to dispose of household garbage, by piling manioc
skins, banana peels, cornhusks, and other food and now store-bought debris.
Another prominent feature that marks this area are the places set aside for roast-
ing bitter manioc. Tree open-air, palm-thatched structures shelter large fornos
(pans), which rest on top of wooden posts where community members can roast
A’Ukre 21
dried bitter manioc. Manioc preparation and cooking areas emit strong smells,
a mixture of the smoke and the acrid odor of three-day-old soaked manioc, but
the resulting kernel size farinha (roasted bitter manioc) is easy to take on a trek,
throw in açaí broth, or eat with Brazil nut milk and bananas.
Te health, education, and NGO buildings and their attendant services are
part of the daily routines of community members in A’Ukre. Basic services in
the community as of this writing include a clinic and sanitary system, and a
school, whose educational program is under the purview of municipal govern-
ments. In addition, each village has a Fundação Nacional do Índio, or National
Indian Foundation (FUNAI), post in a nearby urban center, which addresses
fnancial needs, administrative concerns, or any other business. Not surpris-
ingly, these buildings are symbolically clustered in the same area outside of the
village plaza on the way to the river and port areas.
Many colonial and missionary programs in Brazil and elsewhere were designed
to destroy the spatial patterning of indigenous villages and required indigenous
peoples to organize their village in a way that ft with Western notions of space.
For the Church, this enabled priests and pastors to regulate individual souls by
undermining cosmological and ceremonial spaces. At the same time, state func-
tionaries could survey, order, and control the population. Tese “pacifcation”
eforts no longer exist in the same form, but new relationships between indig-
enous groups and extralocal actors, mostly mediated through FUNAI and the
Fundação Nacional de Saúde ([FUNASA] the National Health Foundation),
have made certain spatial alterations in villages like A’Ukre that have become
permanent fxtures in the landscape. Missionaries have been in A’Ukre in the
past, but at this time, there are no outside missionary organizations perma-
nently stationed within the community of A’Ukre, although there are some-
what regular church gatherings in the community led by a local community
member, to sing songs and read from the bible.
During the school year, an early morning bell summons young children to
the schoolhouse where students receive bilingual instruction and instruction in
other areas: science, history, and math. Women and children crowd the clinic
at dawn and twilight when it is open. Villagers on their way to and from the
river, pharmacy, or school often stop to linger at the NGO house to chat with
researchers or visitors who may be in residence. Te familiar low hum of an
airplane usually gives the villagers enough warning so that someone from each
household can meet the plane as it lands on the airstrip and send or receive
packages. Te most frequent fights are medical in nature, but FUNAI, the local
NGO, and other visitors to the area also charter planes to fy in and out.
Te well-trafcked areas in the village (the men’s house, plaza, households,
backyard gardens, school, pharmacy, soccer felds, and landing strips) are
hugged by a transitional area where ceremonial preparations take place and
where the cemetery is located as well. On one side of the village, trails lead
22 Introduction
of my undergraduate thesis and started what later was to become a long rela-
tionship with the residents of the village of A’Ukre. Paulinho Payakan fgured
largely in that story and, I learned, in many others. His life history has so cap-
tivated scholars and media ofcials alike that Laura Rabben wrote a book about
him and another famous indigenous leader in a work published in 2004. While
I have only had a few occasions to meet Payakan in person, to me his presence
and the events that surrounded him in the 1980s and 1990s marked A’Ukre as
a distinct village in the Kayapó Lands.
Payakan, whose name in Kayapó is a reference to a savannah bird, was born
the son of a chief in 1956 (Blanco 2006, 2). Together, Payakan and his father are
credited with initially founding A’Ukre in the late 1970s, although others in the
village also claim to be village founders. A little over twenty years old when he
helped establish A’Ukre, Payakan had come of age at an interesting time in Bra-
zil’s history. Along with the usual things that boys and young men learn growing
up in a village, Payakan had also worked on the Trans-Amazon Highway, lived in
frontier towns in the region, such as Altamira, learned Portuguese, and interacted
closely with missionaries (Blanco 2006, 4–5; Rabben 2004). Not long after the
creation of A’Ukre, Payakan was among the indigenous leaders who participated
in helping draft the 1988 Brazilian Constitution. Payakan was also part of and
instrumental in protests that halted the construction of a large-scale hydroelec-
tric dam in the 1980s. Beginning with his visit to Florida and Washington, DC,
in 1988 and culminating in a 1989 Altamira protest, his and various groups’
eforts briefy stopped the construction of one of the largest dams in the world.
Payakan’s active career as one of the leaders from A’Ukre helped forge part-
nerships and cutting-edge programs that refected several conservation and
indigenous rights trends that had taken hold worldwide in the 1980s and
1990s. When briefy tabulated, these achievements are remarkable. Anita Rod-
dick, the founder of Te Body Shop, was so taken by the Kayapó that her com-
pany selected two communities to start a Brazil nut oil project. Payakan helped
establish an ecological research station near A’Ukre called Pinkaití Ecological
Research Station (Pinkaití). Tis move eventually resulted in a Kayapó program
funded by CI. While this program no longer exists in the same form as it did
in the early 1990s, it persisted for almost two decades and resulted in a series
of projects in the Kayapó Lands meant to beneft communities and conserva-
tion alike. Finally, the state legally recognized major portions of the Kayapó
Lands through an ofcial process of demarcation, including lands where the
village of A’Ukre is located. Even more noteworthy is that these programs were
set up when the village was in the middle of experimentation with logging
and mining. During those same decades, A’Ukre and many other villages ille-
gally engaged in the sale of broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), which
brought a substantial and unprecedented amount of wealth to the community
before a federal moratorium stopped all illegal logging activities in the area
(Zimmerman 2010).
24 Introduction
Making
Radical Territories in the Brazilian Amazon brings together three powerful and
interlinked frames (making, indigenous, and territorialities) to call attention to
what it means to have a mejkumrei life for Kayapó peoples and their pursuit
Making Indigenous Territorialities 25
and serve to commoditize the very relational networks that serve as the foun-
dation of social life. Kayapó interactions with outside stakeholders (e.g., state
functionaries, extractivists, short-term laborers, and missionaries) were caught
up with other projects of pacifying or assimilating indigenous peoples that
ultimately devalued their livelihoods and ways of being in favor of opening
up landscapes for more powerful actors and capital expansion. William Fisher
(2000) characterizes this history as one market by “hollow frontier” politics,
where social groups have diferent access and control over natural resources,
which in turn impacts governance, rule, and cyclical economies in the region.
Te Kayapó peoples with whom I worked had difering opinions on access
to the market and its transformative efects on their livelihoods. Te circulation
of capital has not always been positive, and many Kayapó leaders and elders
see too much emphasis on accumulation and individual gains as dangerous.
For example, many elders explained to me that the Kayapó word for money
(pi’o kaprin) roughly translates as “sad leaf.” Tey said that the word originated
from all the pain initially brought by the monetary economy and its associa-
tions—dislocation, demoralization, disease, and death. Tis prominent mem-
ory of such associations refects what the Kayapó peoples have endured as they
moved, voluntarily and forcibly, postcolonization. From pacifcation by attrac-
tion methods in the early 1900s that brought exchanges in beads, machetes,
and other items for Brazil nuts to experimenting with illegal logging industries
in the 1990s, informal and extractive economies have circulated among and
infuenced Kayapó communities for decades.
Development in the region around where the Kayapó live, and what has
caused them much pain, has in part followed a worldwide pattern of devel-
opment, or development with a big “D” as Lawson (2007) describes it. Orig-
inally part of modernization projects in the post-World War II era, develop-
ment schemes were considered universal panaceas that would alleviate poverty,
inequality, and marginality in what was then referred to as the Tird World.
James Scott (1998) argues that during this period, which he called the high
modernist era, nation-states began to organize locales into a standardized grid
as part of an attempt to homogenize the cultural terrain into a unifed national
project tied to a ready-made national, territorial homeland. Many of these pro-
grams helped create new types of spatial marginalization. Certainly, the Kay-
apó in the 1900s were entangled in Brazil’s modernization process, which did
not account for the heterogeneity of lifeways and worldviews practiced on the
ground (Escobar 1995; Vandergeest and Peluso 1995).
Yet, market engagement has also become a highly contested part of a larger
project for sustainable futures where the retention of local lifeways are seen
as compliments to developing robust local economies in the face of dramatic
change. More recently, Kayapó communities have created sustainable develop-
ment programs and indigenous media projects; they have also sent their youth
28 Introduction
Kayapó sensibilities of being Kayapó, human, and whole, and the “production”
or making of self and communities are distinct from but inevitably connected
to productive practices and broader-scale processes in the region. As described
in the next section, expressions of indigeneity play upon these local signifca-
tions within wider frames of legibility.
Te examples described here complicate the assertion that indigenous path-
ways to justice will inevitably be overwhelmed by the uneven landscape that
economic liberalization, neoextractivist regimes, and globalization engenders.
Kayapó peoples make their livelihoods by cultivating livelihood activities that
accommodate for diferent market, nonmarket, unpaid, wage and cash-income
opportunities whether gained from the state, NGOs, corporations, informal
venues, or a complex assemblage of interactions among these diferent sectors
(See Gibson-Graham 2008). Productive practices that guide daily life, whether
subsistence or market based, and the fabrication of personhood are dialogic,
relational processes that guide each other. At present, the Kayapó’s intention to
explore diferent market opportunities and diversify their livelihood strategies
are caught up in the processes of conservation, extraction, and cultural recog-
nition, all of which are part of development, sustainable or otherwise, in the
Amazon region.
and the International Labour Organization’s Convention No. 169 have played
an especially important role in creating a global “indigenism” where commu-
nities who share histories of exploitation, ethnocide, and marginalization have
come together in an international movement. For example, in July of 2000 the
United Nations created the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, a working
forum proposed as early as the 1990s, to serve as an advisory body that raises
awareness on a range of topics. Te United Nations also proclaimed the frst
international decade of Indigenous Peoples in 1993, and in consideration of
the pressing issues that indigenous peoples continuously face, declared a second
in 2005. In 2013 the Summit of the Peoples of Latin America, the Caribbean,
and Europe took place in Santiago, Chile. During the past several years, Te
Centro Latin Americano de Ecología Social (Te Latin American Center of
Social Ecology) also has become a key site for activism (Escobar 2015, 455). In
September 2014, the frst World Conference on Indigenous Peoples was held
and indigenous peoples are now granted observer status at major global envi-
ronmental governance meetings, such as the annual Conference of the Parties to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
meetings. Tese are a few of the ways that indigenous rights and recognition
have taken place in the twenty-frst century to forge a web of regional and inter-
national movement of concerned groups and citizens as well as create multi-
level governance regimes that acknowledge indigenous participation.
Carneiro da Cunha and Almeida (2000, 316) applaud the way in which
indigenous groups have been expert at negotiating these contemporary legal
challenges and labels that they have brought with them.
as tribal nations in legal, material, and ideological arenas. Since the twentieth
century, Brazil has marshaled the past to cultivate a national narrative of where
“racial democracy was to be displayed, but indigenous socioeconomic margin-
ality obscured” (Garfeld 2001, 134). Acculturation often has been proposed
as a redemptive pathway to productive citizenship for indigenous individuals,
similar to other Latin American indigenismo policies (Peña 2005).
In spite of popular discourses surrounding a shared racial past, indigenous
peoples have a particular legal status in Brazil. Since Brazil’s independence and
up to the 1970s, many policies toward and everyday discourses on indigenous
groups have highlighted their distinctive position in society. For example, the
1916 Civil Code and subsequent statutes outlined the concept of tutela (guard-
ianship), which states that the FUNAI has legal responsibility over indigenous
groups, who are considered “relatively capable” citizens (Carneiro da Cunha
and Almeida 2000). Tis clause and FUNAI’s role in indigenous afairs is still
under debate today, but it legally treats indigenous groups diferently from other
nonindigenous Brazilian citizens, which diverges from a national discourse that
promotes an identity founded on racial mixing.
As in other Latin American countries, Brazil moved from authoritarian rule
to a postauthoritarian state in 1988. For peoples like the Kayapó, democratic
rule and the embracement of neodevelopmental policies have been mixed. Te
post-1980s period in Brazil is one that has been “productive” for indigenous
groups, as they gained political clout through special provisions for indigenous
rights outlined in the newly ratifed constitution, but also “difcult” and trou-
blesome (Conklin 2002, 1051–52). Tis productivity manifested itself in the
formulation of several civil society organizations and governing bodies, which
represented individual peoples in specifc regions, as well as agencies that coor-
dinated across indigenous peoples in vast areas of the Amazon and Latin Amer-
ica. For example, the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations in the Amazon
River Basin was founded in Lima, Peru, in 1982. In 1989, the Coordination
of the Indigenous Organizations of the Brazilian Amazon was launched, and
as of the current writing, it has more than 160 diferent indigenous groups as
members. A number of organizations also emerged to address specifc concerns
of indigenous women. In the 1990s, Kayapó communities developed their
own associations and community–NGO partnerships; they also deliberated on
whether to join larger, regional organizations.
Kayapó communities and then-emerging associations sought to achieve dif-
ferent types of recognition and gain traction on diferent projects to secure
their futures, including rights-based recognition, territorial security, and mar-
ket possibilities. Kayapó peoples directed most of their eforts at territorial
rights, although goals to demarcate additional parcels of land continue today.
Te same federal policies that supported indigenous demarcation eforts aided
in these successes coincided with federal and state policies in Pará and Mato
Making Indigenous Territorialities 33
Grosso that sought to expand the reach of the market and state farther, thereby
exacerbating deforestation and entrenching corporate interests in the region
(Hecht 2011). What is more, during this time, the government was downsiz-
ing, and FUNAI was broken apart; it is currently under the purview of various
ministries. Tis decentralization and difusive politics of governance has made it
extremely tricky for indigenous individuals to navigate the fragmented bureau-
cratic system to solve pressing and often critical and time-sensitive service needs
and promote self-administration (health, education, food, etc.). Te Kayapó I
worked with repeatedly said that the era when FUNAI was “strong” was over;
current FUNAI representatives have to be particularly savvy in helping Kayapó
peoples with their desires as the agency has limited funding.
As a politically active group in Brazil, Kayapó leaders and community mem-
bers draw from these state-defned and international recognized conversations
about being indigenous in their activism both within and without the commu-
nity. Top-down notions of “development,” and “modernity” are often consid-
ered in direct opposition to indigenous interests or equated with corruption
or the slow erasure of indigenous identities. As described previously, Kayapó
negotiations of market possibilities, access to cash income, and tense but ongo-
ing relationships with the state show that these relationships do not necessarily
negate indigenous identities or projects. Many Kayapó consultants in A’Ukre
consistently told me that they “have not forgotten” their culture or their tradi-
tions, and that they are still Kayapó despite decades of change. Kayapó leaders
have also cultivated a strong visual language of “being indigenous” in diferent
public spaces and venues of protest, and in many cases, are popularly refer-
enced as some of the most recognized indigenous peoples in Brazil. Tis type of
politicking has become efective at garnering public attention and has created
spaces where Kayapó concerns are heard; simultaneously, it has ofered difer-
ent images and imaginings, both positive and troublesome, of what indigenous
peoples should look like.
Yet, the Kayapó, while aware of the legal implications of indigenous identi-
fcation, they also consider their identities determined by much more than the
state or international conventions. Andrew Canessa (2012, 4) argues that indig-
enous identities and their associated politics are “highly contingent” and “thor-
oughly imbricated with gendered, racial, and linguistic identities and informed
by historical consciousness.” Similarly, Michael Cepek (2012, 66) shows that
for Cofán peoples “the structure of Cofán identity is not static or constraining.
Rather there is an active efort to add essential elements to it without losing
what is already indexed.” Whereas national and international indigenous move-
ments often conceive of “being indigenous” as an identity that one does or does
not have, for many indigenous people, identity is a lifelong process and not
merely a legal term or a contemporary moment. Identities are infuenced by
the historically entrenched relationships between the colonizer and colonized
34 Introduction
that still permeate daily life, the racially charged landscapes of state-making and
conservation programs, and the gendered politics of activism. Importantly, for
the Kayapó, their notion of identity is based on a series of practices and relation-
ships (material and immaterial) over time that creates personhood. Personhood
is the collection of aspects that make up individual lives, “gender, generation,
names and nekretx, matrihouseholds, relatives, formal friends, etc.” (Lea 2012,
53) as well as diferent practices, individual and collective, that constitute the
conviviality of daily life.
Te framework of making indigenous territorialities presented within Rad-
ical Territories in Te Brazilian Amazon draws on this history and these recent
trends in indigenous politics to illuminate how current struggles are inevitably
entangled in the politics of identity and indigeneity, the current conservation–
development matrix, environmental governance strategies, and Kayapó notions
of personhood. From the landmark case of the United Nation backing the rights
of indigenous peoples in 2007 to a new Kayapó website that supports the eforts
(e.g., see www.raoni.com), these multinational, multicultural, and multimedia
imaginings of indigenous peoples represent the complex landscape of “indige-
nous alterity,” as Bessire and Bond (2014, 441) put it, and its linkages to justice
eforts, rights, and self-determination. Part of what I show in this book is that
land, home, territory, space, and place are all part of the fabric of the contempo-
rary politics of indigeneity, and the Kayapó have become astute “border cross-
ers,” fuidly traversing through these layered politics of identity on a daily basis.
Territorialities
In a 2012 YouTube interview, a famous Kayapó chief, Raoni, declared that the
“main issue in my region [is to] secure our land and get it demarcated.” While
pithy, Raoni pinpointed in this statement that Kayapó eforts at addressing jus-
tice concerns have largely been through a struggle for territory. In highlighting
indigenous land rights, Raoni outlined a broad trend that has taken place within
Latin America’s democratic turn and pink tide politics, in which specifc forms
of territorial control is awarded to indigenous, Afro-descendent, and other mar-
ginalized populations. Tat the Kayapó are still attempting to demarcate swaths
of their territory more than twenty years after the ratifcation of the 1988 con-
stitution refects the hold of spatial politics on indigenous geographies. Neode-
velopmentalist and post-neoliberal policies in the region have supported the
conversion and privatization of land for agro-industrial and extractive indus-
tries, which rely on policies that are predicated upon what Harvey (2003) calls
“accumulation by dispossession.” In this sense, Raoni’s statement amplifes the
exclusion of indigenous voices in key policy decisions, including the Kayapó’s,
and their persistence in guaranteeing a more inclusive politics through engaging
with municipal, state, and international stakeholders, as well as their creation of
Making Indigenous Territorialities 35
counterspaces and contentious politics that make room for indigenous political
authority. Raoni’s vision, which is an appeal to global audiences vis-à-vis a com-
mon multimedia platform, is refective of postauthoritarian and post-neoliberal
natures where indigenous leaders often frame land rights in multiscalar contexts
to assert their distinctive position in articulating an indigenous vision of sover-
eign futures. In this case, Raoni’s statement could be linked to global concerns
on environmental governance, carbon sequestration, biodiversity protection,
best forestry practices, or the conservation of international human patrimony.
What Raoni did not address, and what might not be as readily apparent, are
the corresponding epistemological and ontological tensions inherent between
indigenous cosmovisions of place and jurisdictional understandings of enclo-
sure, property, and rights that are embodied in demarcation eforts.
As such, Raoni’s statement captures one of the arguments put forth in this
book: the territorialities that shape geopolitical and socioenvironmental land-
scapes remain essential to understanding Kayapó projects for self-determination
and sovereignty. Territorialities are not simply about land and resources but
also about the histories and practices that constitute a place, as well as the juris-
dictional and legal realities of these place-making practices.8 Chandra Mukerji
(2002, 1) sums it up nicely: “Looking at where land becomes visibly enrolled
into culture . . . is fundamental to social analysis—not just for doing cultural
history but for analyzing regimes of power.” Uncovering these diferent terri-
torial projects, and their material, symbolic, and ideological dimensions, draws
attention to the political, economic, and historical realties that have privileged
certain types of territorial expressions and their associated imaginaries. At the
same time, an attention to territorialities has the potential to rupture the forces
behind hegemonic spatializations of land, territory, and home in order to make
Kayapó visions for sustainable futures and alternative forms of development
legible. Within this context, I ask this: who makes, owns, produces, and imag-
ines territory and place?
In the late 1980s, the answers to these questions seemed to be rooted in
the already mentioned postauthoritarian context in Latin America, where new
democracies, under the watchful eye of burgeoning and vibrant social move-
ments, constitutionally recognized indigenous and communal land rights
while also emphasizing protected units as key to combating deforestation and
conserving national patrimony. Legal recognition of collective land rights and
the ramping up of the demarcation of conservation units have had signifcant
impact on land use and land change. Across Latin America, an estimated 2,344
Indigenous Territories and 610 protected areas cover the region (Walker et al.
2014). From a conservationist perspective, indigenous land demarcation over-
lapped with projects to reduce deforestation, protect biodiversity, and man-
age natural resources. Tis trend was especially true in the Brazilian Amazon,
where Indigenous Lands in certain states became key conservation units. In
36 Introduction
the case of the Kayapó, their successful demarcation of a large portion of their
lands in the mid-1990s bufered widespread deforestation in the state of Pará,
amid the state’s favorable conditions for intensifed agricultural expansion and
land privatization. Ofen (2003) and Bryan (2012) call this phenomenon the
“territorial turn,” where recognition of land rights has been the centerpiece of
neoliberalism and post-neoliberal politics in Latin America.
Neoliberal projects have been processes that have spatially reshaped land, labor,
and peoples across the globe. According to Deleuze and Guattari (1987), global-
ization produces diferent injustices through reterritorialization and deterritori-
alization processes centered on the privatization of land, expropriation of terri-
tory, and transformation of livelihood patterns (Elden 2006). In Brazil, massive
development projects carried out in the past four decades have had pronounced
spatial consequences on indigenous livelihoods. At the same time, as policies in
Latin America have turned toward post-neoliberalism and neoextractivism, we
have seen the region blossom “as a focal region with respect to political and intel-
lectual ‘resistance’ and the articulation of alternatives” (Harris and Roa-García
2013, 22). Tese twin and seemingly contradictory agendas (neoliberalism and
resistance) refect diferent projects of de- and reterritorialization.
In Brazil, the 1988 Constitution refects this “territorial turn” of Latin Amer-
ica in diferent ways. On the one hand, the constitution embraced an agenda
that sought to reduce deforestation, convert land to protected units and indige-
nous reserves, promote alternative development strategies, and strive for socio-
ecological sustainability. On the other hand, structural adjustment programs,
the transformation of state enterprises into private or multinational conglomer-
ates, and privatization of resources and land have accelerated investment in agri-
culture, silviculture, mining, logging, oil, and other industries (Hecht 2011).
Renewed interest in green energy linked to national sovereignty reinvigorated
large-scale development plans; these plans have roots in the 1960s and have
now been transformed into neodevelopmental concerns about state security
in the crisis-driven age of risk societies (Beck 1992; Smith 2008). Tese ini-
tiatives are fueled by national projects for the patrimonialization of resources,
pricing of nature, and historical processes of dispossession and fragmentation.
Tis instance is but one case showing the new global mosaic as being patterned
by intensifed extraction and dramatic territorial transformations countered by
robust participation and resistance.
From the conservationist perspective, the “territorial turn” in Brazil refects
the transformation of a militarized frontier zone driven by forest product mar-
kets to one that is dominated by large-scale extractivist and agro-ranching econ-
omies, as well as by protected zones, alternative economies, and diverse liveli-
hood strategies. It has also provided a space for indigenous and conservationist
concerns to be linked through diferent dreamtimes of environmentalism, to
borrow Heatherington’s (2010) phrase, which is how statements like Raoni’s
Making Indigenous Territorialities 37
CLASSICUS KOR.
I. A RESTAURÁCIÓ.
1. Erkölcse és költői.
2. A színház.
Nem lehet ezen túltenni. Sem író, sem emberei nem lehetnek
már aljasabbak. William Congrevet (1670–1729), ha nem is erkölcse,
legalább tehetsége visszatartotta az írásmesterség ilyen
lealacsonyításától. Ő is divatos piperkőc volt, neki is meg volt a maga
hercegnője s vágya gazdagság és úri élet után; később be is telt az,
mikor Jamaika kormányzója lett. Szeretett úgy beszélni, mintha csak
kedvtelésből, gond nélkül irogatna, pedig jó ideig abból élt s ebben a
korban nem is volt nagyobb írói tehetség nála, sem zajosabb sikerek
az övéinél. Dryden a Congreve Agglegényét (The old-Bachelor,
1693) és Kétszeresen kereskedőjét (Double dealer) tartotta a kor
legjobb vígjátékainak, Johnson Sámuel a Gyászoló menyasszonyt
(The mourning bride, 1697) a legjobb tragédiának; s Macaulay azt
olvassa ki az évkönyvekből, hogy vígjáték még nem aratott azelőtt
akkora sikert, mint a Szerelmet szerelemért (Love for love), egy
másik darabját, a Világ útját (The way of the World, 1700) – mely a
maga idejében megbukott – ma általánosan jeles munkának tartja a
kritika. Huszonhét éves korában azon emberöltő legelső költőjének
tartották a víg- és szomorújátékokban egyaránt. S ezt a hírét nem
vesztette el, noha később nem írt darabot, csak egy-egy értekezést
vagy mesét. Pope neki ajánlotta Ilias-fordítását, Voltaire
meglátogatta. Igaz, hogy ő is szabadszájú s a cselekményben és
párbeszédben nem sokkal finnyásabb Wycherleynél. Jobb
darabjaiban is van mindenikben két vagy három csábítás és
házasságtörés, melynek előkészületeit és utójátékát is végig nézzük.
Egyik hőse azzal csillapítja szemrehányásokban kitörő kedvesét, akit
máshoz adott férjhez: ha undorral van férje iránt, attól majd kedvet
kap szeretőjéhez. De azért ő sokkal különb Wycherleynél. Ez
szellemes volt és egy kevéssé olvasott; Congreve tehetség és
rendkívül művelt. Wycherley úgy vét az illem ellen, mint a vén kéjenc
és számító író; Congreveben ez az erőszakos fiatalság kitörése, mely
a szellemességnek, leleménynek, élcnek egész zuhatagával indul
elénk. S ha illetlenségek megesnek is nála, a beszéd nem forog
folyvást a körül.
Sokan keresik még ezen az úton a sikert s köztük ötletes írók is,
mint Etheredge és Ravenscroft, de az erkölcsök már tisztulni
kezdenek s a «dicsőséges forradalom» megtisztítja a politikai életet
és az erkölcsöket s ezzel az irodalmat és a színpadot is.
1. A gondolkozók.
2. A költészet. Pope.
3. Az erkölcsös színdarabok.