Control Systems

Assignment # 3
Submitted To: Dr. Jamshed Riaz
Submitted By: Nouman Abdullah Reg. No.:220101027 Batch: Aero-21-A

5-1. A pair of complex-conjugate poles in the A-plane is required to meet the various
specifications that follow. For each specification, sketch the region in the s-plane in
which the poles should be located.
(a) ζ > 0.707 ѡn > 2 rad/sec (positive damping)
θ = cos-1 (ζ) = 45°
ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 1.414
jѡ

s-plane

j2

45°
45° 0 σ

-j2
(b) 0 < ζ < 0.707 ѡn < 2 rad/sec (positive damping)
θ = cos-1 (ζ) = 45°
ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 1.414

jѡ

s-plane

j2

45°
45° 0 σ

-j2

(c) ζ < 0.5 1 < ѡn < 5 rad/sec (positive damping)

θ = cos (ζ) = 60°
-1

ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 4.33 , ѡn =5 ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 0.866 , ѡn =1
jѡ

j5 s-plane

j1
60°
60° 0 σ
-j1

-j5
(d) 0.5 < ζ < 0.707 ѡn < 0.5 rad/sec (positive damping)
θ = cos-1 (ζ) = 60°
ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 4.33 , ѡn =5 ѡd = ѡn √1 − ζ2 = 0.433 , ѡn =0.5
jѡ

j5

s-plane
45°
60°
0 σ

-j5

5-19. For the control system shown in Fig. 5P-13, find the values of K and K, so that
the maximum overshoot of the output is approximately 4.3% and the rise time tr is
approximately 0.2 sec. Use Eq. (5-98) for the rise-time relationship. Simulate the
system with any time-response simulation program to check the accuracy of your
solutions.
Solution:
Given:
tr = 0.2 sec
Mp = 0.043

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 4.3%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.043) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 9.9(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.707

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.414 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1 − 0.4167 ζ +2.917 ζ 2 1 −(0.4167 × 0.707) + (2.917 × 0.707 2 )
tr = =˃ = 0.2 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 10.82 rad/sec
ѡ2n (10.82)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 4.68
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
10.31
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.0206
500
Putting the values of K = 4.68 and Kt = 0.0206 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25×4.68)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500×0.0206 ) s +(25×4.68)
𝐘 𝟏𝟏𝟕
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓.𝟑 𝐬 + 𝟏𝟏𝟕
Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
t1 =0.248 when y = 0.9
t2 = 0.043 when y = 0.1
For Rise time, tr = 0.248 - 0.044
tr = 0.205
ypeak = 1.043
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.043 – 1
Mp = 0.43

5-20. Repeat Problem 5-19 with a maximum overshoot of 10% and a rise time of 0.1
sec.
Solution:
Given:
tr = 0.1 sec
Mp = 0.1

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.1) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 5.3(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.59

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.18 √25K ……..(ii)
By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,
1 − 0.4167 ζ +2.917 ζ 2 1 −(0.4167 × 0.59) + (2.917 × 0.59 2 )
tr = =˃ = 0.1 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 17.7 rad/sec

ѡ2n (17.7)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 12.5316
25 25

Then from eq(ii) we have,

15.88
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.0318
500
Putting the values of K = 12.5316 and Kt = 0.0318 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25×12.5316)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500×0.0318) s +(25×12.5316)
𝐘 𝟑𝟏𝟑.𝟑
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎.𝟖𝟖 𝐬 + 𝟑𝟏𝟑.𝟑

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
t1 =0.027 when y = 0.9
t2 = 0.135 when y = 0.1
For Rise time, tr = 0.135 - 0.027
tr = 0.203
ypeak = 1.1
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.1 – 1
Mp = 0.1
5-21. Repeat Problem 5-19 with a maximum overshoot of 20% and a rise time of 0.05 s
Solution:
Given:
tr = 0.05 sec
Mp = 0.2

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.2) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 2.59(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.456

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 0.912 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1 − 0.4167 ζ +2.917 ζ 2 1 −(0.4167 × 0.456) + (2.917 × 0.4562 )
tr = =˃ = 0.05 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 28.33 rad/sec

ѡ2n (28.33)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 32.1
25 25

Then from eq(ii) we have,

20.85
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.0417
500
Putting the values of K = 32.1 and Kt = 0.0417 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25×32.1)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500×0.0417) s +(25×0.0417)
𝐘 𝟖𝟎𝟐.𝟓
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝟓.𝟖𝟒 𝐬 + 𝟖𝟎𝟐.𝟓
Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
t1 =0.017 when y = 0.1
t2 = 0.072 when y = 0.09
For Rise time, tr = 0.017 - 0.072
tr = 0.055
ypeak = 1.187
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.187 – 1
Mp = 0.187

5-22. For the control system shown in Fig. 5P-13, find the values of K and Kt so that
the maximum overshoot of the output is approximately 4.3% and the delay time tj is
approximately 0.1 sec. Use Eq. (5-96) for the delay-time relationship. Simulate the
system with a computer program to check the accuracy of your solutions.
Solution:
Given:
td = 0.1 sec
Mp = 0.043

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 4.3%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.043) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 9.9(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.707
From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.414 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1.1 + 0.125 ζ + 0.469 ζ 2 1.1 + (0.125 × 0.707) + (0.469 × 0.707 2 )
td = =˃ = 0.1 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 14.23 rad/sec
ѡ2n (14.23)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 8.1
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
15.1
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.0302
500
Putting the values of K = 8.1 and Kt = 0.0302 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 8.1)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.0302) s +(25 × 8.1)
𝐘 𝟐𝟎𝟐.𝟓
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎.𝟏 𝐬 + 𝟐𝟎𝟐.𝟓

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, td = 0.1021 at y =0.5

ypeak = 1.043
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.043 – 1
Mp = 0.043
5-23. Repeat Problem 5-22 with a maximum overshoot of 10% and a delay time of 0.05
sec.
Solution:
Given:
td = 0.05 sec
Mp = 0.1

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.1) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 5.3(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.59

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.18 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1.1 + 0.125 ζ + 0.469 ζ 2 1.1 + (0.125 × 0.59) + (0.469 × 0.592 )
td = =˃ = 0.05 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 26.74 rad/sec
ѡ2n (14.23)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 28.6
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
26.55
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.0531
500
Putting the values of K = 28.6 and Kt = 0.0531 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 28.6)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.0531) s +(25 × 28.6)
𝐘 𝟕𝟏𝟓.𝟕
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟑𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝐬 + 𝟕𝟏𝟓.𝟕
Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, td = 0.05049 at y =0.5

ypeak = 1.104
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.104 – 1
Mp = 0.104 or 10.4%

5-24. Repeat Problem 5-22 with a maximum overshoot of 20% and a delay time of 0.01
sec.
Solution:
Given:
td = 0.01 sec
Mp = 0.2

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.2) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 2.59(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.456

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 0.912 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1.1 + 0.125 ζ + 0.469 ζ 2 1.1 + (0.125 × 0.456) + (0.469 × 0.4562 )
td = =˃ = 0.01 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛
ѡn = 125.45 rad/sec
ѡ2n (125.45)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 629.5
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
109.4
Kt = =˃ Kt = 0.2188
500
Putting the values of K = 629.5 and Kt = 0.2188 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 629.5)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.2188) s +(25 × 629.5)
𝐘 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟑𝟕.𝟓
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝟒.𝟒 𝐬 + 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟑𝟕.𝟓.𝟓

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, td = 0.01007 at y =0.5

ypeak = 1.178
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.178 – 1
Mp = 0.178 or 17.8%

5-25. For the control system shown in Fig. 5P-13, find the values of K and K, so that
the damping ratio of the system is 0.6 and the settling time of the unit-step response is
0.1 sec. Use Eq. (5-102) for the settling time relationship. Simulate the system with a
computer program to check the accuracy of your results.
Solution:
Given:
ts = 0.1 sec
ζ = 0.6

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K
Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )

Mp = 0.095

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.2 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

3.2 3.2
td = =˃ = 0.1 sec
ζ × ѡ𝑛 0.6 × ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 53.33 rad/sec
ѡ2n (53.33)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 113.76
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
1.2ѡ𝑛 − 5 109.4
Kt = = =˃ Kt = 0.118
500 500
Putting the values of K = 113.76 and Kt = 0.118 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 113.76)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.118) s +(25 × 113.76)
𝐘 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟒
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒 𝐬 + 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟒

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, ts = 0.096 at y = 1

ypeak = 1.094
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.094 – 1
Mp = 0.094 or 9.4%
5-26. (a) Repeat Problem 5-25 with a maximum overshoot of 10% and a settling time
of 0.05 sec.
Solution:
Given:
ts = 0.05 sec
Mp = 0.1
Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.1) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 5.3(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.59

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.118 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

3.2 3.2
td = =˃ = 0.05 sec
ζ × ѡ𝑛 0.59 × ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 108.49 rad/sec
ѡ2n (108.49)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 470.63
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
1.118ѡ𝑛 − 5 123
Kt = = =˃ Kt = 0.246
500 500
Putting the values of K = 470.63 and Kt = 0.246 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 470.63)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.246) s +(25 × 470.63)
𝐘 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟓.𝟕𝟓
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝐬 + 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟓.𝟕𝟓
Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, ts = 0.048 at y =1.052

ypeak = 1.098
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.098 – 1
Mp = 0.098 or 9.8%

(b) Repeat Problem 5-25 with a maximum overshoot of 20% and a settling time of 0.01
sec.
Solution:
Given:
ts = 0.01sec
Mp = 0.2
Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.2) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 2.59(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
ζ = 0.456

From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 0.912 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

3.2 3.2
td = =˃ = 0.01 sec
ζ × ѡ𝑛 0.456 × ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 701.75 rad/sec
 ѡ2n (701.75)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 19698.123
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
0.912ѡ𝑛 − 5 635
Kt = = =˃ Kt = 1.27
500 500
Putting the values of K = 19698.123 and Kt = 1.27 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 19698.123)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 1.27) s +(25 × 19698.123)
𝐘 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟓𝟑.𝟎𝟔
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒𝟎 𝐬 + 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟓𝟑.𝟎𝟔

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, ts = 0.00765 at y =1.05

ypeak = 1.197
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.197 – 1
Mp = 0.197 or 19.7%

5-27. Repeat Problem 5-25 with a damping ratio of 0.707 and a settling time of 0.1 sec.
Use Eq. (5-103) for the settling time relationship.
Solution:
Given:
ts = 0.1 sec
ζ = 0.707

Closed‐Loop Transfer Function:

Y 25K
= ……….(i)
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K

Characteristic equation:
𝑠 2 + (5 + 500K 𝑡 ) s + 25K = 0

For max overshoot of 10%, the Zeta can be calculated as

2 𝜋ζ
Mp = 𝑒 −𝜋ζ/(√1− ζ )
=˃ = -ln(0.2) =˃ π2 ζ2 = 2.59(1 - ζ2)
(√1− ζ2 )
Mp = 0.0433
From Eq(i),
ѡn = √25K
2 ζ ѡn = 5 + 500Kt = 1.414 √25K ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

4.5 × ζ 4.5 × 0.707
td = =˃ = 0.1 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 31.815 rad/sec
ѡ2n (31.815)2
Then, K = = =˃ K = 40.488
25 25
Then from eq(ii) we have,
1.414ѡ𝑛 − 5 40
Kt = = =˃ Kt = 0.08
500 500
Putting the values of K = 113.76 and Kt = 0.118 in Eq(i),
Y 25K (25 × 40.488)
= =
R 𝑠 2 +(5+500K𝑡 ) s + 25K 𝑠 2 +(5 + 500 × 0.08) s +(25 × 40.488)
𝐘 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐.𝟐
𝐑
= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒.𝟗𝟖𝟔 𝐬 + 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐.𝟐

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
For Delay time, ts = 0.093 at y =1.05

ypeak = 1.043
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.043 – 1
Mp = 0.043 or 4.3%
5-28. The forward-path transfer function of a control system with unity feedback is
𝑲
G(s) =
𝒔 (𝒔+𝒂) (𝒔+𝟑𝟎)
where a and K are real constants.

(a) Find the values of a and K so that the relative damping ratio of the complex roots
of the characteristic equation is 0.5 and the rise time of the unit-step response is
approximately 1 sec. Use Eq. (5-98) as an approximation of the rise time. With the
values of a and K found, determine the actual rise time using computer simulation.
Solution:
Given:
tr = 1 sec
ζ = 0.5

The forward-path transfer function of a control system with unity feedback is

𝑲
G(s) = 𝒔 (𝒔+𝒂) (𝒔+𝟑𝟎) ……….(i)

Characteristic equation of System:

𝑠 3 + (𝑎 + 30)𝑠 2 + 30as + K = 0 ……..(ii)

By rise time formula we can calculate the value of ѡn ,

1 − 0.4167 ζ +2.917 ζ 2 1 −(0.4167 × 0.5) + (2.917 × 0.5 2 )
tr = =˃ = 1 sec
ѡ𝑛 ѡ𝑛

ѡn = 1.521 rad/sec

The second‐order term of the characteristic equation is written

𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζ ѡ𝑛 𝐬 + ѡ𝟐𝒏 =˃ 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝐬 + 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟑 = 0 ………..(iii)

Dividing Eq(ii) by Eq(iii),

For zero remainders,
28.48a = 45.63 =˃ a = 1.6
K = 65.874 + 2.313a =˃ K = 69.58
Forward Path Transfer Function:
𝟔𝟗. 𝟓𝟖
𝐆(𝐬) =
𝒔 (𝒔 + 𝟏. 𝟔) (𝒔 + 𝟑𝟎)

Simulation Calculations:
From the Graph we have,
t1 =0.352 when y = 0.1
t2 = 1.432 when y = 0.09
For Rise time, tr = 1.432 - 0.352
tr = 0.055
ypeak = 1.163
Mp = ypeak – 1 =˃ 1.163 – 1
Mp = 0.163 or 16.3%

(b) With the values of a and K found in part (a), find the steady-state errors of the
system when the reference input is (i) a unit-step function and (ii) a unit-ramp
function.
i) For Unit Step Function:
ess = 0

ii) For Unit Ramp Input:

69.58 69.58
Kr = lim 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠) = lim = = 1.45
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 (𝑠+1.6)(𝑠+30) (1.6)(30)

1 1
ess = = = 0.69
𝐾𝑟 1.45