RWANDA TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

(RTDA)

ROAD GEOMETRIC
DESIGN MANUAL
FINAL, DECEMBER 2014

Submitted by:
RWANDA TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
(RTDA)
_________

ROAD GEOMETRIC
DESIGN MANUAL

FINAL

DECEMBER 2014
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Road Geometric Design Manual

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................ v
Preface ............................................................................................................................................ viii
Forward ............................................................................................................................................. ix
Definitions ........................................................................................................................................ xi
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ xxix
List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................................ xxxi
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 1
1 Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards ....................................................... 1-1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Design Standards .......................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Departures from Standards ........................................................................................... 1-2
2 Route Corridor Selection ....................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Desk Study .................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors ......................................................... 2-3
2.4 Site Visit and Survey .................................................................................................. 2-10
2.5 Topographical and Geomorphological Characteristics .............................................. 2-11
2.6 Recommendations....................................................................................................... 2-12
2.7 Report Outline ............................................................................................................ 2-13
3 Design Controls and Criteria ................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Road Functional Classification ..................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 Access Control and Access Management ..................................................................... 3-7
3.4 Terrain........................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.5 Design Vehicle............................................................................................................ 3-12
3.6 Design Traffic Volume ............................................................................................... 3-15
3.7 Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads ............................................... 3-16
3.8 Design Speed .............................................................................................................. 3-16
3.9 Level of Service .......................................................................................................... 3-18
4 Cross Section Elements ......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Lane Widths .................................................................................................................. 4-2
4.3 Shoulders ...................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.4 Normal Crossfall ........................................................................................................... 4-5
4.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes ........................................................................................ 4-8
4.6 Roadside Ditches .......................................................................................................... 4-9
4.7 Clear Zone .................................................................................................................. 4-10
4.8 Right-of-Way .............................................................................................................. 4-11
4.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads .................................................................................... 4-11
4.10 Medians....................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.11 Single Lane Roads ...................................................................................................... 4-12
5 Sight Distances ...................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 General Considerations ................................................................................................. 5-1
5.2 Stopping Sight Distance ............................................................................................... 5-1
5.3 Control of Sight Distance ............................................................................................. 5-2
5.4 Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads ............................................................... 5-4

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5.5 Passing Sight Distance .................................................................................................. 5-4

5.6 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance. ........................................................... 5-6

6 Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................................................ 6-1

6.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 6-1
6.2 Tangent Sections ......................................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 The Circular Curve ...................................................................................................... 6-1
6.4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves ................................. 6-6
6.5 Isolated Curves ............................................................................................................ 6-9
6.6 Minimum and Maximum Length of Curves ............................................................... 6-9
6.7 Widening on Curves and Embankments ................................................................... 6-11
6.8 Switchback Curves .................................................................................................... 6-11
6.9 Transition Curves ...................................................................................................... 6-14
6.10 Superelevation ........................................................................................................... 6-17
6.11 Superelevation Run-Off ............................................................................................ 6-20
6.12 Shoulder Superelevation ........................................................................................... 6-21
7 Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7-1
7.2 Vertical Curve Formula ............................................................................................... 7-1
7.3 Crest and Sag Curve Parameters ................................................................................. 7-3
7.4 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves ........................................................................ 7-7
7.5 Maximum Gradients.................................................................................................... 7-8
7.6 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks .......................................................................... 7-9
7.7 Minimum Gradients .................................................................................................... 7-9
7.8 Gradients through Villages ......................................................................................... 7-9
7.9 Climbing Lanes ......................................................................................................... 7-12
8 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ..................................................................... 8-1
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-Phasing ........................................................................ 8-1
8.3 Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action ....................................... 8-1
8.4 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing .......................................................................... 8-6
9 Constructability and Value Engineering: Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram ... 9-1
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Constructability .............................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 Earthwork Quantities and Tables ................................................................................... 9-4
9.4 Mass Haul Diagram........................................................................................................ 9-8
9.5 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram .................................................. 9-10
9.6 Methods of Balancing Earthwork ................................................................................ 9-14
10 At-Grade Junctions .............................................................................................................. 10-1
10.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 10-1
10.2 Distance Between Intersections ............................................................................... 10-1
10.3 Design Requirements ............................................................................................... 10-2
10.4 Selection of Junction Type ...................................................................................... 10-3
10.5 T-Junctions .............................................................................................................. 10-6
10.6 Cross Junctions ........................................................................................................ 10-7
10.7 Sight Distance .......................................................................................................... 10-8
10.8 Turning Lanes .......................................................................................................... 10-9
10.9 Traffic Islands ........................................................................................................ 10-13

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10.10 Roundabouts .......................................................................................................... 10-16

11 Grade-Separated Junctions .................................................................................................. 11-1
11.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.2 Grade Separation Warrants ...................................................................................... 11-1
11.3 Choice of Scheme .................................................................................................... 11-1
11.4 Geometric Standards ................................................................................................ 11-2
11.5 Design Principles ..................................................................................................... 11-4
11.6 Types of Junction ..................................................................................................... 11-4
12 Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items.............................................................................. 12-1
12.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 12-1
12.2 Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety ................................................................................. 12-1
12.3 Motorcycle/Cycle Lanes .......................................................................................... 12-3
12.4 Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks ............................................................................ 12-4
12.5 Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays ............................................................................. 12-5
12.6 Parking Lanes .......................................................................................................... 12-7
12.7 Public Utilities ......................................................................................................... 12-7
12.8 Railway Grade Crossings ........................................................................................ 12-9
12.9 Safety Barriers ....................................................................................................... 12-11
12.10 Service Roads ........................................................................................................ 12-18
12.11 Emergency Escape Ramps ..................................................................................... 12-18
12.12 Vertical and Lateral Clearances ............................................................................. 12-22
12.13 Speed Management and Control ............................................................................ 12-23
12.14 Curbs and Safety .................................................................................................... 12-28
12.15 Lined Trapezoidal U-Ditches and Safety .............................................................. 12-30
13 Road Furniture and Markings ............................................................................................. 13-1
13.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 13-1
13.2 Traffic Signs ............................................................................................................ 13-1
13.3 Road Markings......................................................................................................... 13-2
13.4 Marker Posts ............................................................................................................ 13-5
13.5 Traffic Signal ........................................................................................................... 13-6
13.6 Lighting.................................................................................................................... 13-7
14 Survey Requirements .......................................................................................................... 14-1
14.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 14-1
14.2 Method of Data Collection- Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey .............................. 14-1
14.3 Survey Data Products .............................................................................................. 14-2
14.4 Survey Data by Project Type ................................................................................... 14-3
14.5 Field Surveys ........................................................................................................... 14-3
14.6 The National Grid .................................................................................................... 14-6
14.7 Topography .............................................................................................................. 14-7
14.8 Bench Marks ............................................................................................................ 14-7
14.8 Profile and Cross Sections ....................................................................................... 14-9
14.9 Photogrammetry ...................................................................................................... 14-9
14.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design ................................................................ 14-10
15 Procedure for Design ........................................................................................................... 15-1
15.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 15-1
15.2 Review of Field Data ............................................................................................... 15-1
15.3 Design Criteria ......................................................................................................... 15-3
15.4 Site Trip ................................................................................................................... 15-4

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15.5 Preliminary Design Drawings .................................................................................. 15-5

15.6 Preliminary Design Procedure ................................................................................. 15-5
15.7 Checklist for Final Road Link Design ..................................................................... 15-6
16 Plans and Drafting ............................................................................................................... 16-1
16.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 16-1
16.2 Completeness of Plans ............................................................................................. 16-1
16.3 Size of Plans ............................................................................................................ 16-3
16.4 Uniformity of Plans ................................................................................................. 16-3
16.5 Abbreviated Plans .................................................................................................... 16-3

Appendix........................................................................................................................................ A-1
A. Typical Cross Sections ............................................................................................. A-1

Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 1

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Geometric Design Manual was developed subsequent to a review of the design
standards of several countries, among which are AASHTO, ITE, FHA, USDOT and TRB
(USA), TRRL (UK), TCDE (Ethiopia), Kenyan standards, Tanzanian standards, Ugandan
Standards, CSRA (South Africa), NAASRA (Australia), DRCR (Switzerland), and the
suggestions of the EAC (East African Community). In the selection of the appropriate
geometric standards for Rwanda, material from these and other sources has been gleaned
and evaluated to determine the set of standards most appropriate for Rwanda and
Rwandan conditions.

The authors of the manual are listed in the Preface.

The series of “Design Manuals, Standard Contract Documents and Specifications” were
prepared under a credit financing of the World Bank (WB). The services were awarded
to the Parsons Group in July 2014 and the project began on August 4, 2014.

The Rwanda Road Transport Development Agency (RTDA) wishes to thank the
International Development Agency (IDA) through their Transport Sector Development
Project for the Preparation of Road Design Manual, and Bridge Design Manual for
Rwanda, for their support in developing this Geometric Design Manual. The manual will
be used by all authorities and organizations responsible for the provision of roads in
Rwanda.

From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors
and stakeholders in Rwanda. The input from the international team of experts was
supplemented by our own local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and
experience was shared through a series meetings followed by a review workshop to
discuss and debate the contents of the draft manual. RTDA wishes to thank all the
individuals who gave their time to attend the meetings and workshop, providing valuable
inputs to the compilation of the manual.

In addition to RTDA/MININFRA personnel, specialists drawn from within the local

industry provided advice and comments in their respective areas of expertise. The
contribution of these participants is gratefully acknowledged.

The final review and acceptance of the document was undertaken by an Executive
Review Group. Special thanks are given to this group for their assistance in reviewing the
final draft of the document.

Finally, RTDA would like to thank Parsons, Inc., for their overall management of the
project.

Acknowledgements v
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Companion Documents and Manuals Prepared under the same service are the following:

1. Geometric Design Manual

2. Drainage Manual
3. Pavement Design Manual
4. Bridge Design Manual
5. Standard Technical Specifications
6. Toolset for Schedule of Rates
7. Report on Road Management Tools

Parsons’ Team
Name Title Manual
Key Experts
Kinagoto Nanadoum Team Leader/Highway Eng. Project Manager
Michael Nyquist Road Design Engineer Geometric Design Manual
Sohila Bemanian Pavement Design Engineer Pavement Design Manual
Diana Maragakis Pavement Design Support Expert Pavement Design Manual
Essam el Derwi Road Asset Management Specialist Tool Set for Road Management
Robert Magliola Bridge Design/Maintenance Expert Bridge Design/Maintenance
Manual/Specs
Satya Veradhi Geotechnical Engineer Geotechnical Inputs for Manuals/
Road Maintenance & Management
System (RMMS) Tool
James Patek Hydrologist/Hydraulic Engineer Drainage Manual
Joseph Pecht Quantity Surveyor/Estimator Road Technical Specifications/ Tool
Set for Rates
Andrew Hands ICT/Database Management Specialist RMMS Tool
Non-Key Experts
Hasan Al-Shammari Senior Technical Advisor/Engineering
Devin McDaniel Technical Advisor
Eveline Viegas Senior Advisor/Stakeholder Management
Kevin Warr Home Office Program Manager
Judy Jiang Projects Control Engineer

RTDA/MININFRA Team
Name Title Organization
Verjus Hadelin Civil Engineer RTDA
Marcel Masengo Civil Engineer RTDA
Imena Munyampenda Civil Engineer RTDA
Innocent Hagenza Civil Engineer/Planning Division RTDA

Mutabazi Peterson Principal Senior Engineer/Transport MININFRA

Dr. Mahububul Bari Transport Advisor MININFRA
Mwebesa Joseph Transport Engineer MININFRA

Acknowledgements vi
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Others: Peer Group Review Team

Name Title Organization

A limited number of copies of this manual are available to other organizations and to
individuals with an interest in road geometric design. Inquiries should be made to:

Director General
Road Transport Development Agency
4th Floor, Kucukiro Pension Plaza
African Union Boulevard
Post Office Box 6674
Kigali, Rwanda
www.rtda.gov.rw

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

PREFACE
This Geometric Design Manual 2014 is one of the series of “Design Manuals, Standard
Contract Documents and Specifications” prepared for RTDA of the MININFRA under a
credit financing of the International Development Agency’s (IDA) Transport Sector
Development Project for the Preparation of Road Design Manual, and Bridge Design
Manual for Rwanda Transport Development Agency. The services were awarded to the
Parsons Group in July and the project started on August 4, 2014.

This manual has been developed adopting current international practice appropriately
modified to take account of local experience and conditions and to maximize
harmonization with the member countries of the East African Community (EAC). It is
written for the practicing engineer.

RTDA/MININFRA has formed a Project Working Group charged with evaluating and
commenting upon the draft Manuals and guiding the Consultant on the preparation of the
final Manuals. Members of the Working Group and the Parsons Group team for this
Manual can be found under Acknowledgements.

Companion Documents and Manuals Prepared under the same service are the following:

1. Geometric Design Manual

2. Drainage Manual
3. Pavement Design Manual
4. Bridge Design Manual
5. Standard Technical Specifications
6. Toolset for Schedule of Rates
7. Report on Road Management Tools

Appropriate reviews and comments were also provided by agencies and individuals
through RTDA’s Project Working Group. The Working Group wishes to acknowledge
the contributions made from all other specialists within and outside of RTDA in the
preparation of these Manuals and Documents.

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Forward
This is the first comprehensive Geometric Design Manual prepared for the use and
technical guidance of design personnel of the Rwanda Transport Development Agency
(RTDA) of MININFRA and other agencies and consultants engaged in performing road
design work in Rwanda.

This manual was prepared under a credit from the International Development Agency’s
(IDA) Transport Sector Development Project for the Preparation of Road Design Manual,
and Bridge Design Manual for Rwanda Transport Development Agency.

At the moment there are no consolidated and up-to-date design manuals for highways
and bridges for Rwanda. The new Geometric Standard Manual has been developed for
both rural and urban roads, and for all classes of roads, including feeder roads 1, defining
physical elements of roadways, i.e. alignment, profile and cross-sections including
geometric standards and all necessary road furniture. The principle objective of the
assignment was to develop reliable, efficient and safe road transport services in Rwanda.
Efforts were made to adopt the roadway geometric design standards for Rwanda such
that the optimum balance between road infrastructure construction cost and road user cost
was obtained, considering road safety issues and natural and human environmental
aspects. The consultant, with the active inputs of RTDA and other agencies, also took
into consideration the goal of harmonized roads standards, to the extent practical for
Rwanda, within the East African Community (EAC).

Vision 2020 is a Government Development Program launched in 2000 by Rwanda’s

President Paul Kagame. Its main objective is transforming the country into a knowledge-
based middle-income country, thereby reducing poverty, health problems and making the
nation united and democratic. Vision 2020 assigns fundamental importance to the
development of the economic infrastructure of the country, and in particular road
transportation infrastructure. The development of the infrastructure sector therefore rightly
constitutes one of the pillars of the economic development strategy and of reduction of
poverty that will guide the country to a middle-income nation.

Under the Vision 2020 special importance is granted to the transportation sector that plays a
strategic role for the blooming of the socio-economic sectors by stimulating economic
growth by increasing internal production and facilitation access to domestic and international
markets on one hand, while ensuring favorable conditions for provision and distribution of
imported products within the country on the other. 2

The road network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate
standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of
service. As the length of the engineered road network is increasing, appropriate choice of
methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important.

1
Feeder roads were excluded in the project ToR, but the Consultant was asked to include this road type.
The Consultant built this input upon his previously developed Feeder Road Design Manual which was part
of a USAID-funded project inputs for MINAGRI.
2
IDA Project TOR.

Forward ix
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Rwanda and reflects
RTDA’s experience gained over several years. It also benefits from a close review by
personnel in MININFRA.

The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise
approved or directed by RTDA. However, I would like to emphasize that careful
consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the Manual,
and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in applied
engineering. For simplification in reference this Manual may be cited as “RTDA
Geometric Design Manual –2014.”

It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all users with both a standard
reference and a ready source of good practice for the design of roads, and will assist in a
cost effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road
network.

I look forward to the practices contained in this Manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of
our country.

Due to technological development and change, it is anticipated that this Manual will
require periodic updating. Comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned
body, group or individual as feedback during its implementation is expected and will be
highly appreciated.

On behalf of the Rwanda Transport Development Agency I would like to take this
opportunity to thank the IDA, Parsons Inc., and the review team for their cooperation,
contribution and support in the development of the Geometric Design Manual. I would
also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and
participants who contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the development of
the documents.

Guy Kalisa
Director General

RWANDA TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

DEFINITIONS
A
Access
The means by which the owner or occupier of any land has access to a
public road, whether directly or across land lying between his land and
such public road.

Access Control
The condition whereby the road authority either partially or fully controls
the right of adjacent owners or occupiers to direct access to and from a
public highway or road.

Acceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle to increase its speed before merging
with through traffic.

At-Grade Junction (Intersection)

Junction where all roadways join or cross at the same level.

Auxiliary Lane
Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking, speed change,
turning, storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing, and for other
purposes supplementary to through traffic movement.

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

Total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the number of
days in the year.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days greater than
one day and less than one year divided by the number of days in that time
period.

Axis of rotation
The line about which the pavement is rotated to super-elevate the
carriageway.

B
Back Slope Area proceeding from ditch bottom to the limit of the earthworks.

Barricade
A portable or fixed barrier used to close all or a part of a road to vehicular
traffic.

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Baseline
The horizontal alignment used for construction. This can be different than
the centerline of the roadway.

Borrow Material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the
road within the right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted
on the plans.

Bridge
A structure erected for carrying a road over a river or any other gap with a
single span-length or sum of span-lengths of 4.0 m or more. Where the
clear span is less than four meters, the structure is a culvert.

Bus Bay
A lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.

Bypass
A road at the edge of a town or village to enable through traffic to avoid
congested areas or other obstructions to movement.

C
Camber
Convexity given to the normal crown cross-section of a roadway or
footpath.

Capacity
The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point on a road or in a
designated lane during a specified time (hourly or daily) without the
density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay or restrict the
driver’s freedom to maneuver under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions.

Carriageway
Part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including auxiliary
lanes, climbing lanes, and passing places but excluding shoulders.

Centerline
Axis along the middle of a feature, such as the center of the road or
culvert.

Circular Curve
Usual curve configuration used for horizontal curves.

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Channelizing Island
A traffic island located in the carriageway area to control and direct
specific traffic movements to definite channels.

Channelization
The separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite
paths of travel by the use of pavement markings, raised islands, or other
suitable means to facilitate the safe and orderly movement of traffic, both
vehicular and pedestrian.

Channelized Junction
An at-grade junction in which traffic is directed into definite paths by
traffic islands.

Clear Zone
Unencumbered roadside recovery area.

Climbing Lane
An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles
and to facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity and freedom of
operation on the carriageway.

Cloverleaf
A four-way interchange in which loops are provided for right-turn
movements and direct connections are provided for left-turn-movements.
A cloverleaf has ramps for turning movements in each quadrant.

Coefficient of Friction
Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of the
weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force.

Collector Roads
Secondary Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to more
important centers or to higher class roads.

Compound Curve
Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in the same
direction and having a common tangent or transition curve where they
meet.

Control of Access
Conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining land or
other persons to access, light, air or view in connection with a road is fully
or partially controlled by public authority.

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Controlled Pedestrian Crossing

A pedestrian crossing marked by two white transverse lines across the
width of the carriageway and accompanied by a pedestrian traffic sign,
where the passage of pedestrians and vehicles is regulated by traffic
signals or an authorized officer.

Crash Cushion
A crash cushion, also known as an impact attenuator or crash attenuator, is
a device intended to reduce the damage done to structures, vehicles, and
motorists resulting from a motor vehicle collision.

Crest
Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.

Crest Curve
Convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents above the
road level.

Critical Slope
Sideslope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.

Critical Length of Grade

The maximum length of a specific upgrade on which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed.

Cross-fall
The tilt or transverse inclination of the cross-section of a carriageway
which is not cambered, expressed as a percentage.

Cross-Roads
Four-leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads at approximately
right angles.

Cross-Section
Vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground, ground data
and recommended works, usually at right angles to the centerline.

Crown
Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.

Culvert
A structure other than a bridge (e.g.- pipe or box culvert), which provides
an opening under the carriageway, median or access road for drainage or
other purposes.

Definitions xiv
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Curb Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge of the
roadway or footway.

Cycle Track
Way or part of a road for use only by pedal cycles.

D
Deceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic stream to
reduce speed without interfering with other traffic.

Deflection Angle
Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in setting
out curves.

Departure from Standards

Deviation from values given in the reference, requiring prior approval of
the MININFRA/Rwanda Transport Development Agency.

Design Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a roadway
during a given time period without operating conditions falling below a
pre-selected design level.

Design Speed
Design speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow
and terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to
ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed
environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum
parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.

Design Traffic Volume

Number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a lane or
roadway during a time period of one hour or more.

Design Vehicle
Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used in setting
geometric design.

Design Volume
Volume determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use
the road.

Definitions xv
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Diamond Junction
A four-way interchange with a single one-way ramp in each quadrant. All
right-turns are made at grade on the minor road.
Diverging
Movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.

Diversion
An alternative route for traffic to avoid congestion, an obstruction or other
hazard.

Dual Carriageway Road

Road in which there are two physically separated roadways reserved for
travelling in opposite directions.

E
Economic Limit of Haul
Distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material
than to waste and borrow.

Embankment
That portion of the road prism composed of approved fill material, which
lies above the original ground and is bounded by the side slopes,
extending downwards and outwards from the outer shoulder breakpoints
and on which the pavement is constructed.

Eye Height
Assumed height of drivers' eyes above the surface of the roadway used for
the purpose of determining sight distances.

F
Feeder Road
Lowest level of road in the network hierarchy with the function of linking
traffic to and from rural areas, either directly to adjacent urban centers, or
to the Collector road network.

Fill
The material which is used for the construction of embankments.

Flat (Terrain)
Flat terrain with largely unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment;
transverse terrain slope up to 10 percent.

Flush Curb

Definitions xvi
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

A concrete structure, usually continuous at the edges of the carriageway

and/or paved shoulder, providing them with lateral support. It is usually
flush with their surfaces.

Footway
That portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.

Free Haul
Maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported
without added cost above the unit bid price.

Freeway
A road with full access control and designed for safer high-speed travel by
large numbers of motor vehicles through minimization of traffic lights,
stop signs, and elimination of at-grade intersections.
G
Geometric (Design) Standards
Guidelines for limiting values of road alignment and cross-section design.

Grade Separated Junction

Junction where two roads cross at different levels and are connected by
ramps.

Grade Separation
Crossing of two roads, or a road and a railway at different levels.

Gradient
Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the horizontal. It
is usually expressed as a percentage of vertical rise or fall in meters/100
meters of horizontal distance.

Guardrail
Continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from
accidentally leaving the roadway or from crossing the median.

H
Half-cloverleaf
A four-way interchange in which loops and outer connections are provided
in two quadrants to given grade separation to the major road, but on the
minor road the right-turning movements take place at-grade.

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Horizontal Alignment
Direction and course of the road centerline in plan.

Horizontal Clearance
Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and obstructions.

Horizontal Curve
Curve in plan.

I
Interchange
Network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels that
permits traffic movement from one to the other one or more roadways or
roads.

Intersection Angle
The internal angle formed by two successive straights.

Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)

The distance a motorist should be able to see other traffic operating on the
intersection roadway in order to enter or cross the roadway safely and to
avoid or stop short of any unexpected conflicts in the intersection area.

J
Junction (Intersection)
a) Common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from one
to the other;
b) Meeting of one road with another.

K
K-value
Ratio of the minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the
algebraic difference in percentage of the gradients adjoining the curve.

L
Lane
Strip of roadway intended to accommodate a single line of moving
vehicles.

Lay-by
Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes for
short periods.

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Left -Hand Lane

On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the central reserve.

Left Turn Lane

An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of left-turning
vehicles at junctions.

Level of Service (LOS)

Qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic,
measured in terms of operating conditions.

Limited Access Road

Road with right of access only at a limited number of places.

Link Road
National Road linking nationally important centers.

Local Road
Road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may or may
not be a classified road.

Longitudinal Profile
Outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and recommended
works along the centerline.

M
Main Access Road
Primary Road linking provincially important centers to each other or to
higher class roads.

Marker Post
Post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting studs, but
not usually lighted, erected off the roadway to give warning or guidance to
traffic.

Meeting Sight Distance

Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in
opposite directions on a two-way road with insufficient width for passing
to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to each other. It
is the sum of the stopping sight distances for the two vehicles plus a short
safety distance.

Median
Area between the two carriageways of a dual carriageway road. It
excludes the inside shoulders.

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Merging
Movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.

Mountainous (terrain)
Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in both
horizontal and vertical alignment; transverse terrain slope above 25
percent.

N
Network (Hierarchy)
Classification of roads according to Trunk, Link, Main Access, Collector,
and Feeder.

Non-Recoverable Slope
Transversible sideslope where the motorist is generally unable o stop or
return to the roadway.

Normal Crossfall
Difference in level measured traversely across the surface of the roadway.

O
Object Height
Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the roadway used
for the purpose of determining sight distance.

Operating Speed
Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under
favorable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions
without at any time exceeding the safe speed as determined by the design
speed on a section-by-section basis.
Overhaul
Excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance.

Overpass
Grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting road
or railway.

P
Parking Bay
Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway.

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Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

A unit of road traffic, equivalent for capacity purposes to one normal
private car. The private car is thus the unit and other vehicles are
converted to the same unit by a factor depending on their type and
circumstances.

Passing Bay
Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle may
move over to enable another vehicle to pass.

Passing Sight Distance

Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be
available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
and comfortably without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle travelling at the design speed, should it come into view after the
overtaking maneuver is started.

Pavement
Part of a road designed to withstand the weight or loading by traffic.

Peak Hour Traffic

The highest number of vehicles found to be passing over a section of lane
or carriageway during 60 consecutive minutes.

Pedestrian Crossing
Transverse strip of roadway intended for the use of pedestrians crossing
the road. The crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.

Pedestrian Barrier
A protective fence between two carriageways to discourage pedestrians
from crossing the road.

Pedestrian Refuge
Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to divide the
streams of traffic and to provide a safety area for pedestrians.

Point of Intersection (PI)

The point where two successive tangents intersect.

R
Ramp
a) Inclined section of roadway over which traffic passes for the primary
purpose of ascending or descending so as to make connections with other
roadways;

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b) Interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any

connection between roads of different levels, on which vehicles may enter
or leave a designated road.

Ramp Terminal
The general area where a ramp connects with a through carriageway.

Reaction Time
The time taken by the driver to perceive the hazard ahead plus the time
taken to activate the brake.

Recoverable Slope
Sideslope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally return to the
roadway.

Refuge
A raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the carriageway as to divide
the streams of traffic and to provide a safety area for pedestrians.

Reverse Curve
Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in opposite
directions.

Right Hand Lane

On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the shoulder.

Right-Turn Lane
Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right- turning
vehicles at junctions.
Right-of-Way
Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in which the road is
or will be situated and where no other work or construction may take place
without permission from the Roads Authority. The width of the road
reserve is measured at right angles to the centerline.

Road
Way for vehicles and for other types of traffic which may or may not be
lawfully usable by all traffic.

Road Agency
A local Government Authority, Institution, Agency or any other body
entrusted by the Minister with the duties to develop, manage and maintain
roads.

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Road Bed
The natural in-situ material on which the embankment or capping layers
are to be constructed.

Road Functional Classification

Classification of roads according to service provided in terms of the road
hierarchy.

Road Hump
A physical obstruction, normally of semi-circular or trapezoidal profile,
placed transversely on the surface of the carriageway for the purpose of
reducing traffic speed.
Road Prism
The cross sectional area bounded by the original ground level and the
sides of slopes in cuttings and embankments, excluding the pavement.

Road Reserve
A strip of land legally awarded to the Road Agency specifically for the
provision of public right-of-way, in which the road is or will be situated
and where no other work or construction may take place without
permission from the Road Agency. The width of the road reserve is
measured at right angles to the centerline.

Roadside
A general term denoting the areas adjoining the outer edges of the
shoulders.

Roadway
Part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including auxiliary
lanes, climbing lanes, passing places, and shoulders.

Roadway Width
Measurement at right angle to the centerline incorporating carriageway,
shoulders and, when applicable, median.

Roadside
General term denoting the areas adjoining the outer edges of the shoulders.

Rolling (Terrain)
Terrain with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall with
some restrictions on vertical alignment; traverse terrain slope 25 percent.

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Roundabout
Road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction around a
central island.

Rumble Strip
A warning device consisting of a series of transverse bars or recesses in a
road or alongside a carriageway.

S
Safety Barrier
A continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from
accidentally leaving the carriageway or verge or from crossing the central
reserve.

Safety Rest Area

Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop and rest.

Sag Curve
Concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents below
the road level.

Scenic Overlook
Safety rest area primarily for viewing scenery.

Service Area
Land with access to and from a road allocated for the provision of certain
amenities and services.
Service Road
A subsidiary road connecting a principal road with adjacent buildings or
properties facing thereon, and connected with the principal road only at
selected points.

Shoulder
Part of the road outside the roadway, but at substantially the same level,
for accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use, and for lateral
support of base and surfacing courses.

Side Drain
A longitudinal drain offset from, and parallel to, the carriageway.

Side Slope
Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the ditch
bottom.

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Sight Distance
Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the
normal travel path of a roadway to the roadway surface or to a specified
height above the roadway surface, when the view is unobstructed by
traffic.

Single Lane Road

Road consisting of a single traffic lane serving both directions, with
passing bays.

Speed
Rate of movement of vehicular traffic or of specified components of
traffic, expressed in kilometers per hour (km/h).

Speed Bump
Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a bar or recess
on the roadway (see Road Hump).

Spoil
Excess soil from excavation not reused elsewhere on the project.

Steep (Terrain)
Steep country inclusive of switchback sections and side hill traverses;
transverse terrain slope > 75 percent.

Stopping Sight Distance

Distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given speed, to
bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the roadway becomes visible.
It includes the distance traveled during the perception and reaction times
and the vehicle braking distance.

Street
A road which has become partly or wholly defined by buildings
established along one or both frontages.

Superelevation
Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a roadway
throughout the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the effects of
centrifugal force on a moving vehicle; expressed as a percentage.

Superelevation Run-off
Length of road over which superelevation is reduced from its maximum
value to zero. Length required to raise the “outside” edge of traveled way
from a “half flat” section to a fully superelevated section.

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Superelevation Run-out
Length required to remove the adverse pavement cross slope which is the
length needed to raise the “outside” edge of traveled way from a normal
slope to a half-flat section.

Switchbacks
Sequence of sharp curves at or near minimum radius employed to traverse
a mountainous or escarpment terrain section.

T
T-Junction
Three-leg junction in the general form of a T.

Tangent
Portion of a horizontal alignment of straight geometrics.

Taper
Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane or climbing lane
and the standard roadway.

Through Road
Road primarily for through traffic in relation to the area considered, on
which vehicular traffic is usually given priority over the traffic on
intersecting roads. It may or may not be a classified road.
Traffic
Vehicles, pedestrians and animals travelling along a route.

Traffic Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of
passing over a given section of a lane or a roadway in one direction or in
both directions for a two-lane single roadway road, during a given time
period under prevailing road and traffic conditions.

Traffic Flow
Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a stated time, in
both directions unless otherwise stated.

Traffic Lane
Part of a carriageway intended to accommodate a single stream of traffic
in one direction.

Definitions xxvi
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Traffic Island
Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway, generally at a
road junction, shaped and placed so as to direct traffic movement.

Traffic Volume
The number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a lane
or a roadway during a time period of one hour or more. Volume is usually
expressed in one of the terms: Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT),
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Hourly Volume.

Transition Curve
Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for the
purpose of connecting a tangent with a circular arc or two circular areas of
different radii.

Transition Length
Length of the transition curve.

Travelled Way
That part of the carriageway used for the movement of vehicles, exclusive
of auxiliary lanes, bus-bays, etc.

Trunk Road
International Trunk Road linking centers of international importance and
crossing international boundaries or terminating at international ports.

Trumpet Junction
A type of grade separated T-junction, which in plan resembles a trumpet.

Turning Lanes
Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic lanes.

Typical Cross-Section
Cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and features
of construction.

U
Underpass
A grade separation where the subject road or footway passes under an
intersecting road or railway.

Uncontrolled Pedestrian Crossing (Zebra-crossing)

A pedestrian crossing marked by a series of white longitudinal strips
extended transversely across the width of the carriageway, accompanied

Definitions xxvii
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by traffic sign and preceded by warning sign, where a pedestrian has right
of way once he/she has stepped onto the crossing.

V
Vertical Alignment
Direction of the centerline of a road in profile.

Vertical Curve
Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.

Visibility Splay
A triangular area bordered by intersecting roads and kept free of
obstructions (except essential traffic signs) to enable a driver who is
required to give way to have unobstructed visibility along the major road.

W
Waste
Material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily
wasted as the word implies, but can be used in widening embankments,
flattening slopes, or filling ditches or depressions for erosion control.

Weaving
Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or more
traffic streams intersecting at a shallow angle so that the vehicles in one
stream cross other streams gradually.

Weaving Length
The length of carriageway in which weaving may take place.

Weaving Section
The area of carriageway in which weaving may take place.
Y
Y-junction
A three-leg junction in the general form of a Y.

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ABBREVIATIONS
The lists of abbreviations and definitions give the meanings of various terms which are
relevant to the geometric design manual. They are used in order to promote a clear and
consistent terminology for road design.

A
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic

C
CADD Computer-Aided Design and Drafting System
CL Centerline
CMP Corrugated metal pipe
CS From circular curve to spiral curve
CWW Carriageway Width

D
DHV Design Hourly Volume
DS Design standard
DTM Digital Terrain Model
DV Design vehicle

F
FSE Full Superelevation

G
GPS Global Positioning System
GVM Gross Vehicle Mass

H
HCM Highway Capacity Manual

I
IDA International Development Agency

K
Km Kilometer

L
LC Long chord
LOS Level of service

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LW Lane Width

M
MINAGRI Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
MININFRA Ministry of Infrastructure
MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

P
PC Point of Curvature
PI Point of Intersection
POT Point of Tangent
PSD Passing Sight Distance
PT Point of Tangency
PVC Point of Vertical Curve
PVI Point of Vertical Intersection
PVT Point of Vertical Tangency

R
RCP Reinforced concrete pipe
RDTA Rwanda Transport Development Agency
RFCS Road Functional Classification System
ROW Right-of-way
RP Reference Point

S
SATCC South African Transport and Communication Commission
SC Spiral to Circular Curve
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
ST Spiral to Tangent

T
TBM Temporary Bench Mark
TS Tangent to Spiral

W
WB World Bank

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List of Illustrations

Figures

Introduction
Figure 1 The Design Process ...........................................................................................5

Chapter 2
Figure 2-1 Roads in Environmentally Sensitive Protected Forest Area ........................ 2-2
Figure 2-2 Alignment Change to Reduce Gradient ........................................................ 2-4
Figure 2-3 Alignment Change to Reduce Gradient and Earthworks (Nyabihu RC04) .. 2-4
Figure 2-4 Possible Alignment Alternatives to Rusogo ................................................. 2-9

Chapter 3
Figure 3-1 Traffic Counts on Rwanda District Roads 2010 ........................................... 3-7
Figure 3-2 Flat Terrain with Flat Roadway Alignment ................................................. 3-9
Figure 3-3 Rolling Terrain with Rolling Roadway Alignment ..................................... 3-10
Figure 3-4 Rolling Terrain with Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment ......................... 3-10
Figure 3-5 Mountain Terrain with Rolling Roadway Alignment ................................. 3-11
Figure 3-6 Steep Terrain with Mountainous Roadway Alignment............................... 3-11
Figure 3-7 Steep Terrain with Mountainous Roadway Alignment ............................... 3-12
Figure 3-8 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV4) ............... 3-13
Figure 3-9 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Bus (DV2) .................. 3-14
Figure 3-10 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination DV5 .... 3-14

Chapter 4
Figure 4-1 Designation of Roadside Regions ................................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-2 Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils.............................................. 4-9

Chapter 5
Figure 5-1 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag ..................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest .................................................................. 5-3
Figure 5-3 Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves ........................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-4 Sight Distance ............................................................................................... 5-6

Chapter 6
Figure 6-1 Forces Associated with Traversing a Curve .................................................. 6-2
Figure 6-2 Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways ..................................................... 6-4
Figure 6-3 Circular Curve Elements ................................................................................ 6-5
Figure 6-4 Reverse Curves with Unacceptable Differences in Radii .............................. 6-7
Figure 6-5 Broken Back Curve ........................................................................................ 6-7
Figure 6-6 Compound Curve ........................................................................................... 6-8
Figure 6-7 Isolated Curves ............................................................................................. 6-10
Figure 6-8 Switchback Curve ........................................................................................ 6-12

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Figure 6-9 Switchback Curve Layout............................................................................. 6-13

Figure 6-10 Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle ................................ 6-14
Figure 6-11 Alignment of Spiral Curve vs. Circular Curve ............................................. 6-16
Figure 6-12 Superelevation .............................................................................................. 6-17
Figure 6-13 Overloaded Truck in Neighboring Country .................................................. 6-19
Figure 6-14 Spiral Curve Transition................................................................................. 6-20
Figure 6-15 Circular Curve Transition ............................................................................. 6-21
Figure 6-16 Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads) ............................................ 6-22

Chapter 7
Figure 7-1 Crest Curve ..................................................................................................... 7-2
Figure 7-2 Sag Curve ........................................................................................................ 7-2
Figure 7-3 Minimum Lengths for Crest Vertical Curves ................................................. 7-4
Figure 7-4 Minimum Lengths for Sag Vertical Curves .................................................... 7-5
Figure 7-5 Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles ......................................................... 7-6
Figure 7-6 Layout for Climbing Lane ............................................................................ 7-12

Chapter 8
Figure 8-1 Vertical Curve Overlaps Beginning of Horizontal Curve to Left ................... 8-2
Figure 8-2 Vertical Curve Overlaps Beginning of Horizontal Curve to Right................. 8-2
Figure 8-3 Vertical Curve and Horizontal Curve Begin and End at the Same Points ...... 8-3
Figure 8-4 False Appearance of Reverse Curve Due to Improper Phasing ...................... 8-3
Figure 8-5 False Appearance of Reverse Curve Due to Improper Phasing ...................... 8-4
Figure 8-6 Sag Curve between Broken Back Horizontal Curves ..................................... 8-5
Figure 8-7 Horizontal Curve with Broken Back Sag Vertical Curves ............................. 8-5
Figure 8-8 Vertical Alignment More Curvilinear than Horizontal Alignment................. 8-6

Chapter 9
Figure 9-1 If the Finish Grade Matches the Existing Grade, the Excavation Quantity is
Needlessly Increased ...................................................................................... 9-2
Figure 9-2 Fill Slope Problematic for Construction ......................................................... 9-3
Figure 9-3 Cut Slope Problematic for Construction ........................................................ 9-3
Figure 9-4 Alignment Shift to Avoid Huge Cut Quantity................................................ 9-4
Figure 9-5 Three Cross Sections ...................................................................................... 9-6
Figure 9-6 Volume Relationships during Construction ................................................... 9-7
Figure 9-7 Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram .................... 9-8
Figure 9-8 Location of Balance Line of Mass Haul Diagram ........................................ 9-11
Figure 9-9 Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram ............................................................ 9-13
Figure 9-10 Balancing Earthwork Using Borrow and Waste .......................................... 9-14
Figure 9-11 Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using Unit Mass Data (Excess
Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) ........................................................... 9-15
Figure 9-12 Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using R.D.S. Mass Data (Excess
Embankment and Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) .............................. 9-17
Figure 9-13 Detail of Mass Diagram of a Rwandan Road ............................................... 9-18

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Chapter 10
Figure 10-1 Typical Access ............................................................................................. 10-4
Figure 10-2 T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows ... 10-5
Figure 10-3 Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows ................................................. 10-6
Figure 10-4 Staggered X-Junctions ................................................................................. 10-7
Figure 10-5 Right/Left and Left/Right Staggered Intersections with Minimum Distances10-7
Figure 10-6 Sight Distance for “Yield” Conditions ........................................................ 10-8
Figure 10-7 Sight Distance for “Stop” Conditions .......................................................... 10-9
Figure 10-8 Layout for Right-Turn Lane ...................................................................... 10-10
Figure 10-9 Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway ....................................... 10-11
Figure 10-10 Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway ......................................... 10-12
Figure 10-11 Traffic Island Intersection Layout Type 1 ................................................. 10-14
Figure 10-12 Traffic Island Intersection Layout Type 2 ................................................. 10-15
Figure 10-13 Checklist for Junction Design .................................................................... 10-16
Figure 10-14 Roundabout Layout ................................................................................... 10-18
Figure 10-15 Rwanda Development Board Junction Possible Roundabout Layout ....... 10-19
Figure 10-16 Vehicle Path through Roundabout ............................................................. 10-20
Figure 10-17 Roundabout Dimensions ............................................................................ 10-20

Chapter 11
Figure 11-1 Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions.......................................... 11-7

Chapter 12
Figure 12-1 Bus Bays With and Without Channelizing Island ....................................... 12-6
Figure 12-2 Railway Crossing Details ........................................................................... 12-10
Figure 12-3 Railway Crossing Details .......................................................................... 12-10
Figure 12-4 Embankment Warrants Based on Fill Height, Slope, and Traffic ............. 12-13
Figure 12-5 Jersey Barrier ............................................................................................. 12-14
Figure 12-6 Grouted Rock Barrier ................................................................................ 12-16
Figure 12-7 Steel Rail Guardrail .................................................................................. 12-17
Figure 12-8 Wire Rope Barriers .................................................................................... 12-17
Figure 12-9 Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps ................................................ 12-20
Figure 12-10 Circular Road Hump .................................................................................. 12-26
Figure 12-11 Flat-Topped Road Hump ........................................................................... 12-26
Figure 12-12 Speed Hump vs. Calming Island ............................................................... 12-27
Figure 12-13 Rumble Strip .............................................................................................. 12-27
Figure 12-14 Types of Curbs ........................................................................................... 12-28
Figure 12-15 Drop Curb .................................................................................................. 12-29
Figure 12-16 Don’t Use Curbs in Rural Areas ................................................................ 12-30
Figure 12-17 Unsafe U-Ditches....................................................................................... 12-30
Figure 12-18 Unsafe Slabs over a U-Ditch ..................................................................... 12-32
Figure 12-19 Effect of Engineering Design on Road Safety ........................................... 12-33

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Chapter 13
Figure 13-1 Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans ......................................... 13-3

Chapter 14
Figure 14-1 Standard Bench Mark ................................................................................... 14-8

Chapter 15
Figure 15-1 The Design Process ...................................................................................... 15-2
Figure 15-2 Checklist for Final Road Link Design ......................................................... 15-7

Appendix
Figure A-1 Typical Section Elements of a Dual Carriageway (Class 1)................................ A-1
Figure A-2 Typical Section Elements of a Class 2-5 Roadway ............................................. A-2
Figure A-3 Steep Terrain Section ........................................................................................... A-2
Figure A-4 Two Lane Town Section ...................................................................................... A-3
Figure A-5 Four Lane Town Section ..................................................................................... A-3
Figure A-6 Four Lane Town Section ..................................................................................... A-3
Figure A-7 Four Lane Town Section Crossfall Slope to Median........................................... A-4
Figure A-8 Typical Section for Expansive Clay soil Ditch and Deep Cut ............................. A-4

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Tables

Chapter 1
Table 1-1 Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT ................................................. 1-3
Table 1-2 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 1 (Paved Dual Carriageway)
...................................................................................................................................... 1-4
Table 1-3 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 2 (Paved Roadway) .............. 1-5
Table 1-4 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 2 (Unpaved Road) ................ 1-6
Table 1-5 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 3 (Paved Road).............. 1-7
Table 1-6 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 3 (Unpaved Road) ......... 1-8
Table 1-7 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 4 (Unpaved Road) ......... 1-9
Table 1-8 Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 5 (Unpaved Road) ....... 1-10
Table 1-9 Geometric Design Parameters for Single Lane Road ....................................... 1-11

Chapter 2
Table 2-1 References for Desk Study ............................................................................... 2-2

Chapter 3
Table 3-1 Numbering of Paved Trunk Roads Class 2....................................................... 3-2
Table 3-2 Numbering of Unpaved Link Roads Class 3 .................................................... 3-3
Table 3-3 Design Standard vs. Road Classification and AADT ....................................... 3-5
Table 3-4 Road Function, Class, Name Conventions, and Access Control ...................... 3-6
Table 3-5 Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics ............................................ 3-13
Table 3-6 Present Road Classification and AADT ......................................................... 3-15
Table 3-7 PCUs Relating to Vehicle Type and Terrain .................................................. 3-15
Table 3-8 Design Speed vs. Road Classification and Terrain Type ............................... 3-17
Table 3-9 Maximum AADT for Two Lane Roads .......................................................... 3-19
Table 3-10 Acceptable Level of Service (LoS) for Road Class and Terrain Type ........... 3-19

Chapter 4
Table 4-1 Minimum Shoulder Widths .............................................................................. 4-3
Table 4-2 Class 1-3 Roads: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal .......................... 4-7
Table 4-3 Road Class 4-5: Provisional Design Gradient/Height Relationship for Soil Cut
Types ................................................................................................................ 4-8
Table 4-4 Desirable and Minimum Clear Zone vs. Speed Limit ...................................... 4-9
Table 4-5 Desirable and Minimum Median Widths vs. Speed Limit ............................. 4-12

Chapter 5
Table 5-1 Speed vs. Sight Distances ................................................................................. 5-2
Table 5-2 Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speed .................................................... 5-5
Table 5-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance.............. 5-7

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Chapter 6
Table 6-1 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets) ... 6-3
Table 6-2 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 6% Superelevation ............................. 6-3
Table 6-3 Widening on Curves and High Fills for Class 1 and 2 Roads Only ................ 6-11
Table 6-4 Radii Above Which Spiral Curves are Not Required...................................... 6-17
Table 6-5 Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition .................................................. 6-17
Table 6-6 Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 6% .......................................... 6-23
Table 6-7 Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4% .......................................... 6-24

Chapter 7
Table 7-1 Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves ...................................................... 7-3
Table 7-2 Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves ........................................................ 7-4
Table 7-3 Maximum Gradients .......................................................................................... 7-7
Table 7-4 Climbing Lanes for Class 1-3 Roads ............................................................... 7-10
Table 7-5 Vertical Clearance for Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL) ............. 7-13

Chapter 9
Table 9-1 Earthwork Areas and Volumes.......................................................................... 9-6

Chapter 10
Table 10-1 Road Function, Class, Name Conventions, and Access Control..................... 10-2
Table 10-2 Sight Distance for “Yield” Conditions ............................................................ 10-8
Table 10-3 Sight Distance for “Stop” Conditions ............................................................. 10-9
Table 10-4 Length of Right-Turn Lane ........................................................................... 10-10
Table 10-5 Warrants for Left Turn Lane ........................................................................ 10-11
Table 10-6 Length of Left-Turn Lane.............................................................................. 10-12
Table 10-7 Length of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lane ............................................ 10-12

Chapter 11
Table 11-1 Widths for Loops ............................................................................................. 11-3

Chapter 12
Table 12-1 Guideline for Provision of Separate Footway ................................................. 12-2
Table 12-2 Footway and Cycleway Widths ....................................................................... 12-2
Table 12-3 Cycleway Clearances ...................................................................................... 12-3
Table 12-4 Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts ........................... 12-8
Table 12-5 Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface in Meters .......... 12-9
Table 12-6 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials .................................... 12-22
Table 12-7 Guidelines for the Installation of Speed Humps ........................................... 12-25

Chapter 13
Table 13-1 Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves ................................................................... 13-5

List of Illustrations xxxvi

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Chapter 14
Table 14-1 Survey Data Requirements ............................................................................. 14-2
Table 14-2 TM Rwanda Data Parameters ......................................................................... 14-6
Table 14-3 WGS 1984 UTM Zone 36S Data Parameters ................................................. 14-7
Table 14-4 Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys ....................................................... 14-8
Table 14-5 Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks ................................................. 14-10

List of Illustrations xxxvii

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

0 INTRODUCTION
Geometric Design is an essential component in the design development of a highway.
This Geometric Design Manual is prepared under the direction of the Road Transport
Development Authority (RDTA) of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Ministry of
Agriculture (MININFRA) to establish basic design techniques for the economic and safe
design of highway geometrics including typical sections, horizontal and vertical
alignment, and design of junctions. It is intended for use in the design of all roads in
Rwanda.

PURPOSE

RDTA has initiated a comprehensive program to rehabilitate and upgrade the road
network in Rwanda. To plan and implement the program in a coherent way, using
modern standards and technology, RDTA, using World Bank funding, decided to
establish a uniform framework. Developing a Geometric Design Manual is a part of this
framework.

The purpose of this design manual is to give guidance and recommendations to the
engineers responsible for the geometric design of roads in Rwanda.

The Geometric Design Manual also relates to the implementation of the

recommendations of the EAC 1 to ensure uniform roadway geometric standards and hence
that the optimum balance between road infrastructure construction cost and road user
cost is obtained, considering road safety issues and natural and human environmental
aspects in the EAC Region. Other impacts of the harmonized regimes include improved
efficiency of the road transport system by minimization of road crashes and energy
consumption. It should be noted that EAC also noted that the width, height, wheelbase
and minimum turning radius dimensions of vehicles such as the 22 m Interlinks, which
have recently been permitted to traverse EAC road network, conform to the respective
dimensions of the design vehicles for EAC Partner States and therefore will be
accommodated by the existing intersections on the EAC road network.

All EAC Partner States will need to check whether headroom under bridge structures
complies with the recommended value of 5.5 m and make improvements, if necessary.
Additionally, it is proposed that the recommended standards be implemented in all new
road designs, and road rehabilitation, reconstruction and widening projects.

While this Geometric Design Manual generally conforms to EAC suggestions, this has
not been deemed possible or advisable for all design aspects. To provide the user any
easy method to determine where the agreements, similarities, and disagreements occur,
the text has been accompanied by colored text boxes indicating the degree of conformity:

1
“Harmonization of Standards and Specifications, Preparation of a Transport Facilitation
Strategy for the East African Community,” Final Report Volume 2, The East African
Trade and Transport Facilitation Project (EATTF), Bureau for Industrial Cooperation,
College of Engineering and Technology, University of Dar es Salaam, March 2014.

Introduction 1
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

This design element is in agreement This design element is in partial

with EAC suggestions. agreement with EAC suggestions.

This design element is not in

agreement with EAC suggestions.

Other text boxes which do not relate to the EAC suggestions but offer a further
explanation of concepts presented is shown using a different style of text box:

This format of text box offers further

explanatory text regarding the subject
matter.

SCOPE

The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable
to National Roads, District 1 roads, and District 2 (feeder) roads, as well as urban roads
and unclassified roads. Under the guidelines suggested by the East African Community
(EAC), these are defined as Classes 1-5 roads.

The use of the procedures described in this manual should help in achieving reasonable
uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MANUAL

The overall organization of this manual follows very closely with the steps involved in
the design process, as indicated in Figure 1.

A summary of the standards developed within the manual, together with departures from
standards and the method of dealing with departures from standards, are given in Chapter
1.

Chapter 2 deals with preliminary design considerations. Specifically, it lists procedures

for identification of potential new road alignments developed in the route corridor
selection process.

Chapter 3 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional
classification; terrain considerations; the design vehicle; density and character of
adjoining land use; design traffic volume; and design speed.

Introduction 2
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, crossfall, side slopes
and backslopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way. These issues are
developed in Chapter 4.

A significant element in selection of the geometric design of roads is the available sight
distance. Chapter 5 develops the formulae and application of both stopping and passing
sight distances.

Horizontal alignment elements include tangent sections, curves, and superelevation.

Chapter 6 provides information on tangent sections, and proceeds to a discussion of
curve elements, including circular curves, reverse, broken-back, compound curves, and
isolated curves. Lane widening requirements for curves are explained, and the special
considerations in switchback, or hairpin, curves, are listed. Transition curve
requirements are discussed. Superelevation standards are then developed, including
rates, run-off, and shoulder superelevation.

Chapter 7 is devoted to the issue of vertical alignment. Subchapters deal with the topics
of crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical
clearances.

Chapter 8 relates to the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design,
problems associated with mis-phasing, and possible corrective actions.

The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter dealing with
earthwork quantities and the mass haul diagram, and this topic is developed in Chapter 9.
While this chapter is often absent in many geometric manuals, attention to these elements
and the associated design iterations to minimize earthwork costs represent a very major
exercise in value engineering, especially given Rwanda’s rolling and mountainous
terrain.

Chapter 10 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of

junction type; t-junctions, cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction
elements including turning lanes and traffic islands.

Grade-separated junctions are discussed in a similar manner in Chapter 11. Included

topics are the choice of scheme, geometric standards, design principles, and types of
junctions.

Safety and miscellaneous items are listed in Chapter 12. Items appearing in this chapter
include the design of safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-byes and parking
bays, parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers, safety
provisions for pedestrians, bicyclists and motorcyclists, speed management techniques,
and emergency escape ramps.

Items defined as roadway furniture are discussed in Chapter 13. This includes traffic
signs, road markings, marker posts, traffic signals, and lighting.

The last three chapters are also not commonly included in a Geometric Design Manual,
and for that reason they are out of design sequence with the rest of the manual.

Introduction 3
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

However, these chapters are positioned where they are as the subject matter contained
therein is not directly of a geometric design nature, but is considered incidental or
subsidiary to geometric design. These chapters aid the designer in selected an adequate
survey for design; in providing a step-by-step guide for the preliminary design process;
and in detailing the usual requirements in the production of design drawings.

Chapter 14 discusses survey requirements. Since survey requirements are presently not
found in any other manual, it was deemed expeditious to include such requirements in
this manual.

Chapter 15 presents an outline of the design procedure step by step, from the initial data
collection through to the production of the drawing sets and a review of these sets.

Chapter 16 discusses plans and drafting requirements, including the requirements for
inclusion in the drawing sets, and the size and scale of drawings.

Finally, the appendices provide additional explanatory information, and providing those
figures and tables deemed best placed here rather than in the body of the text, in
providing further explanation of the method of determining sight distances, and in listing
utility location requirements.

Introduction 4
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Define BASIC PARAMETERS

• Road function
• Traffic flow (Data)
• Terrain type

SELECT DESIGN CLASS

Consider DETERMINE TRIAL

RELAXATIONS of ALIGNMENTS and
STANDARD with IDENTIFY ELEMENTS not
appropriate meeting GEOMETRIC
Yes
Yes
No Do all elements meet DESIGN
Are the CLASS STANDARDS?
ECONOMIC
CONSEQUENC
ES of No

Are design elements

consistent with DESIGN
SPEED?

Complete design(s)

No Does the project have an

Review Project acceptable ECONOMIC
RETURN?
Yes

Can the economic return Yes

be improved by amended
alignment?
No

Figure 1: The Design Process

Introduction 5
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

1 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS AND DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the surrounding
terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are
the road cross-section and its horizontal and vertical alignment. The use of geometric design
standards fulfills three inter-related objectives:

 Standards are intended to provide minimum levels of safety and comfort for drivers by
the provision of adequate sight distance, coefficients of friction, and road space for
vehicle maneuvers
 Standards provide the framework for economic design
 Standards ensure a consistency of alignment

The design standards must take into account the environmental road conditions, traffic
characteristics, and driver behavior.

Designed for easy access to the design parameters, this chapter provides summary tables of
geometric design elements for each type of road, and discusses the procedure to employ
when departures from the standards become necessary.

1.2 DESIGN STANDARDS

The road functional classification selection, design class and design traffic flow are
summarized in Table 1-1. Pertinent detailed text is found in Chapter 3.

Although the levels of flow at which design standards change are based on the best current
evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light
of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design
Traffic Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than
the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a
first year traffic flow of 390 vehicles per day rising to 1,100 vehicles per day in the last year
of it’s design life, should be constructed to Design Class 4 rather than Design Class 3 (see
Table 1-1). The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 400 – 1000 vehicles per day
(Class 4). Design to the higher Design Class 3 would result in an over-design of the road
during almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide a solution that is not
economically justifiable.

On the other hand, RTDA might determine that this example road should be a Class 2 road
despite the present traffic volume, in which case it should be designed accordingly.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-1

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Design speeds have been set as indicated in the text in Chapter 3 and in keeping with EAC
suggestions. Once the design speed is selected, all of the other design parameters can also
be set.

These tables also illustrate the split between paved and unpaved road standards. The
determination of each particular standard item is discussed further in the various chapters of
this manual.

Tables 1-2 to 1-9 give several design standard parameters for the five road classes. These
standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and collector roads,
and feeder roads, and there is a standard for a single lane road which may be considered in
steep terrain regions. Chapter 3 shows how these descriptions tie into National, District I,
and District II roads.

1.3 DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS

It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will find he is compelled to
deviate from these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a
switchback or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer
departs from a standard, he must obtain written approval from RTDA. The Designer shall
submit the following information to RTDA for consideration:

• The number, name, and description of the road

• The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
• A description of the standard, including the normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards
• The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
• Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.

The RTDA Project Engineer assigned to the project will submit all major and minor
Departures from Standards to the Planning Division Manager for evaluation. If the proposed
Departures from Standards are acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted
to the RTDA General Manager for final approval.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-2

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional
Classification Design Traffic
Design Class
(AADT)

T Class 1 10,000-15,000
R
U
N
L K Class 2 500-10,000
I
C N
O K
L Class 3 100-1,500
L
E
C
T Class 4 20-200
F O
E R
E
D Class 5 0-100
E
R

Single Lane 0-100

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-3

 Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-2: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 1 (Paved Dual Carriageway)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 120 100 60 60 50
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 250 185 85 85 65

Horizontal Elements

Side Friction Factor f 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.21

Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 755 435 135 1352 90

Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 3/4 4/5 6/8 7/10 7/10
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minimum Crest Curve k 95 52 11 11 7

Minimum Sag Curve k 63 45 18 18 13

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75

Width of Inner Shoulder m 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Width of Outer Shoulder m 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.5

Median Width (desired/minimum) m 12.0/6.0 12.0/6.0 9.0/4.0 1.0 4.0

Total Width (minimum)4 m 29.0 27.0 24.0 20.0 26.0

Normal Crossfall AC/DBST % 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0

Shoulder Crossfall paved/unpaved % 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0

Right of Way m 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100

1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 60 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
4-lane facility indicated: add 7.5 meters for 6-lane facility.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-4

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-3: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 2 (Paved Roadway)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 110 80 50 50 50

Sight Distances
Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 220 130 65 65 65

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 730 540 345 345 345

% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25 0 20
Horizontal Elements

Side Friction Factor f 0.11 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.21

Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 560 250 90 902 80

Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43

Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 4/5 5/7 7/9 8/11 8/11
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Minimum Crest Curve k 74 26 7 7 7

Minimum Sag Curve k 55 30 13 13 13

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Width of Shoulder m 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 2.54

Total Width m 11.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 12.0

Normal Crossfall AC/DBST or stone % 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0

Shoulder Crossfall paved/unpaved % 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0

Right of Way m 44 44 44 44 44
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 30 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-5

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-4: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 2 (Unpaved Road)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 110 80 50 50 50
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 220 130 65 65 65

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 730 540 345 345 345

% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25 0 20

Horizontal Elements
Side Friction Factor f 0.11 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.21
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 560 250 90 902 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 4/5 5/7 7/9 8/11 8/11
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minimum Crest Curve k 74 26 7 7 7

Minimum Sag Curve k 55 30 13 13 13

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Width of Shoulder m 1.0 No Shoulder 04

Total Width m 9.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

Normal Crossfall % 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Shoulder Crossfall % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Right of Way m 44 44 44 44 44
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-6

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-5: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 3 (Paved Road)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 100 80 50 40 50

Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 185 130 65 50 65

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 670 540 345 270 345

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 0 20
Horizontal Elements
Side Friction Factor f 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.21
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 435 250 90 552 80

Transition Curves Required No No No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 5/6 7/9 10/12 10/12 10/12
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Minimum Crest Curve k 52 26 7 4 7

Minimum Sag Curve k 45 30 13 9 13

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Width of Shoulder m 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.04

Total Width m 11.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0

Normal Crossfall AC/DBST or stone % 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0 2.5/3.0

Shoulder Crossfall paved/unpaved % 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0 3.5/5.0

Right of Way m 24 24 24 24 24
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-7

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-6: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 3 (Unpaved Road)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 100 80 50 40 50
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 185 130 65 50 65

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 670 540 345 270 345

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 0 20

Horizontal Elements
Side Friction Factor f 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.21
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 435 250 90 552 80
Transition Curves Required No No No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 5/6 7/9 10/12 10/12 10/12
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minimum Crest Curve k 52 26 7 4 7

Minimum Sag Curve k 45 30 13 9 13

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Width of Shoulder m No Shoulder 04

Total Width m 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

Normal Crossfall % 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Shoulder Crossfall % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Right of Way m 24 24 24 24 24
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-8

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-7: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 4 (Unpaved Road)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 80 60 40 40 40
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 130 85 50 50 50

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 540 410 270 270 270

% Passing Opportunity % 25 20 15 0 20

Horizontal Elements
Side Friction Factor f 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.25
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 250 135 55 552 45
Transition Curves Required No No No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 6/8 7/10 12/14 15/18 15/18
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minimum Crest Curve k 26 11 4 4 4

Minimum Sag Curve k 30 18 9 9 9

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

Width of Shoulder m No Shoulder 04

Total Width m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Normal Crossfall % 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Shoulder Crossfall % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Right of Way m 24 24 24 24 24
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-9

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-8: Geometric Design Parameters for Mobility Road Class 5 (Unpaved Road)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 60 40 30 30 30
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 85 50 35 35 35

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 410 270 200 200 200

% Passing Opportunity % 20 20 15 0 20

Horizontal Elements

Side Friction Factor f 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.31

Min. Horizontal Curve Radius1 m 135 55 30 302 20
Transition Curves Required No No No No No

Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 43
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 6/8 7/10 12/14 15/18 15/18
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Minimum Crest Curve k 11 4 2 2 2

Minimum Sag Curve k 18 9 6 6 6

Cross Section Elements

Width of Lane m 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

Width of Shoulder m No Shoulder 04

Total Width m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Normal Crossfall % 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Shoulder Crossfall % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Right of Way m 24 24 24 24 24
1
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
2
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
3
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
4
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

Chapter 1: Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards 1-10

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 1-9: Geometric Design Parameters for Single Lane Road

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Urban

Design Speed km/h 60 40 30 30 30
Sight Distances

Min. Stopping Sight Distance1 m 200 130 100 100 100

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 410 270 200 200 200

Horizontal Elements

Side Friction Factor f 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.31

Min. Horizontal Curve Radius2 m 135 55 30 303 20

Transition Curves Required No No No No No
Maximum Superelevation % 6 6 6 6 44

Max. Distance bet. Passing Bays m 250 250 250 250 250
Vertical Elements
Maximum Gradient
% 6/8 7/10 12/14 15/18 15/18
(desirable/minimum)
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Minimum Crest Curve k 11 4 2 2 2

Minimum Sag Curve k 18 9 6 6 6

Cross Section Elements

Width of Carriageway m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

5
Width of Shoulder No Shoulder

Total Width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

Normal Crossfall % 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Shoulder Crossfall % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Right of Way m 24 24 24 24 24
1
Longer distance necessary than for two lane roads: see Chapter 5.
2
At 6% maximum superelevation. For 4% maximum superelevation, see Chapter 3.
3
For hairpin curves, the minimum radius is 15 meters
4
If superelevation creates access and/or drainage issues, a normal crown may be specified.
5
Parking lanes and footpaths may be required, see Chapter 4.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

2 ROUTE CORRIDOR SELECTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the methodology for analyzing possible corridors and selecting the
optimum route from technical, economic, social and environmental considerations.

2.2 DESK STUDY

Road Design, Construction and Maintenance require an approach that is heavily dependent
on the terrain. The shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most
economical option for construction and maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope
stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant controls in
the choice of the most suitable alignment. Variations in geology and slope greatly influence
road design and hence the cost of construction, and these variations can occur over very
short lengths of alignment. Geology, geomorphology and hydrology, therefore, are key
factors in the design, construction and maintenance of roads in Rwanda. An appreciation of
these factors alone is not enough to design and construct roads in an environmentally sound
way. Road geometry, earthworks, retaining structures and drainage measures must be
designed in such a manner as to cause the least impact on the stability of the surrounding
slopes and natural drainage systems. Excessive blasting, cutting, side tipping of spoil, and
concentrated or uncontrolled surface water runoff can lead to instability and erosion.
Although many of these effects are often unavoidable, the design and the construction
method adopted should aim to minimize them.1

Before commencing with the selection of alternative route corridors, the controlling
requirements of the route need to be defined. These may include the following:

1) What are the constraints in regard to the beginning and ending points of the road?
Must these be at existing junctions in villages or towns? Are such junctions
inadequate from a standpoint of skew or right-of-way? Do economic considerations
such as amount of earthworks limit the alternatives?
2) Through which villages must the route pass? Must the route pass directly through
these villages, or can linking roads connect to the villages? If so, what are the
implications to the villages in terms of lost trade? If the route passes through a
village, what impact could the new or improved roadway section have on the
adjoining property?
3) If major rivers are to be crossed, what are the possible crossing locations, given
constraints of topography and geology? What are the economics of the alternative

1
Ethiopian Geometric Design Manual, 2001, Chapter 2.

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bridge sites including corresponding road geometrics? If an existing culvert or

bridge is to be replaced, what options are there for a temporary crossing or what is
the impact if the bridge has to be closed? Is there a better time to construct the
crossing due to weather/runoff concerns?
4) What is the desired design speed and design standard? How does this standard fit the
terrain in terms of geometric parameters such as gradients, and horizontal and
vertical curves?

Figure 2-1 shows several roads in differing colors which have undesirable alignment as
they traverse an environmentally sensitive protect forest area.2

Figure 2-1: Roads in Environmentally Sensitive Protected Forest Area

2
“Review of Technical Studies for Construction and Rehabilitation Works of Access Road Networks in
Gishwati Project Area,” Parsons, for Nyabihu District, May 2014, p.30.

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The desk study comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning
the physical, economic and environmental characteristics of a study area. Some of the data
that may be required for the desk studies are the following sources:

 Published literature covering a range of topics including road construction and

maintenance case histories and geological, economic and environmental reviews.
 Topographical maps
 Geological maps, agricultural soil maps and other natural resource maps; and
 Aerial photography or Google® mapping

For studying and selecting suitable alignment corridors, a detailed analysis based on the
following references, maps, and aerial photography may be required:

Table 2-1: References for Desk Study

REFERENCE SOURCE
Rwanda Topographic Maps, scale 1:50,000 Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Rwanda Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
90 m Resolution
Satellite Imagery, approximate scale 1:50,000 Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Rwanda Lithologic Map - 1981, scale 1:250,000 Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Geological Map of Rwanda, scale 100,000 Department of Geology & Mines
Geological GIS Data Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Rwanda Soils Type Depth GIS Shapefiles Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Land Use and Land Cover GIS Layer Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Hydrostations GIS Data Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Hydrological Data Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)
Major Watershed GIS Data Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA)

2.3 PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL CORRIDORS

Using the topographical maps and with knowledge of the constraints as listed in Section 2.2,
it is possible to trace out some possible alternative alignments. This is readily accomplished
by referring especially to the vertical geometric design criteria for maximum grade and
plotting possibilities through correlation with the contour lines indicated on the map.

For instance, assume that the road classification and terrain are such that a 10% maximum
grade is permissible. Assume also that the contour interval on the 1:50,000 map is 20 meters.
A preliminary alignment needs to be selected such that a distance of no less than 200 meters
is used to progress from one the 20-meter contour to another (20/200 = 10%), giving a 10%
grade.

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An example of a proper selection based on the maximum gradient can be seen in Figure 2-2.
An alignment was set following a survey as indicated by the red line. However, this resulted
in gradients of up to 16%. A slight shift in the alignment, as shown in the green line,
reduces the maximum gradient to 11%.3

Figure 2-2: Alignment Change to Reduce Gradient

A similar situation is shown in Figure 2-3. The alignment shown in red has gradients of up
to 19% and cuts as deep as 16 meters. The alternative alignment shown in blue has a
constant gradient of 8% with minimal earthworks.4

Figure 2-3: Alignment Change to Reduce Gradient and Earthworks (Nyabihu RC04)

The steps in the survey process are summarized in the following sections.

3
Ibid, p. 58.
4
Ibid, p. 60.

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PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

The purpose of this reconnaissance stage of the survey process is to identify possible
alternative routes in terms of the “corridors” within which they lie.

Possible routes shall be examined on maps, satellite images and aerial photos/Google maps.
Visits shall be made to site to check interpretations, and findings shall be summarized to
assist in planning and for the next stage.

Aerial photos/Google maps shall be used to interpret boundaries between terrain types, and
where changes in topography, geology, drainage pattern and vegetation (land use) occur. A
change in any of these will give rise to different engineering conditions, which could affect
the design of the road. Such items as the following shall be considered:5

 Changing course of major rivers

 Drainage areas of major river systems
 Extent of flooding of low-lying areas
 Possible sources of water for construction
 Possible sources of construction materials
 Pattern of regional slope instability
 Extent of erosion
 Spread of deforestation
 Assessment of land acquisition/site clearance problems
 Location of all possible bridge sites

FEASIBILITY

At this stage, the corridors are appraised to select the best route. This shall be carried out
mainly using aerial photos/Google maps for all detailed interpretations, ideally at a scale of
1:20 000 – 1:60 000.

Detailed interpretations shall be made of conditions on all routes and, if necessary, a more
detailed terrain classification of the area shall be made. The following items shall be
investigated:

 Foundation conditions
 Drainage area and the location of culverts
 Locations of spoil and borrow areas
 Possible sources of construction materials
 Identification of most favorable bridge sites
 Possible major hazard areas such as poorly drained soils, springs, unstable areas, and
erosion in river courses
5
Ethiopian Geometric Design Manual, op. cit.

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 Utilities, both overhead and underground

 Existing structures adjoining existing or proposed Right-of-way/Road Reserve

Site investigations shall be carried out for alternative routes, guided by the terrain evaluation.
These shall note key physical and geotechnical features. Selected laboratory and field-
testing could also be carried out, guided by the terrain evaluation.

Finally, cost comparisons shall be made of alternative alignments to assist in the

recommendation of the best route.

DESIGN FOR PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

The final stage of the geotechnical survey process is to make detailed field studies of the
selected route to enable a design to be carried out to engineering standards.

A further land classification shall be carried out at a more detailed level on the selected route
corridor. Detailed air photo/Google map interpretation shall be continued in support of all
field activities to help plan a comprehensive site investigation of the selected route, which
shall be carried out with a visual sampling program. This shall examine:

 Construction materials
 Subgrade conditions
 Cuts and embankments
 Areas of instability
 Erosion and soft ground
 Requirements for frequency and size of culverts
 Bridge sites

The geotechnical survey phase of the appraisal process concludes by preparing detailed
designs and cost estimates.

ROUTE CORRIDOR ASSESSMENT

Route corridor options can be divided into the following categories:

 ridge top alignment

 compound alignments
 valley floor alignments

Ridge top alignments are often the most stable and least costly. They are also favored on
socio-economic and environmental grounds, as they usually follow established lines of
communication and habitation. However, steep slopes and changes in ridge-top elevation
dictate that alignments are frequently required to traverse a side slope beneath ridge tops.

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Climbing sections of mountain roads can be designed as gradual traverses of side slopes at a
limiting gradient, as switchbacks, or as a combination of the two.

In choosing between these possibilities, it should be noted that the switchback curve has the
following advantages:

 A greater flexibility in route corridor location can normally be achieved.

 The crossing of steep and unstable lower valley sideslopes can be minimized or
avoided; and
 The use of switchbacks to connect lengths of relatively easy ground, such as valley
floors and ridge tops, can in some cases lead to a more direct alignment with a saving
in overall route length.

The disadvantages associated with the switchback curve approach are:

 On sideslopes steeper than 30o, limited space to construct cut and fill slopes
necessitates either a relaxation in geometric standards or more expensive retaining
structures;
 Lack of spoil sites and access difficulties create problems during construction.
 Instability and erosion can easily extend from one loop of the road to another, both
up slope and down slope.
 Storm runoff tends to become concentrated requiring large-capacity drainage
structures and erosion protection works, and the cost associated with failure of any
part of the drainage system is usually high; and
 Switchbacks result in a Departure from Design Standards.

If the topography allows, creating offset switchbacks, in which the hairpins are not
immediately above one another but are staggered across the slope, can reduce the problems
associated with switchbacks. This will minimize drainage problems and limit the danger of
instability to fewer hairpin loops.

The advantages of a valley floor alignment are:

 relatively little climbing and descent are involved, thus making route alignment
easier and shorter, with correspondingly lower vehicle operating costs and higher
speeds.
 a ready supply of construction materials is normally available.
 control of spoil disposal and construction of pilot tracks can be less demanding.

However, despite the attractiveness of a more direct route and low gradients, the
construction costs of a valley floor alignment may be significantly higher than a ridge top
alternative, because of the high costs of bridging and cross-drainage. On socio-economic

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

grounds, valley routes may be less favored if the majority of villages are located on ridge
tops.

For each of the possible alternative alignment corridors, the existing maps should be studied
and aerial photographs/Google maps examined. From this study it will be possible to assess
the positive or negative influence of the following local factors:

 Topographic, geologic, and physical characteristics.

 Number, type and characteristics of water courses
 Potential risk of slides, slope instability or floods
 Human settlements affected by the road; and
 Environmental impact of the selected route.

IDENTIFY CORRIDORS AND PROPOSE ALIGNMENT ALTERNATIVES

Dividing the future project road into distinct workable sections containing possible
alternative alignments can conclude the desk study of existing documentation and the site
visit and survey.

The proposed corridors along the above mentioned alternative alignments are next studied
and compared in the Preliminary Design. This should be accomplished at 1:50,000 scale
using the topographic maps.

The terrain level and its variation along the proposed alignment corridors are plotted in the
longitudinal profile at an exaggerated scale of 1:50,000/1:5,000 horizontal/vertical.

The possible alternatives are next evaluated by the following criteria:

 What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest distance is
preferable.
 What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least
severe grade alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum grade may
be the inverse to the shortest length route.
 Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes survey
and construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.
 Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through, for
instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower vehicle
operating costs and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a route
through mountainous terrain.
 Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures.
 Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition?
 Which alignment minimizes the need to demolish buildings and houses?

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 What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the total
aggregate length of these bridges?
 Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding area?
 Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction?
Figure 2-4 shows three possible alignments to reach the village of Rusogo in Nyabihu
(where the blue, red, and green alignments meet) from National Road N4. From the very
long red alignment (part is not shown); from the red and then blue alignment; and from the
green alignment. Other more direct alignments are also possible but, due to the steepness of
the terrain, would need to incorporate several switchback curves. All of these alternatives
need to be subjected to the review criteria.6

Figure 2-4: Possible Alignment Alternatives to Rusogo

6
“Review of Technical Studies…,” op. cit,, p. 63.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

2.4 SITE VISIT AND SURVEY

After potential route corridors have been identified from the desk study analysis, a
reconnaissance survey is usually conducted to verify interpretations, help determine the
preferred corridor, and identify factors that will influence the feasibility design concept and
cost comparisons.

A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit:

 Highway Engineer
 Soils & Materials Engineer
 Hydrologist
 Chief Surveyor
 Bridge/Structures Engineer
 Environmentalist/Sociologist, and
 Local Administrative Personnel.

In most cases, the reconnaissance survey will significantly modify the desk study
interpretations. The reconnaissance survey data can be recorded on topographical maps or
aerial photographs/Google maps.

During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be determined:

 terrain classification;
 the location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock outcrops,
and any other features not identified by the desk study;
 slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial slopes
(cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
 slope stability and the location of pre-existing landslides;
 rock types, geological structures, dip orientations, rock strength and rippability;
 percentage of rock in excavations;
 materials sources, presence and distribution;
 water sources;
 soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and colluvium is
useful at this stage);
 soil erosion and soil erodibility;
 slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
 drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank erosion;
 land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially in irrigated areas;
 likely foundation conditions for major structures;
 approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;
 flood levels and river-training/protection requirements;

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 environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and socio-
economic considerations;
 verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
 the possibility of using any existing road alignments including local re-alignment
 improvements; and
 information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed corridors,
including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics, slopes,
vegetation, erosion and scouring.

During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information can be
combined with the results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate alignment
alternative.

2.5 TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The general study of the corridor should be conducted using the 1:50,000 scale aerial
photos/Google maps, while the local conditions of rocks and soils characteristics should
come from the field survey.

The study should be supported by the references indicated earlier in this chapter, including
"Geological Map of Rwanda," and the topographical maps at scale 1:50,000.

TOPOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY

The report on the corridor selection should provide details relating to the general topography
of the region. Details are provided of relief, and general stream directions and drainage
patterns are given.

GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS

Details of geology are obtained to gain an appreciation of the nature and possible sources of
construction materials; to determine the need for rock earthworks; and to anticipate
pavement structure requirements. The general geology through which the route passes
should be described. Similarly a tectonic investigation can reveal both material sources and
areas that should be designed taking into account possible seismic activity. The tectonic
investigation is only necessary in proven earthquake areas.

ROCK OUTCROPS AND SOILS

Rock outcrops should also be mapped, identified by type, and evaluated as possible material
sources. Similarly sedimentary rocks in riverbeds can be evaluated as material sources and
for foundation strength at possible river crossings. Types of soils encountered can be

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

identified and mapped not only to estimate pavement structure requirements but to identify
possible borrow material sources.
STABILITY AGAINST SLIDING AND EROSION

Areas where there are possible occurrences of landslides, slips, earth flows, and rock falls
should be identified. These areas are to be avoided if possible in identifying alignment
alternatives. Similarly cuts on steep slopes in volcanic rock should be avoided as this may
result in collapse of the hillside. Areas of unstable soil and marked erosion should also be
avoided.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

The survey along the route corridor should indicate adequate availability of construction
materials, as follows:

Embankment: Materials for construction of embankment can be obtained from

various sources including but not limited to roadway excavated
materials, highly weathered and decomposed basalt or other
formations such as trachytes and conglomerates. Such sources need
to be identified along the route.

Gravel Aggregate: Natural gravel aggregate is available in riverbeds and banks.

Formations such as regoliths can supply natural aggregate, but the
fine content and the grading curve must be carefully ascertained.
Crushed Aggregate, essential for concrete works and for pavement
surface layers, requires fresh and hard rock such as basalt.

2.6 RECOMMENDATIONS

The route corridor selection process concludes with detail as to why a certain alignment
alternative was selected and why others were considered, but rejected.

All the selected alignment options, however, need to be considered in the Preliminary
Engineering Design, and cost estimates prepared for comparison. It will then be possible to
select for the most viable route to be selected, taking due account of construction costs,
benefits to the local population, and length of travel, for each alternative.

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2.7 REPORT OUTLINE

The route corridor selection report should be presented in the following report format
outline:
1. Introduction
1.1 General
1.2 Requirements of the TOR
2. Study of Maps, Aerial Photography/Google maps, and Literature
3. Proposed Corridors
3.1 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
3.2 Proposed Alignment Alternatives: A, B, and C
3.3 Estimation of Bridge Requirements: A, B, and C
3.4 Estimated Road Link Lengths: A, B, and C
4. Site Visit and Survey
4.1 General: Condition of Existing Road, if Any
4.2 First Section
4.3 Second Section
4.4 Third Section
5. Towns Passed Through by Project Road
6. Geographic and Morphological Characteristics
6.1 General
6.2 Morphology and Hydrology of the Area
6.3 Geology (Tectonics if required)
6.4 Field Survey
6.4.1. Introduction
6.4.2. Rock Outcrops and Soils
6.4.3. Slope Stability and Erosion
6.4.4. Construction Materials
7. Socio-Environmental Impact of the Project on the Area
7.1 General
7.2 Alternative Alignments
7.3 Impact of Construction
8. Recommendations
8.1 Alternative A
8.2 Alternative B
8.3 Alternative C
8.4 Summary

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3 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors: the
functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle; the traffic
volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character of the adjoining
land use; and economic and environmental considerations. Also, one of the main purposes
of this manual is also to seek to harmonize the design controls and criteria in Rwanda with
those of the East African Community (EAC).

The following text describes some of the factors affecting design controls and criteria.

3.2 ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Present Rwanda Name Conventions, Classification, Description and Traffic

Rwandan roads are ranked by Road Functional Classifications according to the service
provided. The functional classifications include three classes: National Roads, District I
Roads, and District II (feeder) roads. There has been considerable recent effort in revising
the existing road network, placing roads in differing classifications than they had been
previously placed.

The following is a classification and description of all existing truck, link, and main access
roads within Rwanda. For trunk and link roads, this includes type of road, and the road
name and numbering. Once again, note that the present numbering and classification of
roads in Rwanda is under review.

TRUNK ROADS (CLASS 2)

Centers of national and international importance and/or roads terminating at international

boundaries are linked with Kigali by trunk roads (see Table A-1), which at present
correspond closely to paved National Roads. They are numbered with an "RN" prefix: an
example is the KIGALI‐BUTARE‐AKANYARU Road (RN1). Trunk roads usually have a present
AADT ≥1000 (including motorcycles), although they can have volumes as low as 100
AADT (see Chapter 1, Table 1-1). Paved RN roads are shown in Table 3-1:

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Table 3-1: Numbering of Paved Trunk Roads Class 2

(AADTs as of 2010)

No. Road Section AADT max. Location

RN1 KIGALI‐BUTARE‐AKANYARU 2487 To Burundi Border
RN2 KIGALI‐ GATUNA 3917 To Uganda Border
RN3 KIGALI‐KAYONZA‐RUSUMO 4820 To Tanzania Border
RN4 KIGALI‐RUHENGERI‐GISENYI 5015 To Congo Border
RN5 KAYONZA‐KAGITUMBA 1268 To Tanzania Border
RN6 BUTARE‐CYANGUGU‐RUSIZI 942 To Congo Border
RN7 GITARAMA‐KIBUYE 964 To Lake Kivu
RN8 RUHENGERI‐CYANIKA 1965 To Uganda Border
RN9 CYANGUGU‐BUGARAMA 559 To Congo Border
RN10 BUGARAMA‐RUHWA 114 To Congo Border
RN11 GITARAMA‐NGORORERO‐MUKAMIRA 390
RN12 CYANGUGU‐RUSIZI 222
RN13 RYABEGA‐NYAGATARE 916
RN14 RUHENGERI‐GATABA 998
RN15 KIGALI‐NYAMATA‐NEMBA 2128
RN18B BYUMBA‐GABIRO 790
RN28 RUHENGERI‐BUSOGO‐KORA‐
863
KABUHANGA

LINK ROADS (CLASS 3)

Centers of national importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be linked
between each other by link roads (see Table A-2 for unpaved link roads). A typical link road
has 200 - 500 present year AADT (including motorcycles), although values can range
between 50-1,200 AADT. These correspond to the unpaved roads presently numbered with
an "RN prefix. An example of a typical link road is the Byumba ‐ Butaro Road (RN37).
Unpaved RN roads are shown in Table 3-2:

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Table 3-2: Numbering of Unpaved Link Roads Class 3

(AADTs as of 2008)

No. Road Section AADT max. Location

RN19 Butaré ‐ Akanyaru (Bas) 1162
RN22 Rugobagoba ‐ Kinazi ‐ Ruhango 416
RN24 Butare ‐ Kibeho ‐ Muse 652
SOUTHEAST

RN29 Kibugabuga ‐ Nyamiyaga‐ Gasoro 205

RN34 Kagasa ‐ Kibungo 614
RN40 Kabarondo ‐ Hôtel Akagera 408
RN41 Butare ‐ Nyamiyaga 232
RN42 Kibeho ‐ Ndago ‐ Bitare 247
RN18 Byumba ‐ Gabiro 311
RN20 Byumba ‐ Base 221
NORTHEAST

RN25 Kidaho ‐ Kirambo ‐ Kiryi 177

RN27 Nyagasa ‐ Ntoma 589
RN35 Rwesero ‐ Gakenke 193
RN36 Ngarama ‐ Mulindi 254
RN37 Byumba ‐ Butaro 153
RN17 Kibuye‐Ntendezi 167
RN23 Nyanza‐Kibuye 302
SOUTHWEST

RN26 Pindura ‐ Bweyeye Not reported

RN30 Nyanza ‐ Gikongoro 233
RN32 Byimana ‐ Kitabi 192
RN33 Ntendezi ‐ Mashyuza ‐ Bugarama 164
RN38 Kibuyé ‐ Cyanika 219
RN39 Gishyita ‐ Gatovu 57
RN11 Gitarama‐Ngororero‐Mukamira 316
RN14 Ruhengeri‐Gataba 548
NORTHWEST

RN16 Rubengera ‐ Pfunda 152

RN21 Cyakabili ‐ Nyabikenke ‐ Ndusu 192
RN28 Busogo‐Kora‐Kabuhanga 451
RN31 Kigali ‐ Rushashi ‐ Gakenke 211
RN43 Rutsiro ‐ Gatare ‐ Kazabe 55

MAIN ACCESS AND COLLECTOR ROADS (CLASS 4)

Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads.
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to
higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. This corresponds with the present
District I roads which proceed between Districts. Present year AADTs for both types were
determined by a study by RTDA in 2010, and are between 20-200 AADT. They are
numbered with a "D" prefix.

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FEEDER ROADS (CLASS 5)

Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road.
This corresponds best with the present District II (feeder) roads which lie entirely within a
single District. First year AADTs are between 0-100.

Additionally, when alternative roads link one center to another, the roads that have not been
classified applying the terminology described above, will be classified as feeders.

EAC Name Conventions

Some further explanation is needed to bring the network into conformity with EAC.

Roads of the highest class have, as their major function to provide mobility, while the
primary function of lowest class roads is to provide access. The roads of intermediate classes
have to provide both mobility and access.

Basing on international practice, Africon Ltd (2011) recommended to the EAC Partner
States the categories of High Mobility-Class 1 and High Mobility – Class 2 for the EAC
corridor road classification and numbering, where:

High Mobility Roads

• Class 1 roads are roads where movement and through traffic are dominant; the
majority of traffic does not originate or terminate in the immediate vicinity; the
function of the road is to carry high volumes of traffic between urban districts, across
and through Partner States; and is freight-focused and freight-supportive.
• Class 2 roads are corridor feeder roads with its main function that of supporting the
EAC corridors (i.e.-Class 1 roads).

EAC member states are using various definitions of lower classes of roads i.e. access/minor
roads.

The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main
collector to link to trunk roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region
and it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to an
over-design for the traffic levels actually encountered.

In addition to the correlation with functional classification, Design Classes 1 through 5

generally also include indicative associated bands of traffic flow. 1 The design traffic AADT
as relating to Design Class and Road functional classification were set employing the results
of recent traffic volume studies. 2,3

1
See for instance “Overseas Road Note 6: A Guide to Geometric Design,” TRRL, UK, 1988, P.2. The AADTS
selected for Rwanda reflect lower AADTs than this reference, better matching existing conditions.
2
Traffic Counts; part of Road Maintenance Management System, EGIS/BCEOM, Contract 9.ACP.RW.012.
“Technical Assistance for Institutional Capacity Building in Road Maintenance and Auditing of
Programmes”.Ministry of Infrastructure, Republic of Rwanda, January 2010.
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Using this data, ties between road functional classification, Design Class, and Design Traffic
are as shown in Table 3-3 and repeated in Chapter 1. The range of flows extends from less
than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day (including motorcycles), and covers the design
conditions for all single and dual carriageway roads. The table also shows the overlaps that
may exist between road functional classifications, design classes, and AADTs.

Table 3-3: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional
Classification Design Traffic
Design Class
(AADT)

T Class 1 10,000-15,000
R
U
N
L K Class 2 500-10,000
I
C N
O K
L Class 3 100-1,500
L
E
C
T Class 4 20-200
F O
E R
E
D Class 5 0-100
E
R

Single Lane 0-100

Table 3-4 presents name conventions and proposed functional road classifications in the
EAC region. It shows the interrelationship between the existing and standard classification
naming conventions for administrative and functional purposes, and attempts to indicate
where current Rwanda road classes fit into the table. However, given the present Rwanda
name convention, the fit is less than ideal. There are several existing National Roads, for
instance, which have traffic volumes as low as District II (feeder) roads, and as such are

3
ITEC Engineering Ltd., Consultancy Service for Traffic Count on Rwanda National Unpaved Roads: Final
Report, for Ministry of Infrastructure, Republic of Rwanda.
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better classified in EAC terminology as Feeder Roads Class 5 than as Class 1 Mobility
roads.

Note also that urban streets can and do span the entire range of road function and class, while
Class 5 refers only to local streets.

Table 3-4: Road Function, Class, Name Conventions, and Access Control

Function Class Present EAC Name Functional

Rwandan Road Conventions Classification Name
Class Conventions
Mobility Class 1 [no expressways yet] International trunk road Principal Arterial/ Freeway/
Roads National Trunk Road Expressway (2500 m spacing)
Class 2 National Road National Road Major arterial/Highway (800
Provincial Roads spacing)
Regional Roads
District Roads
Class 3 National Road Regional Roads Minor arterial (600 m spacing)
(unpaved) District Roads
Secondary Roads
Access Class 4 District Road 1 District Roads Collector roads (50 m spacing)
Roads Secondary Roads
Class 5 Local Streets Minor roads Local streets (15 m spacing)
Feeder Roads Local streets

For instance, Figure 3-1 shows that there are few District 1 roads that have a present AADT
volume above 100 AADT. Using the EAC terminology and referring to Table 3-1, this
traffic volume alone would place these roads in the Collector or Feeder road classifications,
and into Class 5.

In the Rwandan context, there are presently no freeways or expressways, and although some
of the present National Roads are international roads, they do not have the level of access
control indicated in the above table for a Class 1 road. Roads at present District Road 1 can
be placed in either Class 3 or 4, and Feeder roads and Local Streets fit into Class 5.

The present Rwanda Road Functional Classification System

can be made to correlate to the EAC Classes if it is redefined
in terms of mobility class and/or AADT

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Figure 3-1: Traffic Counts on Rwanda District Roads 2010

3.3 ACCESS CONTROL AND ACCESS MANAGEMENT

Access control is the regulation of public access rights to and from properties abutting the
highway facilities. Access control can be:
• full control of access
• partial control of access
• access management, and
• driveway/entrance regulations.

The principal advantages of controlling access are the preservation or improvement of

service and the reduction of crash frequency and severity. Access management addresses the
basic questions of when, where, and how access should be provided or denied, and what
legal or institutional changes are needed to enforce these decisions.

In a broad context, access management is resource management, since it is a way to

anticipate and prevent congestion and to improve traffic flow. Key elements of access
management include:

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• defining the allowable access and access spacing for various classes of highways
• providing a mechanism for granting variances when reasonable access cannot
otherwise be provided, and
• establishing means of enforcing policies and decisions.

These key elements, along with appropriate design policies, should be implemented through
a legal code that provides a systematic and supportable basis for making access decisions.

Table 3.4 gives EAC recommendations on the spacing of access for the different road
classes.
EAC recommends that Partner States should put in
place statutes, land-use ordinances, geometric
design policies, and driveway regulations for
managing and controlling access. Rwanda should
do this.

3.4 TERRAIN

In accordance with the Trans-African Highway Network and EAC, transverse terrain
properties are categorized into four classes as follows:

FLAT: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal
and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 10 percent).

ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and
fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered,
resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope
from 10 percent to 25 percent).

MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment
obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight
distance (transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 60 percent).

STEEP: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of
the above terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment
situations inclusive of switchback roadway sections, or side hill
transverse sections where earthwork quantities are considerable, with
transverse terrain slope in excess of 60 percent).

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These terrain types are in concurrence with EAC.

However, during the design, it is often difficult and
time-consuming to compute the transverse slope,
which is also often highly variable. As an aid in
terrain selection, representative photos are included
herein.

In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either
flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust
their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with
transverse terrain.

It is often the case in Rwanda that the roadway can be designed to a higher speed than is
indicated by the transverse terrain type. For instance, an alignment could be chosen through
rolling terrain that gives essentially a flat highway configuration. Similarly, a relatively flat
ridgeline should be chosen for an alignment in otherwise mountainous terrain. The road
designer often has an ability to choose a roadway longitudinal slope significantly superior to
the transverse slope. Under such circumstances, the Engineer should use his judgement in
assigning a higher design speed to the roadway segment.

Photographic representations of various terrain configurations are show in Figures 3-2

through 3-7. Alignments that are superior to transverse terrain are those shown in Figures 3-
4 through 3-7.

Figure 3-2: Flat Terrain with Flat Roadway Alignment

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Figure 3-3: Rolling Terrain with Rolling Alignment

Figure 3-4: Rolling Terrain with Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment

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Figure 3-5: Mountainous Terrain with Rolling Roadway Alignment

Figure 3-6: Steep Terrain with Mountainous Roadway Alignment

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Figure 3-7: Steep Terrain with Mountainous Roadway Alignment

3.5 DESIGN VEHICLE

Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and
width. The present vehicle fleet in Rwanda includes a high number of overloaded and
underpowered trucks, and this needs to be taken into consideration. The road elements
affected by consideration of the design vehicle include the selection of maximum gradient,
lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.

Interlink vehicles of up to 22 meter lengths have recently been

permitted to traverse the EAC road network, and need to be
accommodated by the existing roads and intersections on the
EAC road network. The Design Vehicle dimensions should be
uniform across EAC Partner States and the dimensions shown in
the table below should be adopted.

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Dimensions and characteristics of various design vehicles are shown in Table 3-5.

Table 3-5: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Wheelbase Min. Design

Type Vehicle Height Width Length (m) Turning
Symbol Radius (m)
Passenger Cars
Passenger Car DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 3.35 7.31
Buses
Single Unit Bus DV2 4.1 2.6 12.1 7.6 12.8
Articulated Bus DV3 3.4 2.6 18.3 6.7+5.9 12.1
Trucks
Single Unit Truck DV4 4.6 2.6 9.1 6.1 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV5 4.6 2.6 18.2 5.5+10.0 12.65
Rigid truck and DV6 4.6 2.6 22.0 4.6+8.2 12.0
drawbar trailer
combination
Interlink (with a DV7 4.6 2.6 22.0 4.1+6.52*+ 12.0
short truck tractor) 7.94
Semi-trailer with DV8 4.6 2.6 21.0 6.1+12.8 13.7
long trailer
*distance between SU rear wheels and trailer front wheels

The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 3-8 through 3-10 respectively.

Figure 3-8: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV4)
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Figure 3-9: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV2)

Figure 3-10: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination DV5
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Roads conforming to Design Class 1 through 3 should be designed to accommodate the most
restrictive of the above design vehicles. Class 4 and 5 two lane roads should accommodate
all but the semi-trailer combination DV5.

3.6 DESIGN TRAFFIC VOLUME

A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the
design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based
in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly
affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road
or section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average
daily traffic (AADT).

Recent traffic counts (Year 2010 and 2012) were conducted for National and District Roads,
and the results for National Roads were presented in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. A summary of
results for all three road categories is presented in Table 3-6:

Table 3-6: Present Road Classification and AADT

Road Classification AADT (including motorcycles)

National Road (Paved) 114 - 5412
National Road (Unpaved) 21 - 1148
District Road <20 - >100

In fact, the only road segments where the traffic volume exceeded 2000 AADT were in the
environs of Kigali and Ruhengeri.

PCUs

For some design parameters, such as design of junctions and for Level of Service (LOS), it is
not practical to design for a heterogeneous traffic stream and, for this reason trucks and other
types of vehicles are converted to equivalent Passenger Car Units (PCUs). The number of
PCU's associated with a single vehicle type is a measure of the impedance that it offers to the
passenger cars in the traffic stream. PCUs relating to vehicle and terrain types are given
below in Table 3-7.

Table 3-7: PCUs Relating to Vehicle Type and Terrain

Vehicle Type Terrain

Flat Rolling Mountainous This table is in general
Passenger Car 1.0 1.0 1.5 agreement with EAC.
Light Goods Vehicles 1.0 1.5 3.0 However, EAC listed “N/A”
Medium Goods Vehicles 2.5 5.0 10.0 for pedal cycles in
Heavy Goods Vehicles 3.5 8.0 20.0 mountainous terrain; for
Buses 2.0 4.0 6.0 Rwanda, use 0.5
Motorcycles/Scooters 0.5 1.0 1.5
Pedal Cycles 0.5 0.5 0.5
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Projection of Future Demands: Design Year

The challenges of uncertainty of traffic volume forecast and funding constraints are
pronounced in developing countries such as Rwanda. Nevertheless, projection of future
traffic demand should be based on a period of 20 years for new roadway design and 10 years
for reconstruction and rehabilitation. In the absence of traffic trends, resources such as the
historical increase in vehicle registrations, GDP, or other parameters can be used.

The chosen Design Year is consistent with

EAC practice.

Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

The design hourly volume is the projected hourly volume that is used for design. The DHV
is the estimated 30th HV highest hourly volume during the year. An estimate of DHV can be
obtained from the following formula:

DHV as = AADT x K
where K is estimated from the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site

in the absence of such factors the 30th-highest DHV can be estimated by applying the factors
of 0.15 and 0.10 to the AADT for rural highways and urban roads, respectively.

This is consistent with EAC practice.

3.7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance than whether a road
exists and whether it is passable at all times. In such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt
inexpensive standards that enable the further development of a system of such feeder roads
at minimal cost. This policy encourages overall national economic development.

3.8 DESIGN SPEED

The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with
a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained
to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.

Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. The design speeds
given in Table 3-8 have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:

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(i) Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
(ii) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are
undesirable.
(iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic
conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to
accept a lower speed of operation.
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a
higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less
heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
(v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be
affected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed
gradually. The change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed
step, and the section with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be
clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single curve).
(vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.- from mountainous
to flat terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall
be provided with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where
this is not possible, i.e.- a Departure from Standards, special attention shall be given
to the application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to alert the driver to the
changing conditions.

It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed
should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced
way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a
particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum
requirements.

Design speeds in relation to road functional classification and terrain types are shown in
Table 3-8.

Table 3-8: Design Speed vs. Road Classification and Terrain Type

This is consistent with EAC practice.

Road Class Rwanda Road Design Speed (km/h)

Class Flat Terrain Rolling Mountainous Steep Terrain
Terrain Terrain
Mobility Roads Class 1 None yet 120 100 60 60
Class 2 National Rd 110 80 50 50
Class 3 District Rd 1 100 80 50 40
Access Roads Class 4 District Rd 1 80 60 40 40
Class 5 Local Streets 60 40 30 30
Feeder Roads

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For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors.
In such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced
by the presence of other vehicles travelling in and across the through lanes; physical and
right-of-way constraints; and pedestrian and safety considerations. A design speed through
peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h shall be used, although such segments may be posted
for a different speed. Legal speed limits should not necessarily be used as design
parameters.

3.9 LEVEL OF SERVICE

LOS is a measure used to quantify traffic flow and congestion by assigning quality levels of
traffic based on performance measure such as speed, density, etc. There are six levels of
service:

A: free flow. Traffic flows at or above the posted speed limit and motorists have complete
mobility between lanes. The average spacing between vehicles is about 27 car lengths.
Motorists have a high level of physical and psychological comfort. The effects of incidents
or point breakdowns are easily absorbed. LOS A generally occurs late at night in urban areas
and frequently in rural areas.
B: reasonably free flow. LOS A speeds are maintained, maneuverability within the traffic
stream is slightly restricted. The lowest average vehicle spacing is about 16 car lengths.
Motorists still have a high level of physical and psychological comfort.
C: stable flow, at or near free flow. Ability to maneuver through lanes is noticeably
restricted and lane changes require more driver awareness. Minimum vehicle spacing is
about 11 car lengths. Most experienced drivers are comfortable, roads remain below but
close to capacity, and posted speed is maintained. Minor accidents may still have no effect
but localized service will have noticeable effects and traffic delays will form behind the
accident. This is the target LOS for some urban and most rural highways.
D: approaching unstable flow. Speeds slightly decrease as traffic volume slightly increases.
Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is much more limited and driver comfort
levels decrease. Vehicles are spaced about 8 car lengths apart. Minor incidents are expected
to create delays. Examples are a busy shopping corridor in the middle of a weekday, or a
functional urban highway during commuting hours. Level D is a common goal for urban
streets during peak hours, as attaining LOS C would require prohibitive costs and social
impact via bypass roads and lane additions.
E: unstable flow, operating at capacity. Flow becomes irregular and speed varies rapidly
because there are virtually no usable gaps to maneuver in the traffic stream and speeds rarely
reach the posted limit. Vehicle spacing is about 6 car lengths. Any disruption to traffic flow,
such as merging ramp traffic or lane changes, will create a shock wave affecting downstream
traffic. Any incident will create serious delays. The drivers' level of comfort becomes poor.
F: forced or breakdown flow. Every vehicle moves in lockstep with the vehicle in front of it,
with frequent slowing required. Travel time cannot be predicted, with generally more

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demand than capacity. A road in a constant traffic jam at this LOS. A highway might be at
LOS D for the AM peak hour, but have traffic consistent with LOS C some days, LOS E or
F others, and come to a halt once every few weeks.

The maximum traffic volume at various Levels of Service and terrain types is indicated in
Table 3-9:

Table 3-9: Maximum AADT for Two Lane Roads

Maximum AADT
Level of Service
Flat Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain
A 1600 700 300
B 3200 1650 700
C 5200 3000 1250
D 8700 4500 1900

Guidelines for selection of design minimum levels of service for the different road classes
are shown in Table 3-10.

Table 3-10: Acceptable Level of Service (LOS) for Road Class and Terrain Type

This is consistent with EAC practice.

Road Class Rwanda Road Design Speed (km/h)

Class Flat Terrain Rolling Mountainous Steep Terrain
Terrain Terrain
Mobility Roads Class 1 B B B C
Class 2 National Rd B C D D
Class 3 District Rd 1 C C D D
Access Roads Class 4 District Rd 1 D D D D
Class 5 Local Streets D D D D
Feeder Roads

As implied in Figure 3-1, only presently-designated National Roads and urban streets have
AADTs greater than 300 AADT, so consideration of Level of Service generally only comes
into play for these types of road.

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4 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage

features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are defined in the Definition portion of the
manual text; major elements are repeated here for clarity:

 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including traffic
lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and
passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes sideslopes and backslopes

For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may
also provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include
medians. These features are illustrated in Figures A-7 through A-10 in the Appendix. Bus
lay-byes, parking lanes, passing lanes, and viewing areas are presented in Chapter 12.

For rural cross-sections, facilities for pedestrians and cyclists may include the paving and/or
widening of the shoulders.

Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of
the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular route because these controlling
factors vary. The basic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards
shall be uniform within each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-
section shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or isolated
changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and
complicate construction operations.

In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-section

standards, for example when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is not
economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs and
road markings is required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all
such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however when the width across the
structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.

Lane Widths

A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway.

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Roadway width had been a contentious issue, as the Official Gazette 1 mandates a width of
7.0 meters for all National and District Class 1 roads, and 6.0 meters for District Class 2
(feeder) roads. In the Minutes of Meeting 2 for a meeting held on June 4th 2013 between
MINECOFIN, social clusters, and technical departments, a decision was reached that
projects already underway could proceed with their present designs. A written modification
is pending.

The following lane widths are specified:

• For mobility road classes 1, lanes should be 3.75 m wide

• For mobility road classes 2 to 3, lanes should be 3.5 m wide
• For access roads classes 4 to 5, lanes should be 3.0 m wide

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations.

Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes
are discussed in Chapters 10 and 11.

4.2 SHOULDERS

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic,
animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support
of the pavement courses. Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural
environment are presented in Table 4-1. They vary from no shoulder on unpaved rural roads
where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m sealed shoulder on major roads, depending also on
the terrain and design classification. Wider configurations may cater to the need for a
parking lane in urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist. For unpaved
(gravel) carriageways, there is no distinction between the lane and the shoulder and the
shoulders are included in the carriageway width. The last column gives widths for separate
footways. The warrants for these are explained in Chapter 12.

1
Rwanda Road Act, January 2012, Official Gazette
2
Minutes of Meeting with Social Clusters and Technical Departments, MINECON, June 4th, 2013

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Table 4-1: Minimum Shoulder Widths

Design Standard Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Urban Widths (m)

Flat Rolling Mountain Steep Parking Footway
Lane**
Class 1 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 3.0 2.5 (min)
Class 2 paved 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 3.0 2.0
Class 2 unpaved 1.0 - - -
Class 3 paved 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.5
Class 3 unpaved - - - - -
Class 4 paved 1.0 0.6 0.3 0.3 3.0 1.5
Class 4 unpaved - - - - -
Class 5 paved 1.0 0.6 0.3 0.3 n/a n/a
Class 5 unpaved - - - - -
** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility

This table is used in place of the recommendations of EAC, which uses:

a) For road classes 1 to 3 in flat terrain, minimum width for shoulders should be 2.0 m.
b) In rolling/mountainous/steep terrain shoulders should be 1.0 - 1.5 m wide.
c) For access roads classes, shoulders should be 0.6 to 1.0 m wide

Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be paved with the same materials.
As per EAC suggestions,

“The surface must be well drained and be as smooth as the traffic lanes – if not, pedestrians
may prefer to walk in the traffic lane. The implication of this is that low-cost chip seal
shoulders may not be a good investment.”

This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance problems
associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved space for vehicular
parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for vehicles
experiencing emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic
observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather,
use the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety
(see also Chapter 12).

The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.0 meters in urban/peri-urban areas where a
provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a
parking lane is required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.

For Class 2 and 3 roads, the engineer often needs to be observant and use his discretion in
defining the width of the shoulder. On market days, the urban center can cause a high
volume of pedestrian traffic commencing a significant distance outside of the center,

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indicating a need to consider the higher limit over this distance. The actual shoulder width
provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non-
motorized traffic for each road section.

In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the
shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork – e.g. in
steep terrain conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard
process presented in Chapter 1.

For dual carriageways, only 1.0 m is required for the inner shoulder on a four-lane divided
road, while 3.0 m is required for the inner shoulder on a six-lane divided road.

The dual-carriageway inner shoulder width agrees with

EAC recommendations.

4.3 NORMAL CROSSFALL

Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to
shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum
acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from
the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material
starts to become a problem.

The following crossfalls are used for Rwanda paved roads:

• Asphalt concrete surfaces 2.5%

• Surface dressing surfaces 3.0%
• Stone paved surfaces 3.0%

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations.

Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the
roadway.

The precise choice of normal crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with construction type
and material rather than any geometric design requirement.

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As per AASHTO, the cross slope design is: 3

“…complicated by two contradictory controls. On one hand, a reasonably steep lateral slope
is desirable to minimize ponding of water on pavements with flat profile grades as a result of
pavement imperfections or unequal settlement….On the other hand, steep cross slopes are
undesirable on tangents because of the tendency of vehicles to drift toward the low edge of
the traveled way.” However, “cross slopes up to and including 2 percent are barely
perceptible in terms of vehicle steering….In areas of intense rainfall, a somewhat steeper
cross slope may be needed to facilitate roadway drainage….”

Other sources call for various crossfalls [ORN6 4 has 4-6%; ORN16 5 has 3-4%; DPWH 6 has
2-4%]. For gravel wearing surfaced roads, a 2% cross slope will create issues with ponding
and eventual runoff in the wheel ruts. Conversely, a 4% cross slope is difficult for heavy
trucks to navigate, especially when combined with a steep gradient. Such steeper cross
slopes are generally limited to roads of a narrow width, in essence “single lane” roads, where
the truck traffic on lightly travelled roads tends to utilize the center of the road and hence the
effective cross slope for the truck is flat. In other African countries, the authors have been
asked by heavy truck operators to limit the crossfall to avoid overturning of heavily loaded
trucks.

The RTDA has in the past expressed a recommended cross slope rate of 3.5%, and that rate
should remain in use.

The crossfall for unpaved roads shall be 3 ½%, which is

in slight disagreement with EAC recommendations.

4.4 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating safety aspects: the top of the
slope (hinge point), the sideslope, and the toe of the slope (intersection of the foreslope with
level ground or with a backslope, forming a ditch). Figure 4-1 illustrates these three regions.

3
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, (AASHTO), p.313.
4
Overseas Road Note 6: A Guide to Geometric Design, Transportation Research Laboratory, UK, p.9.
5
Overseas Road Note 16: Principles of Low Cost Road Engineering in Mountainous Regions, Transportation
Research Laboratory, UK, p.103
6
Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways, Volume II, op. cit, p. 641.

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Figure 4-1: Designation of Roadside Regions

Source: AASHTO

Class 1-3 Roads. Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and
to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Embankment
or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable, non-recoverable,
or critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who
encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to
return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not extend
above the embankment within the clear zone distance.

A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on
such slopes typically can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and
1:4 generally fall into this category. Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will
reach the toe of these slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear
runout area at the base is desirable.

A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3
generally fall into this category.

The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height of
cut or fill, and economic considerations. Further, the guideline in this chapter may be most
applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and
rehabilitation projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself. It may not be
cost-effective or practical because of environmental impacts or limited right-of-way to bring
these projects into full compliance with the side slope recommendations provided in this
guide.

Table 4-2 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design of Class 1
through 3 roads, according to the height of fill and cut, and the material.

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Table 4-2: Class 1-3 Roads: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal

Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description

Cut Fill
Black Cotton Soil Any height - 1:4 - Recoverable
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:3 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical

Short sections of the roads consist of rock or fractured rock material for which the slope can
be increased to 1:0.25 H:V.

This table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns applicable standards in
rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost. Note also that certain soils that may be
present at subgrade may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes, and for these soils a higher standard
will need to be applied. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope
stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.

Class 4-5 Roads. In addition to safety considerations, the steepness of both cut and fill
slopes should be determined by the characteristics of the surrounding soil. The Rankine
Formula for the determination of the failure plane is:

Ɵ = 45º + φ’/2
Where
Ɵ = failure plane angle (º)
φ’ = drained angle of friction (º), or angle of repose

Where geotechnical investigation indicate clay soils along the road length, Washington State
DOT 7 uses angle of friction values for clay soils at 27-29º. A reference from British Steel 8
uses 45º for moist clay; 30º for dry clay, and 15º for wet clay. Following construction, the
clay will be wet, and will eventually stabilize as moist clay with a lowering of the water
table due to the cut. Using the most critical value,

Ɵ = 45º + 15º/2 = 52.5º

This indicates that the slope through such soils is stable at an angle of 52.5º, requiring a
minimum slope of 1.3:1 H:V.

For the backslope from the ditch bottom to the natural ground above the road, the main
determinant aside from safety in selecting a steeper slope is the desire to limit land, crop,
fence, and housing acquisitions. Note that, for example, in a 3 meter deep cut, the provision
of a ditch together with a 3.0:1 H:V backslope (as suggested in EAC) would require the
taking of approx. 10 meters of land on the cut side of the road alone.
7
Washington State Department of Transportation, Geotechnical Design Manual, January 2010, p. 5-24.
8
www.civl.port.ac.uk/britishsteel/media/BSCM_html dos/angleofrepose.html

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A table from ORN16, 9 a portion of which is reproduced below as Table 4-3, shows that silty
clay soils with a cut height of up to 3 meters (a common case for Rwanda) can have a cut
slope of 1.2:1 V/H (0.83:1 H/V), where the water table is moderate.

Table 4-3: Road Class 4-5: Provisional Design Gradient/Height Relationship for Soil
Cut Types

Cut slope Gradient (V/H)

Cut Height (meters)
Soil Type Water Table 0-3 4-6 7-10
Clayey silts Low 1.5 1.0 0.8
Moderate 1.2 1.0 0.5
High 1.0 0.8 NA
Silty Clays Low 1.5 1.5 1.0
Moderate 1.2 1.2 1.0
High 1.0 1.0 NA
Source: ORN16

The tables showing values for side slopes and back slopes represent a significant
departure from the suggestions of EAC, which recommends side slopes at 1V:4H
and back slopes at 1V:3H, which would result in excessive earthworks and are
considered economically unviable for Rwanda, especially for the lower classes of
roads. Similarly the need for roadside barriers has been reduced as per the barriers
section of this manual. The manual is in agreement with EAC that back slopes
steeper than 1V:3H should be evaluated for slope stability and traffic safety.

4.5 ROADSIDE DITCHES

For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to the Drainage Design Manual. However, a
summary of minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows. Minimum depth of ditches
should be 0.6m in mountainous and steep terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-ditch”
configuration. The sideslope and backslope of ditches should generally conform to the
slopes given in Table 4-1.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils.
Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of
the embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for Class1-2 roads), as shown
in Figure 4-2.

9
Overseas Road Note 16: Principles of Low Cost Road Engineering in Mountainous Regions, Transportation
Research Laboratory, p. 100.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 4-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils

4.6 CLEAR ZONE

The term clear zone is used to designate the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided
beyond the edge of the roadway for the recovery of errant vehicles. It includes any shoulders
or auxiliary lanes. Clear zone widths are related to speed, volume, embankment slope, and
horizontal geometry. The need for clear zones increases with speed and curvature. Clear
zone widths vary throughout the world depending on land availability and design policy.

It is important to remember that the clear zone refers also to pipe and box culverts, which
means that the distance between headwalls cannot less than the roadway width. If this
clearance is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert installations,
and extensions to same, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the edge of the
shoulder.

Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the
edge of the carriageway. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and
the edge of the carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 meters.

For the higher standard roads (Class 1-3), the clear zone distance should be as shown in
Table 4-4:

Table 4-4: Desirable and Minimum Clear Zone vs. Speed Limit

Speed Limit Standard (m)

(km/h) Desired Minimum
70 5 3
80 6 4
100 9 6

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations.

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For lower standards of roads (Class 4-5), the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It
should extend to beyond the toe of the slope.

4.7 RIGHT-OF-WAY

Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to
enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. While the width of the right-of-
way should depend on the cross section elements of the highway, topography and other
physical controls together with economic considerations, in actuality it is often set by a
government control. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to
accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border areas, right-of-way
widths are often limited to a practical minimum in both rural and developed areas.

In mountainous or steep terrain, a cut section may be of such depth that the right-of-way
width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side of the road to the other. In such
circumstances, additional right-of-way must be obtained to build the road. Additional areas
required for outlets etc., should also be provided in a manner that will not endanger the
future integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land owners restricted use
of this land after completion of the road.

MININFRA/RTDA has indicated that a 24 meter wide ROW can be assumed for
District 1 and 2 roads, and a 44 meter wide ROW can be assumed for national roads.

This is acceptable to EAC. EAC Partner States should also

plan to acquire incrementally more space for right-of-way in
the range of 79 – 100 m to allow for future expansion of
existing international and national routes to freeway and
expressways standards. Additional land should also be
acquired at designated places for rest areas.

Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic,
financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing
development or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way
should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from the edges of the road works. However,
where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building activity along the road to prevent
overcrowding, to preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight distances
at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building line to building line should be
a minimum of 15m.

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4.8 FOUR-LANE AND DIVIDED ROADS

Mention was made in Chapter 3 regarding traffic volumes and the need to increase the
roadway to a four-lane facility when a certain volume is reached. Some cities and villages
may also include four-lane roadways as a feature in their master plans.

Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient to
justify their use. They are also frequently used in urban/peri-urban areas.

4.9 MEDIANS

A median is the portion of a roadway separating opposing directions of the travelled way.
Medians are highly desirable on multilane divided arterials carrying four or more lanes. The
median width is expressed as the dimension between the edges of the travelled ways and
includes the left shoulder, if any. The main functions of a median are to:

• separate opposing traffic

• provide recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
• provide a stopping area in case of emergencies
• allow space for speed changes and storage of left-turning and U-turning vehicles
• to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle from the minor road protrude into the
through lanes
• minimize headlight glare
• provide width for future lanes, and
• in urban areas to offer an open green space, refuge area for pedestrians crossing the
street, and control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.

The median may be depressed, raised, or flush with the travelled way surface.

The standard cross sections and Table 4-5 below indicate the desirable and minimum median
widths.

In cases for future land additions consideration of a median of a minimum of 12.0m width
should be made.

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Table 4-5: Desirable and Minimum Median Widths vs. Speed Limit

Speed Limit Standard (m)

(km/h) Desired Minimum
80 9 4
100 12 6

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations.

4.10 SINGLE LANE ROADS

For low traffic volume roads (<100ADT), single lane operation may be adequate as a
Departure from Standards as there will be only a small probability of vehicles meeting, and
the few passing maneuvers can be undertaken at very reduced speeds using either the
shoulder or passing bays. Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these
maneuvers can be performed without hazard, and the overall loss in efficiency brought about
by the reduced speeds will be small, as only a few such maneuvers will be involved.

Single lane roads do not allow passing and overtaking to occur on the carriageway and
passing bays must be provided if the shoulders are not sufficient for passing. The increased
width at passing bays should be such as to allow two passenger design vehicles to pass, i.e. a
minimum of 5.0 meters width, and vehicles would be expected to stop or slow to a very slow
speed.

Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the terrain
and geometric conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be intervisible. Account
should be taken of sight distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing bays
and the potential difficulty of reversing. In general, passing bays should be constructed as
the most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions, such as
transitions from cuttings to embankment, rather than at precise intervals.

The length of individual passing bays will vary with local conditions and the type of design
vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 meters including tapers will cater for most commercial
vehicles.

Significant cost savings may be realized in mountainous and steep terrain by incorporating
short lengths of two lane widths within a single lane road.

4.11 TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS

Typical cross sections are illustrated both in the Appendix to this manual.

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5 SIGHT DISTANCES

5.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For
highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers
can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an
unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without
risk of accident. Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight
distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length (see Table 5-2). The
length and interval of passing sight distance should be compatible with the criteria
established in the chapter 3 for the specific highway design classifications.

5.2 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula adopted by EAC is:

0.039V 2
d = 0.278Vt +
a
where
d = distance (meter)
t = driver perception reaction time As per EAC, this is taken to be 2.5 seconds.
V = design speed (km/h)
A = deceleration rate of 3.4m/s2. Implicit in the choice of this deceleration rate is the
assessment that most vehicle braking systems and the tire-pavement friction levels
of most roadways are capable of providing a deceleration of at least 3.4 m/s2.

This will result in the following table showing in part speed vs. stopping sight distance:

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Table 5-1: Speed vs. Sight Distances This table is in agreement with EAC

Design Stopping Passing Sight Passing Sight Reduced Passing

Speed Sight Distance (m) Distance from Sight Distance for
(km/h) Distance (m) from formulae EAC (m) Decision (m)
30 35 217 200 75
40 50 285 270 125
50 65 345 345 175
60 85 407 410 225
70 110 482 480 275
80 130 573 540 340
100 185 670 670 375
110 220 727 730 425
120 250 774 775 475

If terrain or right-of-way problems result in an inability to meet these criteria, right-of-way

must be obtained and/or geometrics improved to meet this important safety element.
Alternatively in rare cases it may be necessary to seek a Departure from Standard, and here a
reduction would require lowering the design speed in the section and provision of proper
signage.

5.3 CONTROL OF SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines (see Figures 5-1 and 5-2):

Driver's eye height: As per EAC, this is taken to be 1.05 meters.

Object height for stopping sight distance: As per EAC, this is taken to be 0.60 meters.

Object height for decision sight distance: As per EAC, this is taken to be 0.60 meters.

Object height for passing sight distance: As per EAC, this is taken to be 1.08 meters.

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Figure 5-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

N.B.: for representation only: ignore values shown for eye height and object height

Figure 5-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see Figure 5-3).

Figure 5-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

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Relevant formulae are as follows:

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin ∆ where ∆ = Deflection angle (o)

2

Middle ordinate (M) = R(1-cos ∆ )

2

Example: Radius = 1000 meters, ∆ = 20o;

S = 2R sin ∆ M = R(1 – cos ∆ )

2 2
= 2(1000)(sin 100) = 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters

The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel.

5.4 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE: SINGLE LANE ROADS

The lowest class of road can have only a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-
meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in Table 5-1, doubled, plus 10
meters.

Example: Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 5-1, stopping sight distance is 65
meters

SSD = (65 x 2) + 30 = 160 meters

5.5 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed.

Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.

The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d 1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d 2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d 3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d 4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle

The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d 1 = 0.278 t 1 (v – m + at 1 )
2
where
t 1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

d 2 = 0.278 vt 2

where
t 2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

d 3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table 5-2:

Table 5-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

D3 (m) 30 55 80 100

d 4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d 2 less the
portion of d 2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:

d 4 = 2d 2 /3

Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 5-1.

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The usual values resulting from application of the formulae are reduced in this manual, as it
is deemed appropriate to address the distances covered by twice the d 4 distance and the
clearance distance d 3 . A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the
passing maneuver can choose to abort the maneuver (see Figure 5-4). Values for Minimum
Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in the fifth column of Table 5-1.

Figure 5-4: Sight Distance

A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in subchapter 13.3.

5.6 MINIMUM PROVISION OF PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed
for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the
lower part of Figure A-6 of the Appendix, it is a simple process to determine the percentage
of length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.

Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads.
Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be
provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.

Table 5-3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be
provided, labeled percent passing opportunity. Class 1 is not shown as it consists of multi-
lane divided facilities.

This provision of minimum passing opportunity is not

mentioned in the EAC document. Nevertheless, it is
addressed herein as, if it is not addressed, Rwanda’s
terrain might lead to a design which allows for limited or
does not allow for any passing of slow-moving vehicles

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Table 5-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing

Sight Distance

PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN

DESIGN CLASS Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpmen Urban/Peri-
t Urban
Class 2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
Class 3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
Class 4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
Class 5 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

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6 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

6.1 GENERAL

The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the
circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the superelevation section. These elements
are presented in detail in the following text.

6.2 TANGENT SECTIONS

From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but
are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better
visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. Long tangents have also
been shown to increase driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. Thus, design guides have
attempted to limit the length of straight sections. This is generally not a major issue in
Rwanda’s hilly terrain.

Straights should not have length (L) greater than:

L = 20xVD
where VD = design speed in km/h

This is in agreement with the EAC

6.3 THE CIRCULAR CURVE

When vehicles negotiate a curve, a sideways frictional force is developed between the tires
and the road surface. This friction must be less than the maximum available friction if the
curve is to be traversed safely. Forces associated with a vehicle traversing a curve are shown
in Figure 6-1.

For a given design speed, the minimum curve radius is limited by:
• the maximum allowable side friction (which is usually based on a comfort standard);
• the maximum superelevation rate for the curve; and
• the necessity to maintain the stopping sight distance.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-1: Forces Associated with Traversing a Curve

Thus, for any given curve and speed, superelevation may be introduced to enable a
component of the vehicle's weight to reduce the frictional need. For calculation of the
minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation
shall be used:

V2D
R min =
127(e + f )

Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum superelevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 6-1 and 6-2, and Figure 6-2)

Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction
coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface,
weather conditions, and type and condition of tires.

Tables 6-1 and 6-2 were developed based on the results of several studies. The minimum
radii for superelevation rates of 4% (for urban streets) and 6% are shown in Tables 6-1 and
6-2. Formula results have been rounded.

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Side friction factors are in agreement with The EAC suggests adopting maximum
EAC for rural roads. However, AASHTO superelevation rates of 4% on roads in
allows higher side friction values for urban urban areas and 10% on roads in rural
streets, as the urban driver in an urban areas. Rwanda experiences considerable
environment tolerates a higher degree of overloading of trucks including
discomfort which allows for sharper curves overhanging loads, and 10% will result
at the same design speed and thus saves on in an unreasonable occurrence of truck
ROW. Rwanda will use the AASHTO overturns. Thus Rwanda will use a
guidelines for urban streets. maximum superelevation rate of 6%.

Table 6-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets)

Design Speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
V D (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
14* 20 45 80 125 195 280 375 490 635 875
Radius R .(m)
Side Friction
0.35 0.31 0.25 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09
Factor (f) 1
*the formula gives 8m; however, to accommodate the design vehicle, a minimum
radius of 14m must be used.

Table 6-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 6% Superelevation

Design Speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
V D (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
15 30 55 90 135 195 250 335 435 560 755
Radius R (m)
Side Friction
0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09
Factor (f)

1
AASHTO 2001, p. 193.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-2: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways 2

Example: V = 80 km/hr, e max = 6% f = 0.14 (from Table 6-1):

802
R= = 251.9 meters, round to 250 meters
127(0.06 + 0.14)

Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below and
illustrated in Figure 6-3.

2
AASHTO 2001, p. 136

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ELEMENTS OF A CIRCULAR CURVE

1) D (Degree of curve)

By Arc Definition (station interval measured along arc)

100 2ΠR from which 5729.58
= D=
D 360 R
5729.58
2) R(Radius of Curve) By Arc Definition R =
D
∆
3) T (Tangent Distance) T = R tan
2

∆
4) E (External Distance) E = R Sec − 1
 2 

∆
5) L (Curve Length) L = 100
D
∆
6) M (Middle Ordinate) M = R 1 − cos
2
∆
7) C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.) C = 2R sin
2
8) Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C.= P.I. – T

9) Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C.+ L Figure 6-2: Curve Elements

Figure 6-3: Circular Curve Elements

Example : A curve has a deflection angle of ∆ = 23o 18’ 02”, and a Degree of Curve of
4o00’. The Point of Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate radius (R), tangent distance (T),
external distance (E), curve length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).

5729.58 3729.38
R= = = 1432.6meters
D 4

∆ 23°18'02'
T = R tan = (1432.6) tan = 1432.4(.2026) = 295.35meters
2 2

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P.C.= P.I. – T = 5+053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758.52

P.T. = P.C. + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341.00

 
∆  1 
E = R sec − 1 = 1432.6   − 1 = 1432.4(.02103) = 30.12meters
2 ∆
 cos 
 2 
∆ 23.3006
L = 100 = (100) = 582.51meters
D 4

The desirable standards shown in Tables 6-1 and 6-2 are based on these formulae. The
minimum radius is also dependent on maximum superelevation as given in Section 6.10.
Tables 6-1 and 6-2 list the minimum radii for horizontal curves for maximum super-
elevation rates of 4 percent and 6 percent, respectively.

Note that 4 x 4 utility vehicles, buses and trucks, and trucks with trailers (DV1, DV2/3, and
DV4) require minimum design turning radii of 7.3, 12.8, and 13.7m, respectively. As it is
not practically possible to exclude any of these categories from the lower standard roads, and
as a certain amount of tolerance is required for safe operations, the minimum horizontal
curve radius of 14m is specified in Tables 6-1 and 6-2 for all design standards. The result is
that no curve with an absolute minimum radius of less than 14m shall be constructed (except
at switchback curves- see following text).

6.4 REVERSE CURVES, BROKEN-BACK CURVES, AND COMPOUND CURVES

Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may
be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases of
successive curves are:

• Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction

• Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction
• Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening tangent
section

The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short, or no tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation. However, in practice reverse curves cannot be eliminated in
mountainous and steep terrain. Figure 6-4 illustrates a reverse curve. This curve is also
unsatisfactory in terms of the differences in design speed as indicated in the difference
between the radii.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-4: Reverse Curves with Unacceptable Differences in Radii

The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the
same direction 3) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of way
conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in the
same direction and this will result in lane wander. This also creates problems with
superelevation and drainage. A broken back curve is shown in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5: Broken Back Curve

For roads in flat and rolling terrain, the distance between circular curves following the same
direction should have length (L) greater than:

3
This is sometimes defined as a distance of less than 50 meters between successive curves.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

L = 6xVD
where VD = design speed in km/h

This is in agreement with the EAC; however, it is not

achievable on all roads in Rwanda, especially in
mountainous/steep terrain.

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve
and this will result in lane wander. Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.
A depiction of a compound curve is shown in Figure 6-6.

Figure 6-6: Compound Curve

Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same safety and
anticipation problems as are found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve.
Where the use of compound curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc
should not be more than 50 percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e.:

R 1 ≤ 1.5 R 2.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Where R 1 = radius of flatter curve

R 2 = radius of sharper curve

A compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 6.9).

6.5 ISOLATED CURVES

Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the
minimum radius, result in unsafe operations, as a driver will anticipate drivable speeds in
excess of the design speed. Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in
such conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius as shown in
Chapter 1 Tables 1-2 through 1-9 shall be increased by 50 percent. This will result,
generally, in the ability to negotiate the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than
the design speed.

The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as possible.
Isolated sharp curves on an otherwise straight alignment are dangerous (see Figure 6-7).
Increasing severity of horizontal curvature should be affected gradually. Particular care
should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long straight sections.

6.6 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM LENGTHS OF CURVE

For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the
appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in the edge profile. It also reduces the
tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small radius curves. Providing the curve radii are
sufficiently large, it may be possible to maintain a passing zone through a curve.

The minimum desirable length of curve for a deflection angle of 5o or less is 300 meters,
although this may be reduced to a minimum value of 150 meters under some conditions.

Likewise the SATCC design guide recommends and EAC accepts that the length of a curve
should not exceed 1000 meters. This length applies also to multilane cross-sections because,
while passing opportunities do not pose a problem, tracking still remains an issue.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-7: Isolated Curves

This is in agreement with the EAC

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

6.7 WIDENING ON CURVES AND EMBANKMENTS

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following
the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces
such problems.

Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on

tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required only on Class 1 and 2 roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.
Table 6-3 below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall generally
be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition
curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve; or where there are no transition
curves, should match the start and end of the superelevation.

Widening is also required on Class 1 and 2 roads at high fills for the psychological comfort
of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be added where both cases
apply. The height of hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope.

Table 6-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills for Class 1 and 2 Roads Only

Radius of Curve Widening: Curve Widening: Fill Widening

Curve (m) Single Lane (m) Two Lanes (m) Height of fill (m) Amount (m)

>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0

120- 250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See section 6.8: Switchbacks

6.8 SWITCHBACK CURVES

Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and steep
terrain, as shown in Figure 6-8. With a radius of 20m or less (with a minimum of R=15m),
they are generally outside of the standards for all road design standards for all Class 1-5
roads, and are specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section
(subchapter 1.3).

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-8: Switchback Curve

Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel
through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design
vehicles as were indicated in Chapter 3 Figures 3-7 through 3-9. These figures show that the
minimum outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and 12.5m,
respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.

Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:

 Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for road Classes 1-2;
however, these road classes should not use switchback curves
 Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for road Classes 3-4
 Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended for road Classes 5 and single lane
roads

Figure 6-9 illustrates the elements of a switchback curve. By superimposing Chapter 3

Figure 3-10 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 6-9 at the same scale, Figure 6-10 shows the
requirements that allow for passage of a single DV4 vehicle at a time on a Class 5 road.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Note that this figure shows that the vehicle must use both lanes to make the maneuver. The
radii minimum values which allow for this are:

R = 10m
R i = 6m
R s = 14m

Figure 6-9: Switchback Curve Layout

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-10: Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle

Thus, although the normal carriageway width for a Class 5 road is 6.0m, at the switchback
curve a width of 8m is required if the road needs to allow for the passage of a single DV4
vehicle at a time. For provision for opposing DV4 vehicles passing at the same time, the
width must be much greater.

Requirements vary depending on road class, passage requirements, radius, deflection angle,
and design standard, and a template should be used based on the design vehicle turning radii
to ensure that all design vehicles can negotiate each switchback.

It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient
parameters associated with a switchback curve are indicated in subchapter 7.5.

6.9 TRANSITION CURVES

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition
curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

A properly designed transition curve provides a natural, easy-to-follow path for drivers, such
that the lateral force is applied gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular curve.
Transition curves minimize encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes and simulate the natural
turning path of a vehicle.

Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves
contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius
curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not
normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient
justification for the additional survey and design work required. The EAC states that:

“they are most appropriate for roadways with relatively high design standards…” 4

For Rwanda, the layout of the transition curve requires a considerable amount of surveying
skill which will take time to develop. Also, in mountainous and steep terrain, the
development of the roadway offset occurring in the layout of the transition curve will result
in significant additional excavation which are often to excessive volumes and can constitute
rock excavations, and hence will lead to excessive costs. Figure 6-11 shows a curve to the
right, where the spiral centerline in shown solid and the circular curve is in dashed lines,
indicating that the alignment would be further into the hillside on the right.

4
Final Report Volume 2, Harmonization of Standards and Specifications, Preparation of a Transport
Facilitation Strategy for the East African Community, The East African Trade and Transport Facilitation
Project (EATTF), Bureau for Industrial Cooperation, College of Engineering and Technology, University of
Dar es Salaam, March 2014, p.45

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-11 Alignment of Spiral Curve vs. Circular Curve

For Rwandan roads, transition curves are a

requirement only for Class 1 and 2 roads having
a design speed of equal to or greater than 80
km/hr.

If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as
the clothoid, shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at the tangent end of the spiral to
the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of
the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral. In the case of a
combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there is an initial
radius rather than an infinite value.

Spiral curves are not required above a certain minimum radius, as the safety benefits become
negligible. Table 6-4 shows the radii at which spiral curves are not required:

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 6-4: Radii Above Which Spiral Curves are Not Required 5

Design speed (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Spiral Length (m) 24 54 95 148 213 290 379 480 592 716 852

Both AASHTO 6 and EAC 7 use two formulae together to determine the minimum length of
spiral, and these result in a desirable length of superelevation transition as given below in
Table 6-5:

Table 6-5: Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition

Design speed (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Spiral Length (m) 11 17 22 28 33 39 44 50 56 61 67

However, this table should only be used with caution. AASHTO also states 8 that:

“the length of spiral should be set equal to the length of runoff.”

Therefore, the lengths of spiral transition curves should equal the runoff lengths as indicated
in Tables 6-6 and 6-7.

6.10 SUPERELEVATION

Design standards include a requirement for superelevation, whereby the normal crown is
rotated up to some maximum value to help resist the centripetal forces on a vehicle
traversing a curve. Superelevation is depicted in Figure 6-12:

Figure 6-12: Superelevation

5
AASHTO, op. cit., p. 179.
6
AASHTO, op. cit., p. 177.
7
EAC, op.cit, p. 46.
8
AASHTO, op. cit., p. 182.

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FOR RURAL ROADS

As per the AASHTO’s Green Book: 9

“The maximum rates of superelevation used on highways are controlled by four factors:
• climate conditions (i.e., frequency and amount of snow and ice);
• terrain conditions (i.e., flat, rolling, or mountainous);
• type of area (i.e., rural or urban); and
• frequency of very slow-moving vehicles whose operation might be affected by high
superelevation rates.

Consideration of these factors jointly leads to the conclusion that no single maximum
superelevation rate is universally applicable and that a range of values should be used.
However, using only one maximum superelevation rate within a region of similar climate
and land use is desirable, as such a practice promotes design consistency.”

Beyond that, AASHTO leaves the selection of the maximum superelevation rate generally to
the responsible agencies’ discretion. Addressing the fourth factor listed above, the high
occurrence in Rwanda of slow-moving and heavily loaded trucks with overhanging loads,
leads to the selection of a maximum superelevation rate of 6%.

In addition to the AASHTO guide, there are several reasons for the decision to limit
superelevation to 6%:

• Rwanda roads often occur in mountainous and steep terrain and the roads can have
steep gradients, and when these gradients are combined with a high rate of
superelevation, it becomes difficult for gravel surfacing to remain in place
• Elsewhere in the African Rift region, commercial truck operators have advised
design engineers to reduce or eliminate superelevation, as their heavily loaded and/or
oft overhanging loads will lead to overturning of the trucks on highly superelevated
roads (see Figure 6-13)
• Low friction values may occur with thin layers of mud over the pavement surface, or
with oil spots. At high speeds and noticeable water depths on a pavement surface,
hydroplaning will occur
• Negotiating a highly superelevated road section by a truck or bus at a very low speed,
as is often the case in Rwanda, is difficult for drivers
• Vehicle dynamics, especially with weakened springs and shocks, will make the
effective superelevation during oscillation greater than 6%

9
AASHTO, op. cit., p. 141.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-13: Overloaded Truck in Neighboring Country

FOR URBAN ROADS

AASHTO continues:

“…either a low maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is employed within

important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and
crossing movements, warning devices, and signals.”

In urban areas where traffic congestion or extensive marginal development acts to curb top
speeds, it is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of superelevation, usually 4
percent. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is
employed within important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly
because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and signals.

For road segments which occur in village areas, the designer can either select a maximum
superelevation of 4%, or use a normal crown where the superelevation will cause difficulties
for access and drainage for neighboring roadside developments.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

In addition to the AASHTO guide and the information presented above, there are several
other reasons for this decision:

• It is easier for an inexperienced contractor to survey and build a road without

superelevation
• Many of the village areas already have lined ditches which would need to be
removed and replaced if superelevation is introduced
• The tight geometrics and close location of houses in such areas makes it more
difficult to provide drainage and lot access when superelevation is employed.

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations

for urban areas, and uses a slightly lower maximum
superelevation (6%) for rural roads.

6.11 SUPERELEVATION RUNOFF

Superelevation runoff is the length required to change the cross slope from normal crown to
the full superelevation rate. In alignment designs which include spiral curves, the
superelevation runoff is affected over the whole of the transition curve. The length of runoff
is the spiral length, with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to curve
(SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from
the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the
tangent runout). Between the TS and SC (the superelevation runoff) the traveled way is
rotated to reach the full superelevation at the SC. This procedure is reversed on leaving the
curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full superelevation, as shown in
Figure 6-14.

Figure 6-14: Spiral Curve Transition

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

In design of curves without spirals, the superelevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the superelevation
runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC). Current design practice is to place
approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third on the curve,
as shown in Figure 6-15.

Figure 6-15 Circular Curve Transition

Tables 6-6 and 6-7 in the following pages give both superelevation rates and length of runoff
for horizontal curves at different speeds for 6 percent and 4 percent maximum
superelevation, respectively.

This is in agreement with EAC recommendations.

6.12 SHOULDER SUPERELEVATION

Figure 6-16 depicts shoulder superelevation rates corresponding to carriageway

superelevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of superelevated
curves, the shoulder superelevation matches the roadway superelevation. On the high side
(outer shoulder), the superelevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and
the shoulder is 8 percent.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 6-16: Shoulder Superelevation

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 6-6: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 6% 10

V d =30km/h V d =40 km/h V d =50 km/h V d =60 km/h V d =70 km/h V d =80 km/h V d =100 km/h V d = 120 km/h
R e e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)

7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 25 2.3 22
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 25 2.7 26
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 22 2.5 31 3.3 31
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.2 24 3.1 36 4.2 40
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 20 2.4 26 3.3 41 4.4 42
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 20 2.5 27 3.5 43 4.7 46
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 18 2.1 21 2.7 29 3.7 46 5.0 47
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 18 2.2 22 3.1 33 4.2 52 5.5 53
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 17 2.1 19 2.6 25 3.4 37 4.5 55 5.8 55
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 17 2.3 21 2.8 27 3.6 39 4.9 60 6.0 57
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 17 2.5 23 3.1 30 4.0 43 5.2 64 R min = 755
600 NC 0 RC 15 2.1 17 2.8 25 3.4 33 4.3 46 5.6 69
500 NC 0 RC 15 2.4 20 3.1 28 3.8 37 4.8 52 5.9 72
400 RC 10 2.1 16 2.6 23 3.5 32 4.2 41 5.3 57 R min = 435
300 RC 10 2.5 19 3.3 27 4.0 36 4.7 46 5.9 64
250 2.3 11 3.1 24 3.9 32 4.5 41 5.4 53 6.0 65
200 2.8 13 3.5 27 4.2 35 5.0 45 5.8 57 R min = 250
175 3.0 14 3.9 30 4.7 39 5.5 50 6.0 59
150 3.3 16 4.1 32 5.0 42 5.8 52 R min = 195
140 3.5 17 4.4 34 5.3 44 6.0 54
130 3.6 17 4.6 35 5.4 45 6.0 54
120 3.8 18 4.8 35 5.6 47 R min = 135
110 3.9 19 4.9 37 5.7 47
100 4.1 20 5.0 39 5.8 48
90 4.2 20 5.2 40 5.9 50
80 4.5 22 5.4 42 6.0 50 emax = 6.0%
70 4.7 23 5.6 43 R min = 90
60 5.0 24 5.8 45 R = radius of curve
50 5.4 26 6.0 46 V = assumed design speed
40 5.85 28 R min = 55
30 6.0 29 e = rate of superelevation
R min =30 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
NC = normal crown section
RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope

10
AASHTO Green Book, p. 158.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Table 6-7: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4% 11

V d =30km/h V d =40 km/h V d =50 km/h V d =60 km/h V d =70 km/h V d =80 km/h V d =100 km/h
R e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)

7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 15
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 15
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 14 2.2 15
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 13 RC 14 2.6 21
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 13 2.1 15 2.7 22
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 12 RC 13 2.2 16 2.8 23
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 12 RC 13 2.3 17 2.9 24
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 12 2.2 14 2.5 18 3.2 26
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 11 2.1 13 2.4 15 2.7 19 3.4 28
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 11 2.3 14 2.5 16 2.8 20 3.5 29
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 11 2.5 15 2.7 18 3.0 22 3.7 30
600 NC 0 RC 10 2.1 12 2.7 16 2.9 19 3.2 23 3.9 32
500 NC 0 RC 10 2.3 13 2.9 18 3.1 20 3.5 25 4.0 33
400 NC 0 2.1 11 2.5 14 3.3 20 3.4 22 3.7 27 R min = 490
300 RC 10 2.3 12 2.8 16 3.6 22 3.8 25 4.0 29
250 RC 10 2.6 13 3.0 17 3.8 23 3.9 26 R min = 280
200 2.3 11 2.8 14 3.3 18 3.9 23 R min = 215
175 2.4 12 2.9 15 3.5 19 4.0 24
150 2.5 12 3.1 16 3.7 20 R min = 150
140 2.6 12 3.2 16 3.8 21
130 2.6 12 3.3 17 3.8 21
120 2.7 13 3.4 17 3.9 22
110 2.8 13 3.5 18 4.0 22
100 2.9 14 3.6 19 4.0 22
90 3.0 14 3.7 19 R min = 100 emax = 4.0%
80 3.2 15 3.8 20 R = radius of curve
70 3.3 16 3.9 20
60 3.5 17 4.0 21 V = assumed design speed
50 3.7 18 R min = 50 e = rate of superelevation
40 3.9 19
R min =35
L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
NC = normal crown section
RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope

Note : Use of emax = 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions

11
AASHTO Green Book, p. 156.
Chapter 6: Horizontal Alignment 6-24
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

7 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria; and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values
for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance
standards.

7.2 VERTICAL CURVE FORMULA

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of change
of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the form:

g 2 − g1 rx 2
r= y= + g1x + elevation of BVC
L 2

Where
r= rate of change of grade per section (%)
g 1 = starting grade (%)
g 2 = ending grade (%)
L= length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y= elevation of a point on the curve
x= distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve

2
A related formula is: G *L x
y=
200  L 

Where y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)

x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters).

Examples of crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figures 7-1 and 7-2, respectively.

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Figure 7-1: Crest Curve

Figure 7-2: Sag Curve

Example: To find the elevation of a point within a sag curve. Referring to Figure 7-2, two
grade lines intersect at Station 2+200 where the point of vertical intersection (PVI) elevation
is 239.5 m. The starting grade is –6 percent and the ending grade is +2 percent. The length of
curve is 400 m. Compute the elevation at station 2+200.
g 2 − g1 2 − (−6)
r= = = +2.00%
L 400
400
BVC = 2 + 200 − = 2 + 000
2
x = 2 + 200 − 2 + 000 = 200

Elev (B.V.C.) = 239.5 + 0.06(200) = 251.5

0.02(2) 2
y= + (−6)(2) + 251.5 = 243.5
2

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7.3 CREST AND SAG CURVE PARAMETERS

The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves are designed to provide for sufficient stopping
sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by the
formula:

K = L/A If vertical curves are expressed as a

Where circular curve instead of a parabolic
K = a limiting value, horizontal distance curve, the correlation between K value
required to achieve a 1% change in grade and radius is R = 100k.
L = length of vertical curve (m) e.g.: for k = 13, R = 1300 meters.
A = algebraic difference in approach and There is no discernable difference
exit grades (%) when plotting a parabolic curve
against a circular curve

Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves are recommended based on design speeds
and sight distance requirements (see Chapter 3). They provide for ride comfort, appearance,
and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables 7-1 and 7-2, respectively, in terms
of “K” values, and Table 7-1 also gives “K” values for passing sight distance requirements
which are applicable for both crest and sag curves. Note that the passing sight distance “K”
values are generally over 10 times the corresponding stopping sight distance “K” values.

Figures 7-3 and 7-4 give a graphical presentation of the minimum length requirements for
crest and sag curves, respectively, for differing “K” values (design speeds) and algebraic
differences in grade for stopping sight distance requirements.

Table 7-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves

Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K K for Passing Sight

(Km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance Distance
20 1 23
30 2 46
40 4 84
50 7 138
60 11 195
70 17 272
80 26 338
90 39 438
100 52 520
110 74 617
120 95 695

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Table 7-2: Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves

Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K

(km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance
20 3
30 6
40 9
50 13
60 18
70 23
80 30
90 38
100 45
110 55
120 63

This matches present Tanzania and Uganda standards, as well as AASHTO

and proposed EAC standards.

Figure 7-3: Minimum Lengths for Crest Vertical Curves

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Figure 7-4: Minimum Lengths for Sag Vertical Curves

Example: Determine the minimum length of curve required for the sag curve in Figure 7-2.

Starting grade = -6%

Ending grade = +2%
Design speed = 100 km/hr (“k” = 45)
Algebraic difference in grade = (-6 –(2)) = 8%

From Figure 7-4: Minimum curve length = 350 meters

In addition to the above, a minimum length should be considered between vertical curves. If
the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result can be a
“hidden dip” profile, and/or a “roller coaster” type profile, as indicated in Figure 7-5.

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Figure 7-5: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles

This issue is addressed by introducing another constraint. EAC suggests that the length of a
curve (in meters) should not be shorter than the design speed, and, in the case of dual
carriageways, the minimum length should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h.
The lines above which vertical curves are selected are indicated in Figures 7-3 and 7-4, for
dual carriageways and Class 1 and 2 roads.

Rwanda concurs with the EAC recommendation that minimum lengths of

vertical curves should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h for
Class 1 roads, and not be less than the design speed in km/h for Class 2
roads, but this restriction is only for Class 1 and 2 roads.

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For lower standard roads (Class 3, 4 and 5), no minimum length should be specified. In these
cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum in enhance drainage capabilities and to
provide the most economic fit in difficult terrain, and the curve lengths can be reduced to
match the minimum lengths indicated in Figures 7-3 and 7-4.

Where the difference in grade is less than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitted.

7.4 MAXIMUM GRADIENTS

Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity
and length of gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking
opportunities on the gradient and in its vicinity.

For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other
references advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial
vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient, whilst two-wheel drive trucks can
successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.

However, the vehicle fleet in Rwanda is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. Certain existing roads in fact are avoided and
underutilized by traffic due to an inability to ascend the existing grades. The RTDA finds it
is in a position where it has no choice but to limit gradients based on the design vehicles of
the existing fleet, although this translates into an added cost to develop the road
infrastructure. Maximum vertical gradient is therefore an extremely important criterion that
greatly affects both the serviceability and cost of the road. The gradient standards given in
Table 7-3 therefore include both desirable and absolute maximum values. Vehicular
performance considerations have formed the basic limiting criteria for gradient selections.

Table 7-3: Maximum Gradients

Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard

Topography Road Class 1 Road Class 2 Road Class 3 Road Class 4 Road Class 5
Des Abs Des Abs Des Abs Des Abs Des Abs
Flat 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 5 5 7 7 9 7 10 7 10
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 12 14 14 16
Escarpment 7 10 8 11 10 12 15 18 15 18
Urban 7 10 8 11 10 12 15 18 15 18
Note: First value shown is desirable value (Des), second is absolute value (Abs).

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Table 7.3 provides more guidance than is mentioned in the EAC reference,
where maximum gradients were provided in a range relating only to terrain
type and not road functional classification, as follows:
Flat 4%
Rolling 4-8%
Mountainous 7-12%
Steep 12-18%

As traffic flows increase, the economic dis-benefits of more severe gradients, measured as
increased vehicle operating and travel time costs, are more likely to result in economic
justification for reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient. On the higher design
classes or road, the lower maximum recommended gradients reflect these economics.
However, a separate economic assessment of alternatives to long or severe gradients should
be undertaken where possible or necessary.

Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid
severe reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an
absolute maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the
desirable maximum can only be authorized through the employment of the Departure from
Standard (see Section 1.2) approval process.

PAVING STEEP GRADIENTS ON GRAVEL ROADS

When gradients of 10 percent or greater are reached on gravel roads, consideration should be
given to the possibility of paving these steep sections to enable sufficient traction to be
achieved, as well as for pavement maintenance reasons. However, this is clearly not practical
for all classes of roads, particularly at lower traffic volumes. There may be cases where
paving gradients greater than 10 percent will be economical. This depends on the road class
and traffic volume of the road.

7.5 MAXIMUM GRADIENTS AT SWITCHBACKS

Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or steep terrain, there is a need to
reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve, otherwise the
combination of the superelevation and the gradient make the actual gradient at the inner road
edge too steep. The maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for
Road Classes 1 and 2, and 6 percent for Classes 3-5 and Single lane roads. The minimum
allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 0.5%.

Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the
requirements of subsections 7.3 and 7.4, and the transitions must be completed outside of the
switchback curve. The sag curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to

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allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at the flatter grade when leaving the switchback, and
for descending vehicles to slow down for the curve.

7.6 MINIMUM GRADIENTS

To avoid standing water in side ditches, the minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5
percent unless special drainage treatments are provided. However, flat and level gradients
on uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation
above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed
highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.

This is consistent with EAC recommendations.

7.7 GRADIENTS THROUGH VILLAGES

In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside
ditches in such circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. It is also the case
that they are deliberately blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow
for agricultural use and/or away from houses and other property. These practices lead to
saturation of the sub-grade and hence pavement failure, and should be mitigated through the
introduction of 0.5 percent gradients.

7.8 CLIMBING LANES

A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing
lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing
congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream.
It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane.

Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to
overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating
costs, and increased safety. Benefits of provision of a climbing lane increase as the gradient,
length of gradient, traffic flow, and the proportion of trucks increase; and as overtaking
opportunities decrease. The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held
up by a slow moving truck will continue for some distance along the road.

EAC recommends the use of the following AASHTO warrants for climbing lanes:
i) Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles per hour
ii) Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per hour
iii) One of the following conditions exists:
a) A 15 km/h or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical
heavy truck
b) Level of service E or F exists on the grade
c) A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced when moving
from the approach segment to the grade.
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In addition, safety considerations may justify the addition of a climbing lane regardless of
grade or traffic volumes.

From warrant (i) above, it can be seen that

climbing lanes should be considered for roads Table 7-4 also reproduces in the third
when traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT. column AASHTO suggestions
Thus the application of climbing lanes is regarding the maximum desirable
generally limited to Class 1 and 2 roads, length of the gradient. In practice in
although they can also apply to Class 3 roads. Rwanda, it will be very difficult to
Table 7-4 is prepared according to the criteria meet this criterion and gradients are
that a 15 km/h speed reduction is expected for a often longer than indicated.
truck. It is used in the design to indicate
locations where climbing lanes are recommended.

Table 7-4: Climbing Lanes for Class 1-3 Roads

Gradient Length of Gradient above Maximum

(%) which a Climbing Lane is Desirable Length of
recommended (m) Gradient (m)
4 300 900
5 240 800
6 200 700
7 170 600
8 150 500
9 130 400
10-18 Recommended 400

There is a problem in the application of a climbing lane in mountainous and steep terrain.
The addition of a climbing lane will increase the roadway width. Consideration must be
given to a balance between the benefits to traffic against the cost of initial construction. In
sections requiring substantial earthwork, such costs for the provision of climbing lanes may
be unreasonably high in relation to the benefits. A reduced level of service over such
sections is an alternative. Another possibility is to reduce the shoulder widths 1, and even the
lane widths (to as little as 2.75 meters) to minimize earthworks costs.

The warrants for the introduction of a climbing lane are the same as
proposed for the EAC, except that, in steep terrain, the resulting increase in
construction costs may lead to an engineering judgment to exclude
consideration of a climbing lane, or to add the climbing lane at the expense
of reducing the shoulder widths through the section with the climbing lane;
and climbing lanes are not considered for Class 4 and 5 roads.

1
Building Code and Regulations, Automobile Roads, SNiP (BC&R) 2.05.02-85, State Committee on Civil
Engineering of the USSR, Moscow, 1986, p. 8.1.
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A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 7-6. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and,
where possible, should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers. The
introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by tapers of lengths (L) of
100 meters. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes. The starting
point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the preceding vertical
point of intersection and the end of the vertical curve.

The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient,
the vehicle speed will reduce to final ambient speed that can be maintained by that vehicle
on that grade. This limits, in most references, any discussion on the maximum length
allowable at a given grade even considering the employment of a climbing lane. However, in
the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel time losses, the absolute
recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the last column of
Table 7-4. When these distances are reached, consideration should be given to design a
relief gradient of less than 6 percent between steep sections, extending a minimum of 100
meters. As mentioned in the text box however, this can prove difficult in Rwanda.

These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the
increase in speed resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the
safety hazard, they do not eliminate it. For example, a non-braking "typical" heavy truck will
accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of 500 meters at a descending grade of 5
percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such vehicles at all long
continuous grades.

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Figure 7-6: Layout for Climbing Lane

7.9 VERTICAL CLEARANCES

Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 7-5.
Unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or
clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance
should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the
roadway is likely to lead to a raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to
0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (i.e.- timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See RTDA's Bridge Design
Manual for further reference.

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Table 7-5: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)

Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance (m)

5 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2
Source: RTDA Bridge Design Manual

Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife,
underpasses shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m,
and for horse-riding the clear height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways
shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if not otherwise stated- to facilitate possible
future electrification.

Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as
indicated in the Drainage Design Manual.

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8 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The phasing of vertical and horizontal curves of a

road is their coordination such that the line of the Not mentioned in either the EAC or
road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding AASHTO references, phasing
the creation of hazards and visual defects. It is issues should be considered only
particularly important in the design of high-speed for Class 1-3 roads.
roads on which a driver must be able to anticipate
changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe stopping distance. It
becomes more important with small radius curves than with large radius curves.

8.2 ALIGNMENT DEFECTS DUE TO MIS-PHASING

Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no
more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such
defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases,
the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. An
example of this kind of defect is a sharp bend hidden by a crest curve.

8.3 TYPES OF MIS-PHASING AND CORRESPONDING CORRECTIVE ACTION

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects
occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths
such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common
station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of
the curves is at a common station.

Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.

VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS ONE END OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The
position of the crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down
gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected

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change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal

curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures 8-1 and 8-2. Note that in
these figures, as in the subsequent figures, the graphical depiction is followed with an
indication of the vertical alignment, and then the horizontal alignment.

Figure 8-1: Vertical Curve Overlaps Beginning of Horizontal Curve to Left

Figure 8-2: Vertical Curve Overlaps Beginning of Horizontal Curve to Right

The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the
horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the
horizontal curve is of longer radius. The correction is shown in Figure 8-3, where the
vertical and horizontal alignments given at the bottom of the figure can be seen to have the
same starting and ending points. Figure 8-3 can be compared to Figure 8-1.

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Figure 8-3: Vertical Curve and Horizontal Curve Begin and End at the Same Points

INSUFFICIENT SEPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a
false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal
curve. This is a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 8-4:

Figure 8-4: False Appearance of Reverse Curve Due to Improper Phasing

Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the
curves concurrent, as in Figure 8-3.

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BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the
vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An
example of such a visual defect, for a sag vertical curve, is shown in Figure 8-5. The
corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure 8-3, or to
separate them.

Figure 8-5: False Appearance of Reverse Curve Due to Improper Phasing

VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of
the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.

The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve
is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is
because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a
downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.

The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on
to the horizontal curve.

No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle
horizontal curve.

If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of the
horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.

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The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.

OTHER MIS-PHASING

Another type of mis-phasing is indicated in Figure 8-6:

A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 8-6. This
illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design (see Chapter 6: Horizontal
Alignment).

Figure 8-6: Sag Curve between Broken Back Horizontal Curves

A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve in Figure 8-7. This illustrates the effect of
a broken back vertical alignment on design (see Chapter 7: Vertical Alignment).

Figure 8-7: Horizontal Curve with Broken Back Sag Vertical Curves

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Figure 8-8 shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In this case, the
vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal alignment.

Figure 8-8: Vertical Alignment More Curvilinear than Horizontal Alignment

8.4 THE ECONOMIC PENALTY DUE TO PHASING

The phasing of vertical curves restricts their placement and fit to the ground. Therefore,
phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra earthworks and prevents the designer from
obtaining the lowest cost design. The designer must therefore decide at what point phasing
becomes uneconomic.

The designer will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety.
However, in cases when the advantage of phasing is purely aesthetic, the designer will have
to balance the relative costs of alternative alignments against their elegance. As indicated in
the text box in the Introduction, phasing needs only be considered for Class 1-3 roads.

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9 CONSTRUCTABILITY AND VALUE ENGINEERING: EARTHWORK

QUANTITIES AND MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

9.1 INTRODUCTION
It must be understood that road design is an iterative process. Once the horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment and typical section
design have been completed for a first iteration, it is There are usually three major cost
necessary to further explore the design in terms of components in a road project:
constructability and value engineering. The topic of drainage structures; pavement
geometric design would be incomplete without a structure; and earthworks. While
chapter devoted to the issue of earthwork quantities there is often not significant cost
and a mass haul diagram. The careful attention to savings in choices among the first
limiting earthwork quantities through the two components, careful attention
preparation of a mass haul diagram are essential to earthworks can result in very
elements in providing the best combined horizontal, significant project savings. See
vertical, and cross-sectional design. This is also last text box in this chapter.
especially true when the design includes
consideration of the least cost in relation to earthworks.

These topics are issues which are often neglected in the local context with a significant
detrimental effect on the road designs.

9.2 CONSTRUCTABILITY
The existing horizontal alignment is the first parameter to be adjusted after the preliminary
line is set, to conform to the design requirements for design speeds and resultant radii.

Secondly, the existing vertical alignment is adjusted to conform to the design requirements.
In obtaining the best resultant fit, it is important to remember that the project finish grade
elevation will be an average height above the existing grade elevation that is approximately
equivalent to the added thickness of the pavement layers. Hence, for instance, if the
pavement consists only of a laterite wearing course of a thickness of 275mm, a first iteration
to achieve minimal earthworks is to set the finish grade elevation to an offset of 0.275 meters
above the existing grade. Otherwise, if the elevation is set to the existing gradeline, the
entire road length will require an excavation quantity equal to the pavement layer, as
indicated in Figure 9-1. This also requires that the pavement design must be finished before
the vertical alignment can be set. The engineer will need to consider any changes needed in
an existing road surface to get it to a uniform shape or the removal or organic material for
new roadway alignments when setting the proposed grade line.

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Figure 9-1: If the Finish Grade Matches the Existing Grade, the Excavation Quantity is
Needlessly Increased

The second iteration of the vertical alignment is similar to the horizontal alignment: all
vertical curves are adjusted to conform to the design requirements for design speeds and
resultant radii. At the same time, gradients in excess of the maximum gradient should be
evaluated and adjusted where possible to conform to the requirements of the standards.

Thirdly, the profile must be adjusted to fit in the required drainage structures including any
minimal cover or freeboard required over such structures. Excessive additional cover will
require the culverts be lengthen in order to not steepen the side slopes and will push out the
ditch lines away from the roadway.

Finally, the cross sections should be reviewed to see whether or not the design is buildable.
This is an issue that becomes pronounced in mountainous terrain. For instance, a cross
section might indicate that fill is required to be placed on a steep side slope. This is not
constructible unless an over-excavation is made to create a bench for construction
equipment, or expensive construction items such as gabions or retaining walls are used. A
fill side slope that is problematic is shown in red in Figure 9-2:

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Figure 9-2: Fill Slope Problematic for Construction

Conversely, a deep cut on the other side of a sideslope might result in slope stability issues
in addition to requiring retaining walls and/or gabions together with a very large excavation
expense. The remedies may require more iterations. A cut side slope that is problematic is
shown in blue in Figure 9-3:

Figure 9-3: Cut Slope Problematic for Construction

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To remedy these, either the horizontal centerline or the vertical profile, or both, will need to
be adjusted during value engineering to minimize expenses. An example of a possible shift
in the centerline to avoid excessive cut earthworks is shown in Figure 9-4:

Figure 9-4: Alignment Shift to Avoid Huge Cut Quantity

9.3 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES AND TABLES

After all constructability issues are addressed, the next step is to create a table of earthworks
quantities.

While modern highway design software is capable of determining earthworks, both per
station and cumulatively, and of developing a mass-haul diagram, this does not relieve the
designer of the need to correctly interpret the results and perform several iterations in the
interests of minimizing earthworks, minimizing waste and borrow, and balancing
earthworks.

Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include:

 Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts,
flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-
way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans
 Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment

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 Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported
without the added cost above the unit bid price
 Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance
 Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow

The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:

 End area calculations

 Earthwork calculations
 Preparation of mass haul diagram
 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram

These steps are presented in the following text. As mentioned earlier, most current highway
design computer programs will produce the mass haul diagram as part of the output when
typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments are inputs. A final stage of geometric
design is to make adjustments to the alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing
the earthwork quantities.

END AREA CALCULATIONS

End area calculations use to be made manually after the cross sections are plotted, either by
calculating the areas, counting squares on a grid or by measuring with a planimeter, for both
cut and fill. Currently, most current highway design computer programs can produce cross-
sections and provide cut and fill areas, average end area volumes, and the aforementioned
mass haul diagrams.

For example, three adjacent cross sections for a Kajevuba- Kayonza project are shown in
Figure 9-5. In this case, the cross sections contain both cut and fill areas. Using one of the
three methods above, it is found that the relative areas are as indicated in Table 9-1:

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Figure 9-5: Three Cross Sections

AREA (m2) VOLUME (m3) Cum. VOLUME (m3)

STATION Cut Fill Cut Cut Fill Cut Cut Fill
(Shrunk) (Shrunk)
2+150 11.00 0.00
2+175 7.02 0.00 225.29 202.76 0.00 225.29 202.76 0.00
2+200 0.35 7.49 91.85 82.67 93.68 317.14 285.43 93.68

Table 9-1: Earthwork Areas and Volumes

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Once the areas are determined, the total volume of cut between Stations 2+150 and 2+175
can be determined by formula or by a computer program. In the example in Table 9-1, the
total excavation is taken by averaging the cut and multiplying by the distance, or

(11.0 + 7.02) x 25 meters = 225.25 m3

2
(the small difference shown is due to rounding)

SHRINK

A very important consideration in balancing earthworks is the fact that excavated materials
that are re-used in the embankment will “shrink.” This concept is best illustrated by
reference to Figure 9-6: 1

Figure 9-6: Volume Relationships during Construction

Hence, there is a further, highlighted column in Table 9-1 to express the cut quantity in
terms using a shrinkage factor to arrive at the quantity that will result if the material is used
in fill. The example shown in Figure 9-6 and Table 9-1 uses a shrinkage factor of 0.90.

Tests conducted in Rwanda indicate that a

better shrinkage factor, in the absence of
a test, is 0.80

1
http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/L11_EstEarthWk9811.ppt

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9.4 MASS HAUL DIAGRAM 2

The mass ordinate can be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted excavation
and unadjusted embankment (columns 8 and 9 of Table 9-1) from station to station, using
"+" for excavation and "-" for embankment.

The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the survey
and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile. The plot can be to any scale, depending on the
quantities involved. Project designed by computer will list, tabulate, and plot all of the data
and will create a mass haul diagram, showing balance points. An example is shown in
Figure 9-7 which shows a mass haul diagram curve with an accompanying profile of existing
ground line and grade line (B.P. indicates “balance points).

Figure 9-7: Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram

2
Much of this text and many illustrations are from Road Location and Design Handbook, U.S Dept. of the
Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Division of Transportation, 1997

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The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from some
point of beginning, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes negative. At the
beginning of the diagram the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated continuously from
the initial station to the end of the project.

The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:

• Proper distribution of excavated material
• Amount and location of waste
• Amount and location of borrow
• Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
• Direction of haul.

The double line in the profile and the mass haul diagram indicates areas of excavation, while
the single line indicates fill. Arrows indicate direction of haul. Note in the mass haul diagram
that the material moves from the rising line to the falling line.

Properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows:

a) An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a

downward slope indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the
greater the cubic meters of excavation or embankment.

b) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends
and embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where
embankment ends and excavation starts.

c) Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts the mass
curve will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines and the
points at which these lines intersect the mass curve are called balance points.
Remember that the cut quantities are shrunk.

d) Areas below the balance line indicate that hauling of excavation to embankment is
from right to left, whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the haul is from
left to right.

e) The area between a balance line and the mass curve line is a measure of haul (product
of the volume and distance in station-meters).

f) The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of
material at the station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that
station.

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9.5 BALANCING EARTHWORK USING THE MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

The designer should carefully assess the project before start of design and set certain
guidelines for balancing the earthwork. A determination should be made regarding the
maximum haul distance or distance between balance points, whether tight balances will be
used or whether it will be more economical to excavate to spoil in some areas and obtain
borrow material in others.

As per Rwanda’s Technical

Specifications, the free-haul distance for
earthwork materials is 5 kms.

Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design:

a) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrow material for the required
embankments instead of doing roadside excavations.

b) Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in the

excavation, it will be necessary to waste this material which is unsuitable for use as
embankment.

c) Special conditions through deep cuts, such as slope instability and sight distance
requirements may lead to design of very flat back slopes and result in large amounts
of excavation with no large embankments within a reasonable haul distance. This
situation would require that some excavated material will be wasted. This occurs for
instance in side hill cuts in mountainous terrain.

d) Conversely, the need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground
for extended distances through flood plain areas will generally result in the need for
borrow excavation.

After the designer has analyzed all of the above factors and determined how he proposes to
balance the earthwork, he is ready to start calculations as previously outlined.

In order to obtain a better perspective of the work, the project should be broken up into
sections not to exceed 5 kilometers in length. This allows the designer to work with smaller
sections, solving the individual problems of each section involving drainage, grades, erosion
control, and earthwork distribution.

Figure 9-8 shows three situations where the balance line can be at the top, bottom or at the
center of the mass curve. Note that Case 3 where the balance line is located at the center of
the mass curve is not necessarily the ideal situation in all cases. The profile grade should be
studied along with the mass haul diagram to determine where it will be more economical to

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haul towards back stations (Case 1), towards forward stations (Case 2), or to haul equally
towards back and forward stations (Case 3).

Figure 9-8: Location of Balance Line on Mass Haul Diagram

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FREE HAUL

Free haul (FH) is defined as the maximum distance through which excavated material may
be transported without added cost above the unit bid price. Prior to the use of high-speed
pneumatic-tired earth moving equipment, free haul distances were limited to approx. 1000
meters, but distances of up to 5000 meters are not uncommon now. Special conditions on a
project may require longer hauls, where restrictions do not allow excavation or borrow in the
immediate area. Haul and overhaul quantities shall be made available to prospective bidders
to assist them in determining their bid price. A note on the mass haul diagram, in the plans,
and/or in the specifications shall state that the contractor may be required to haul material a
specified distance, or within balance points shown on the plans, with or without additional
compensation.

The designer can make some quick estimates to determine whether to use long haul
distances, to borrow or waste, or whether a redesign to shorten balance distances is required.

Overhaul is the product of volume times distance and is represented on the mass haul
diagram as the area between the zero balance line and the curve of the mass after eliminating
all free haul. When the mass is computed using adjusted cut (adjusted for swell), it is
necessary to correct overhaul volume to unadjusted excavation by applying the proper
correction factor.

In Figure 9-9 the shaded areas show overhaul in the mass haul diagram.

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Figure 9-9: Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram

Waste and borrow should be avoided on most types of projects by hauling suitable material
within economical limits of haul. These terms are defined as follows:

a) Waste is material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted as
the word implies, but can be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes or
filling ditches or depressions for erosion control.

b) Borrow is material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within
the right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans. Borrow
areas should be carefully selected after consideration of the suitability of the material;
economic haul; access to the pits, including cost of access roads; drainage problems;

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and impact on the environment including timber production, fish life, watershed, soil
erosion and all multiple land uses present and future.

9.6 METHODS OF BALANCING EARTHWORK

As stated in the previous discussion, after the mass haul diagram is plotted using the trial
profile grade, a determination is made whether to borrow, waste, or adjust the grade to
achieve tight balances. The following three examples with accompanying mass haul
diagrams illustrate different methods of balancing earthwork:

a) The first example, Figure 9-10, assumes that grades have been adjusted as much as
the terrain will permit and the required balances have not been obtained, therefore, it
will be necessary to borrow and waste to balance the earthwork. The mass haul
diagram shows that the balance line is dropped 10,000 cubic meters at the beginning
of the job due to excess embankment requiring 10,000 cubic meters of borrow
between stations 0+00 and 3+50. This will result in new balance points at stations
3+50, 11+00, 20+50 and 27+00.

Due to excess of excavation ahead of station 27+00, the balance line is adjusted
upwards 23,000 cubic meters with balance points at 32+50, 41+00 and 50+00.
Excess excavation between stations 27+00 and 32+50 must be wasted.

Figure 9-10: Balancing Earthwork Using Borrow and Waste

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b) The next example, Figure 9-11 considers the mass haul diagram after the trial grade
results in excess excavation from station 0+00 to 72+50.

Project designed using computer programs can be easily balanced by for instance
lowering vertical P.I.'s to remove excess embankment and raising vertical P.I.'s to
remove excess excavation. Using the earthwork design computer program, the
designer is furnished with a complete plot of the mass haul diagram, including
stationing, unadjusted volume of embankment, adjusted mass ordinate and location
of all balance points. The mass plot is followed by a listing, which tabulates vertical
P.I. data, including stations, P.I. elevations, percent grades, middle ordinates and
curve lengths. The last column on this listing is shown as UNIT MASS and will
tabulate three or four digit figures opposite each P.I. station. These figures indicate
the approximate change in the mass ordinate up or down effected by raising or
lowering that V.P.I. by some amount, such as 0.3 meters.

Figure 9-11: Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using Unit Mass Data (Excess
Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations)

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Note in the example that Unit Mass figures of 4290, 8570, 5420, 4910 and 6410 are
tabulated for V.P.I.'s at stations 8+00, 27+50, 41+00, 53+00 and 65+00
respectively.

The designer superimposes a desired zero mass line on the diagram and scales the
difference in mass ordinates between the existing and desired zero mass line at each
V.P.I (tabulated as 5000, 18,000, 18,000, 23,000, 27,500 and 30,000).

Next the designer calculates the difference in mass ordinates between succeeding
V.P.I's (tabulated as 5000, 13,000, 0, 5000, 4500 and 2500) as shown in Figure 9-11.
Note that the desired mass ordinate change between stations 0+00 and 8+00 is 5000
cubic meters and that the unit mass at station 8+00 is 4290 cubic meters which results
in an elevation change of 5000/4290 = +1.17 meters. Likewise, the P.I. elevation at
station 27+50 must be raised 1.52 meters (13,000/8570). Since there is no required
change in mass ordinate between station 27+50 and 41+00, no elevation change is
required at station 41+00. The P.I. elevation at station 53+00 must be raised +1.02
meters (5000/4910). Note that since the last P.I. at station 72+50 will not be adjusted,
the ordinate differences of 4500 and 2500 must be added and divided by the unit
mass at station 65+00 (6410), resulting in an elevation change of +1.09 meters for
the P.I. at station 65+00.

It must be pointed out that the unit mass figure is calculated by the computer program
assuming that the roadway template is moved up or down uniformly and the results
are not reliable if large elevation changes are made which result in changes in fill
slopes or cut slopes. The above procedure is an approximation but will prove quite
valuable in achieving the desired zero mass line in successive trial balances.

c) The third example, Figure 9-12, is very similar to the one described in paragraph B,
except that the mass haul diagram starts with excess embankment and then goes into
excess excavation. This will require the lowering of some V.P.I.'s and raising of
others. The procedure followed in achieving the desired zero-mass line is the same as
described in b. above using unit mass, ordinate for zero mass line, difference in
ordinates, and elevation changes. Note the V.P.I's at stations 14+25 and 44+00 are
labeled "Hold", meaning that the elevations of these V.P.I.'s will not be altered.

The mass difference used in determining the elevation change at station 22+50 must
be increased by 500 since the V.P.I. at station 10+00 shows a hold. Similarly, the
mass difference at station 52+00 is 7000 (4000+3000) since the V.P.I. at station
44+00 shows a hold.

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Figure 9-12: Computation of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using R.D.S. Unit Mass Data
(Excess Embankment and Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations)

Experience has shown that balancing earthworks using the unit mass figures furnished by
computer listings are quite reliable and a very useful tool in balancing earthwork. Designers
are encouraged to use this method and to consult with the Design.

When all of this is accomplished, a final mass diagram should be developed which shows
the cumulative quantity of cut and fill along the road length. Such a mass diagram allows
the Engineer to perform further value engineering to reduce the cost of earthworks. A mass
diagram enables the Engineer to balance earthworks, and to re-use materials to minimize the
amount of materials borrowed or wasted. This process may well consume several additional
iterations in the design; however, the result, in the case of other RFRIP roads, saved up to
RF30 million per kilometer in construction costs, and hence the design effort is well worth
the extra design effort. A sample of a portion of a mass diagram in Rwanda is shown in
Figure 9-13:

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Figure 9-13: Detail of Mass Diagram of a Rwandan Road

The figure also shows that, in the earthwork optimization process, it is necessary to include a
shrink/swell factor to balance earthworks. The shrink/swell factor is variable depending on
soil type, site conditions, and compactive effort. For all project roads, it was assumed that
material excavated from the roadway and re-used in embankment would shrink by a factor of
20%. This is also in keeping with the results of the volumetric shrinkage tests as indicated in
the Materials section. As this number is an estimate, actual earthwork quantities can vary to
some degree from the estimated quantities (see also the Materials Section of this report).

The careful attention to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul
diagram are essential elements in providing the best combined horizontal, vertical, and
cross-sectional design.

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ITERATIONS

It is important to note once again that several iterations may be required to get the
earthworks to a minimum quantity and an optimal balance. This is money well spent in the
design process as it has such a huge impact on construction costs.

As a guide, while designing a road in mountainous

terrain, the beginning engineer will likely achieve
in the first iteration earthwork quantities
approximating 8 cubic meters per linear meter or
road. Through several subsequent iterations, a
good “target” earthwork goal is to reach 3-4 cubic
meters per linear meter or road. This reduces the
construction costs by Rwf 25 million per kilometer:

4.5m3/m x 1000m/km x Rwf5600/m3 =

Rwf 25,200,000/km

For a lateritic-surfaced road, this cuts the

construction cost in half.

DITCH EXCAVATION

Note that the excavation of the ditches is a portion of the total overall roadway
excavation, and is performed by mechanized equipment. This assists in keeping the site
drained and hence workable, especially during the rainy season, whereby the roadway crown
and ditch are formed as the earthworks continue. This also avoids the need to haul out and
waste materials: this occurs if the ditch excavation occurs subsequent to the roadway
excavation, by hand. Note also that ditch quantities are included in the Earthworks tables,
and that if they are excluded, a result is that the entire road surface will tend to be lower, by
the volume of material wasted which could have been incorporated into the works.

In locations where masonry ditches are to be placed, the ditch can be hand excavated deeper
and wider than usual to account for the thickness of the masonry.

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10 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A
disproportionate amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety
aspect junctions require attention and careful design. Good junction design should allow
transition from one route to another or through movements on the main route and
intersecting route with minimum delay and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the layout
and operation of the junction should be obvious to the driver, with good visibility between
conflicting movements.

Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on

traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions include:

• T-Junctions
• Cross-Junctions
• Roundabouts
• Grade Separation: Discussed in Chapter 11

This chapter describes the design for all at-grade junctions. A checklist for junction design is
presented in Figure 10-12.

10.2 DISTANCE BETWEEN INTERSECTIONS

For safe and efficient traffic flow, intersections should not be placed too close together.
Drivers expect and anticipate certain spacing between intersections. If intersections are too
close together, a queue of vehicles from one intersection can block another intersection and
will cause congestion to multiply and result in extra delays. The minimum distance between
consecutive junctions shall be at least (10 x VD) meters; where VD is the major road design
speed in km/h.
This is in agreement with EAC practice.

Further guidance is obtained by repeating the table that appeared in Chapter 3, as below:

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Table 10-1: Road Function, Class, Name Conventions, and Access Control

Function Class Present EAC Name Functional

Rwandan Road Conventions Classification Name
Class Conventions
Mobility Class 1 [no expressways yet] International trunk road Principal Arterial/ Freeway/
Roads National Trunk Road Expressway (2500 m spacing)
Class 2 National Road National Road Major arterial/Highway (800
Provincial Roads spacing)
Regional Roads
District Roads
Class 3 National Road Regional Roads Minor arterial (600 m spacing)
(unpaved) District Roads
Secondary Roads
Access Class 4 District Road 1 District Roads Collector roads (50 m spacing)
Roads Secondary Roads
Class 5 Local Streets Minor roads Local streets (15 m spacing)
Feeder Roads Local streets

For signalized junctions, proper intersection spacing is critical for providing coordinated
signal timing. Optimal timing progression for two-way movements should allow travel time
between intersections to be about half of the signal cycle length. Signal spacing should be at
least 400 m in urban areas and 800 m in suburban areas for optimum two-way progression.

This is in agreement with EAC practice.

10.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:

• Safety
• Operational comfort
• Capacity
• Economy

A junction is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible, and maneuverable. These

three requirements can generally be met by complying with the following guidelines.

VISIBILITY

The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible. The angle
of skew of the junction should be no more than 20 degrees from perpendicular.

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COMPREHENSION

(i) The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout.
(ii) The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be similar.
(iii) The use of road signs is necessary. Road markings and other road furniture may also
be required.

MANEUVERABILITY

(i) All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate vehicle
turning characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be 15 meters
minimum.
(ii) The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.

The operation of the junction depends principally upon the frequency of gaps that naturally
occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration to
permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimized by, for
example, channelization or the separation of maneuvers.

Intersections should neither be on a horizontal

curve if possible nor near a crest vertical curve,
due to restrictions on sight distance. Intersections
should also be at locations where the gradient is
less than 4% for both the approach and through
lanes.

10.4 SELECTION OF JUNCTION TYPE

The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection

performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection
type of any particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical
layout factors. Several alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection
of junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented in the
following text, beginning with the lowest volumes and proceeding to higher volumes.

PRIVATE ACCESS

An access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified road. An

access shall have entry and exit radii of 6 meters or greater, depending upon the turning
characteristics of the expected traffic. The minimum width shall be 3m. A typical access is
show in Figure 10-1; the dotted lines show the edge of the shoulders where they exist. The
location of the access must satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop conditions" given in

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure 10-6. A drainage pipe shall be placed as required. The access shall be constructed
back to the right-of-way line, with a taper to match the existing access.

Figure 10-1: Typical Access

Lower Volume Junctions

For lower volume junctions, the selection of the junction treatment is shown on Figure 10-2.

A Simple Junction, with a stop sign on the minor road, is indicated with a solid black line in
the figure. This is used where the main road traffic is less than 13,000 AADT, and the minor
road traffic is less than 250 AADT.

A Painted Island is added where the main road traffic is less than 18,000 AADT, the minor
road traffic is less than 5,000 AADT, and the values lie within the area indicated under
“Painted Islands.”

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Figure 10-2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows

Turning Lanes are added where the traffic volumes lie within the area indicated under “Add
Turning Lanes.”

Higher Volume Junctions

Above this line, a roundabout of other type of junction should be selected, referring to Figure
10-3: 1

1
Roads and Traffic in Urban Areas (1987). Institution of Highways and Transportation and Department of
Transport, UK.

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Figure 10-3: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows

Continuing from Figure 10-2, Figure 10-3 shows the range of major and minor road flows
where either a roundabout or signals should be used. For values beyond the range for
roundabout or signals, it shows that a grade-separation should be employed.

Advantages and Disadvantages to Junctions Types

Basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade separation,
are as follows:
 Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). Select for low flows. These can cause long
delays. They require sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by
roundabout or signal installation.
 Roundabouts. For low to medium flows. Result in minimal delays at lower flows. Have
been shown to be safer than priority junctions. Require attention to pedestrian
movements and accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
 Grade-Separation. For high flows. Results in minimal delays. Expensive.

10.5 T-JUNCTIONS

The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic having
priority over the minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include staggered T-

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junctions, which cater to cross-traffic. Staggered T-junctions are often the result of a
realignment of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew of the crossing, as shown in
Figure 10-4, where the dotted line was the existing alignment and the solid line represents
the improvement. Where such staggered T-junctions are used, the left-right stagger is
preferred to the right-left stagger (see Figure 10-4). The reason for this is that, in the latter
case, a crossing vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a left turn on the major
roadway. In such cases, the inclusion of a left-turning lane between the staggers should be
considered. The minimum distance between the T-junctions was given in Table 10-1.

Figure 10-4: Staggered X-Junctions

Right/left and left/right staggered intersections and their respective minimum distances are
shown in Figure 10-5: 2

Figure 10-5: Right/Left and Left/Right Staggered Intersections with Minimum

Distances

10.6 CROSS JUNCTIONS

A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other. Overall
principles of design, island arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other parameters are
similar to those used in T-junctions.
2
Uganda Road Design Manual, p. 164.

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Where more complex junction layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are
encountered, these should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should
be used.

Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in
accordance with the following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.

10.7 SIGHT DISTANCE

At all junctions, adequate sight distance must be provided. For conditions where the minor
road yields to the major road traffic, drivers of vehicles on the major road must be able to see
traffic on the minor road, and vice-versa, as indicated for yield conditions in Figure 10-6
and Table 10-2. For conditions where the minor road stops before proceeding to the major
road, drivers must have a sight distance for stop conditions as indicated in Figure 10-7 and
Table 10-3. If the minor road approach is on a curve, the stopping sight distance for the
minor road design speed must be maintained, and a Stop Ahead sign must be employed.

Figure 10-6: Sight Distance for “Yield” Conditions

Table 10-2: Sight Distance for “Yield” Conditions

Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120

Approach Length, L A (m) 110 135 160 185 210 235 260 310

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Figure 10-7: Sight Distance for “Stop” Conditions

Table 10-3: Sight Distance for “Stop” Conditions

Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120

Stop Length, L S (m) 120 145 185 230 280 340 400 500

10.8 TURNING LANES

Left and right turning lanes are of particular value on the higher speed and volume roads
when a vehicle slowing down to turn and leave the major road may impede following
vehicles. Turning lanes provide room for left-turning or right-turning vehicles to decelerate
before their turns and/ or to queue while waiting to turn. They are particularly effective in
reducing delay and collisions by separating turning vehicles from through vehicles. At busy
signalized intersections, dual and triple turning lanes are used effectively to reduce the time
required by turning vehicles in the signal phasing. The drawbacks to using turning lanes
include higher right-of-way costs and longer crossing distances for pedestrians.

Turning lanes can be incorporated into the design for junctions on Class 1 through 3 roads.

RIGHT TURN LANE WARRANTS

Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and deceleration lane, shall be provided for
roads meeting any of the following conditions:

 On four or more lane roads and divided highways (Class 1 roads)

 When the major road design speed is 80 km/hr or greater, and the present year AADT on
the major road is greater than 1500 AADT
 When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is greater than 750 AADT

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A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is given in Figure 10-8. The length of the right
turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as
indicated in Table 10-4. The width of the major approach lane shall be the same as the width
of the traffic lanes.

Figure 10-8: Layout for Right Turn Lane

Table 10-4: Length of Right Turn Lane

Design Speed of Major Road Diverging Section Deceleration Total Length

(km/h) Length (L C ) m Section Length (L D ) (L) m
70 or less 30 30 60
85 40 50 90
100 50 70 120
120 60 110 170

LEFT TURN LANES

A separate lane for left turning traffic (traffic turning left from the major road into the minor
road) shall be provided based on warrants. Warrants for inclusion of left turn lanes are based
on AASHTO guidelines which are given in Table 10-5:

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Table 10-5: Warrants for Left Turn Lane

This is in agreement with EAC practice.

A left turn lane will consist of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage section.
The minimum lengths for taper sections are as for right turn lanes. A detail of the layout for
a Left Turn Lane for a single carriageway is given in Figure 10-9; the configuration for dual
carriageways is shown in Figure 10-10. The length of the left turn lane including the taper,
measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as indicated in Table 10-6. The
length of the storage section is as indicated in Table 10-7.

Note: Where L c = Length of diverging section

Central reservation to be formed by road markings L D = length of deceleration section
L S = Length of storage section
W L = width of through traffic lanes
Figure 10-9: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway

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Notes: Where L c = Length of diverging section

Edges of central reserve may be curbed in L D = length of deceleration section
vicinity of junction. If raised curbs are used L S = Length of storage section
then they must be set back 0.25m from lane W L = width of through carriageway
edges. W C = width dependent upon width of
central reserve
C R = Normal central reserve width
Figure 10-10: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway

Table 10-6: Length of Left-Turn Lane

Design Speed of Major Diverging Section Deceleration Section

Road (km/h) Length (L C ) m Length (L D ) m
40 30 30
50 30 50
60 30 60
70 30 70
85 40 85
100 50 100
120 60 120

Table 10-7: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes

Left-Turning Traffic (AADT) Length of Storage Section (L S ) m

0-1500 20
1500-3000 40
>3000 60

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Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major and minor road. On single
roadway roads where a left turn lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall always
be used.

In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single roadway road the roadway has to be
widened to provide the required width. The widening shall be designed so that the through
lanes are given smooth and optically pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes at
the junction shall be the same as the approach lanes.

The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the centerline.
This shall be achieved by introducing a taper of 100-meter length at the beginning and
ending of the widening.

10.9 TRAFFIC ISLANDS

A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle movements
and which may also be used as a pedestrian refuge. Traffic islands may take the form of an
area delineated by barrier curbs or a pavement area marked by paint or a combination of
these.

Traffic islands may be included in the design of junctions for one or more of the following
purposes:
• separation of conflicts
• control of angle of conflict
• reduction of excessive pavement areas
• regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of junction
• arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
• protection of pedestrians
• protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
• location of traffic signs

Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are situated in areas not normally used
as vehicle paths, the dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop layout.

The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the through traffic lanes, turning
vehicles and the lateral clearance to the island sides. Island curbs should be offset a
minimum of 0.25 meters from the edge of through traffic lanes even if they are mountable.

Two basic layouts for traffic islands are shown in Figures 10-9 and 10-10, but each junction
should be checked to ensure that adequate clearance is given for the turning characteristics
for the types of vehicles expected to use the junction (see Chapter 3 for details of design
vehicle turning characteristics).
• Intersection Layout 1 (partly channelized intersection) shown in Figure 10-11 is to be
used whenever a separate right turn lane is not required. The layout also does not

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include a left turn lane but such a lane may be included if the conditions for its
provision as described above are met; in such cases the triple radius exit curve should
be replaced by the 25 meter exit radius and an additional traffic island as shown for
Intersection Layout 2.

Notes:
1. RC = Central radius dependent upon vehicle turning characteristics.
2. The ratio R1:R2:R3 to be 2:1:3 and R2 will be dependent on design vehicle turning characteristics and
proportion of large vehicles, recommended range for R2 is 8.0-12.0 m.
3. W1 shall equal minor road lane width.
4. W2 shall be dependent on vehicle turning characteristics.
Figure 10-11: Traffic Island Intersection Layout Type 1 3

3
Tanzania Road Geometric Design Manual, p 7.24.

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• Intersection Layout Type 2 (channelized intersection) shown in Figure 10-12 is to be

used whenever a separate right turn lane is required in accordance with the
requirements indicated above. It should be noted that this layout also makes
provision for a left turn lane. However, the left turn lane may be omitted if the
conditions described in this chapter for such provision are not met; in such cases the
exit radius should be amended to comply with the triple radius exit curve shown for
Intersection Layout Type 1 with the triangular island omitted.

Notes:
1. RC = Central radius dependent upon vehicle turning characteristics (minimum turning radius) recommended
value: 15 m.
2. The ratio R1:R2:R3 to be 2:1:3 and the recommended value for R2 is 12.0 m.
3. W1 shall equal minor road lane width but shall not be less than 3.0m.
4. W2 shall equal 5.5 m (Excluding offsets to raise curbs)
Figure 10-12: Traffic Island Intersection Layout Type 2 4
The intersection should be checked to see if the design is optimal. A checklist for the
junction design in presented in Figure 10-13:

4
Tanzania Road Geometric Design Manual, p 7.23.

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FIGURE 10-13: CHECKLIST FOR JUNCTION DESIGN

 1. Will the junction be able to carry the expected/future traffic levels without becoming
overloaded and congested?
 2. Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative junction designs been
considered?
 3. Is the route through the junction as simple and clear to all users as possible?
 4. Is the presence of the junction clearly evident at a safe distance to approaching
vehicles for all directions?
 5. Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the junction for a
driver to take appropriate and safe action given the design speeds on the road?
 6. On the approach to the junction, is the driver clearly aware of the actions necessary to
negotiate the junction safely?
 7. Are turning movements segregated as required for the design standard?
 8. Are drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
 9. Is the level of lighting adequate for the junction, location, pedestrians, and the design
standard?
 10. Are the warning signs and markings sufficient, particularly at night?
 11. Have the needs of pedestrian and noon-motorized vehicles been met?
 12. Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions including parked and stopped
vehicles?
 13. Are accesses prohibited a safe distance away from the junction?
 14. Have adequate facilities such as footpaths, refuges, and crossings, been provided for
pedestrians?
 15. Does the design, road marking and signing clearly identify rights of way and
priorities?
 16. Is the design of the junction consistent with road types and adjacent junctions?
 17. Are the turning lanes and tapers where required of sufficient length for speeds and
storage?

Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer

....................................................................................................................................................

10.10 ROUNDABOUTS
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is
controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety

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record. Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts
can reduce accident costs by more than 80 percent.

USE OF ROUNDABOUTS

Near built-up areas and in village centers where the through road may be crossed by local
roads carrying heavy traffic, the use of roundabouts may be considered.

The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other form of
intersection control:

SAFETY

Roundabouts should not be introduced on rural roads where the design speeds of adjacent
sections are 90 km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching this value, considering
should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the approaches to warn the
driver to anticipate the roundabout.

Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross than normal junctions.

TRAFFIC FLOW

High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts. Roundabouts should generally

be used if the minor road flow is greater than one third of the major road flow. Roundabouts
are also an advantage where peak flows are 50 percent greater than the average flows. The
roundabout depicted in Figure 10-14 is acceptable for traffic volumes of up to 15,000. This
is based on empirical regression theory, rather than gap-acceptance theory.

SITE CONDITIONS

Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully channelized junctions do. The additional
land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced against the increased capacity
offered.

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Figure 10-14: Roundabout Layout

DRIVER BEHAVIOR

Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity.

All of the above were taken into account in the selection of existing roundabouts in Rwanda.
In Kigali, on KN5 road, there are roundabouts at the New Convention Center junction and
the Chez Lando junction, but not at the Rwanda Development Board junction between them.
One may ask: why is this? Where does the traffic flow better: at the roundabout at Chez
Lando, or at the signalized T-junction at the Rwanda Development Board? Safety and traffic
flow would seem to indicate that a roundabout could be the choice; although there are issues
with both land acquisition and, in the case of the southern approach, gradient and site
distance. The second of these issues can be mitigated by moving the center of the
roundabout to the north. Further issues are with access (one-way: see red arrow in figure) to
Parliament (which can be readily addressed), and whether or not to block the access to the
frontage road by the Rwanda Development Board. The possible roundabout, with the same
diameter as the Chez Lando roundabout, and with two through lanes, is shown in Figure 10-
15.

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Figure 10-15: Rwanda Development Board Junction Possible Roundabout

Layout

THE GENERAL ROUNDABOUT LAYOUT

The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following (see Figure 10-12):

• Adequate entry widths

• Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths
• Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the maneuvers
expected.
• Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure low
traffic speeds.
• A simple and clear layout
• Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
• Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent through
speeds in excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximizing the difference
between the shortest track a driver can take through the roundabout, vs. the straight-
line distance from an entry to the opposite exit. No vehicle path should allow a

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vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius greater than 100 meters (see Figures 10-
16 and 10-17).

Figure 10-16: Vehicle Path through Roundabout

Figure 10-17: Roundabout Dimensions

The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout:
1. Select the general design criteria to be used

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2. Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the DV4 for all
design standards.
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius.
Check the design using the vehicle templates from Chapter 3.
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and circulation
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities, access
requirements, and establish the space available
7. Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the circulating
carriageway
8. Draw the roundabout
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with
sufficient separations for satisfactory traffic operations
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands
11. Check the achievement of adequate deflection (Figure 10-14). Adjust as required.
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits.
13. Layout lane and pavement markings.
14. Layout lighting plan
15. Layout sign plan.

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11 GRADE – SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

11.1 GENERAL
The use of grade separation results in the separation of traffic movements between the
intersecting roads so that only merging or diverging movements remain. The extent to which
individual traffic movements should be separated from each other depends mainly upon
capacity requirements and traffic safety aspects; it also depends upon the extent to which
important traffic movements should be given free flow conditions.

11.2 GRADE SEPARATION WARRANTS

The choice between different types and designs of intersections is normally made with
regard to the capacity required, safety, environment, spatial limitations, topographical
conditions, construction costs, and uniformity.

There are six warrants 1 that should be considered when determining if an interchange is
justified at a particular site:

1. Design Designation. An interchange shall be considered for all Class 1 roads.

2. Reduction of bottlenecks or spot congestion. An at-grade junction has insufficient
capacity (see Chapter 10, Figure 10-1) and the junction is justified economically from
the savings in traffic delays
3. Safety improvement. If inexpensive methods of eliminating crashes are likely to be
ineffective or impractical, a highway grade separation or interchange may be warranted to
reduce accident costs.
4. Site topography. Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or on the
grounds that expensive land appropriation can be avoided by its construction
5. Road-user benefits. The relation of road-user benefits to the cost of improvement indicates
an economic warrant for that improvement.
6. Traffic volume warrant. Volumes in excess of the capacity of an at-grade intersection
would certainly be a warrant.

This is in conformity with EAC suggested practice

using the six AASHTO warrants.

11.3 CHOICE OF SCHEME

From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it will generally be apparent which traffic
streams must be grade-separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt with by junctions at
grade. The choice of these will depend upon the capacities needed. A study of the
characteristics of various types of grade-separated junctions is necessary, and a number of
alternative designs should be prepared. The final choice of scheme must satisfy capacity
requirements, geometric standards, and operational needs, and represent an economical
1
AASHTO 2001, p. 749.

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design. In some instances the choice of a particular design will be determined by the
adoption of two-stage construction, e.g. constructing an at-grade junction first and providing
grade separation later.

11.4 GEOMETRIC STANDARDS

The geometric standards given in this manual for roads and at-grade junctions also apply to
grade-separated junctions. However, the low design speeds of loops and other ancillary
roads necessitate further standards to be given. These are described below:

DESIGN SPEED

The design speed for the through traffic movements shall be determined in accordance with
Chapter 3. Stopping sight distances appropriate for the design speed should always be
provided as per Chapter 5.

Where a dual carriageway intersects with another dual carriageway, the junction between the
facilities shall be affected in such a manner that the loop roads do not entail any significant
reduction in the design speeds of the crossing carriageways.

ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES

The minimum standards to be applied for right turn deceleration lanes are the same as for at-
grade junctions.

The total length of the acceleration lane (i.e. not including the merging taper) shall never be
less than 150 meters or more than 400 meters.

HORIZONTAL CURVES AND SUPERELEVATION

The maximum superelevation for loops shall be e = 6% which, at a design speed of 50 km/h,
leads to a minimum radius of 80 meters. Where smaller radii are unavoidable, warning signs
will be necessary.

It is important where transitions occur from high to low speeds that the curves should be
compound or transitional, the radius at any point being appropriate for the vehicle speed at
that point.

VERTICAL CURVES

To ensure reasonable standards of visibility, comfort and appearance, vertical curves should
be introduced at all changes in gradient. Vertical curve lengths should be determined in
accordance with Chapter 7 so as to provide safe stopping sight distances.

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GRADIENTS

Maximum gradient through the grade-separation shall be 8%.

WIDTHS OF LOOPS

The minimum carriageway width for loops on straight sections and horizontal radii greater
than 150m shall be 4.0m with shoulders of 1.5 meters on the near side and 1.0 meters on the
far side (widened by 0.5 meter where guardrail is required). For loops on radii of 150 meter
or less, the carriageway width shall be in accordance with Table 11-1.

Table 11-1: Widths for Loops

Radius (meters) 25 30 40 50 75 100 150

Carriageway Width (m) 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0

GRADIENTS OF LOOPS

For loops, an up gradient of 5% and a down gradient of 7% should normally be regarded as

maximal.

CLEARANCES

The required vertical and horizontal clearances shall be in accordance with Chapters 4 and 7.
Good design will add 150 to 200mm additional clearance vertically to compensate for future
pavement overlays.

CAPACITY

Grade-separated junctions are generally designed using traffic volumes given in Daily High
Volume (DHV) rather than Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADTs). A detailed traffic study
and analysis can be made to determine these values. In the absence of such a study, it can be
assumed that DHV, in an urban area, is 10% of AADT. The capacity of each traffic lane, in
DHV, is usually given as 1000 vehicles per hour.

Thus, for instance, Table 1-1, which gives the dual carriageway Class 1 Design Standard,
indicates a design traffic flow of 10,000 to 15,000 AADT. The capacity of a four-lane
facility would be exceeded if the flow is greater than 500 vehicles per hour per lane (total
2000 vehicles per hour for all four lanes, and approximately 20,000 AADT). In practice, this
volume is undesirable, and the volumes of between 10,000-15,000 are appropriate for
design.

These DHV values are necessary in choosing the number of through lanes and lanes for the
loops corresponding to the junction.

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MINIMUM SPACING

The distance between two successive grade-separated junctions is an element of great

importance in ensuring the desired level of service. The recommended minimum distance is:
• 1.5 km. in urban zones
• 3.0 km. in urban zones

This is in conformity with EAC suggested practice.

11.5 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Special design principles apply to grade-separated junctions and must be considered when
comparing the characteristics of alternative designs. The main principles and described
below:

1. The high speeds normally met with on roads where grade-separation is required and the
low design speeds of ancillary roads make it necessary to pay particular attention to the
transitions between high and low speed. This not only influences the use of long speed-
change lanes and compound curves but also the choice of types of interchange which do
not result in abrupt changes in vehicle speeds.
2. Weaving between lanes on the main roadway within the interchange is undesirable and
can be avoided by arranging for diverging points to precede merging points.
3. On a road with a large number of grade-separated junctions, a consistent design speed is
desirable for loops. This speed shall be not less then 65% of the speed of the adjoining
major road.
4. As a general rule, left-turning movements that are grade-separated should be made
through a right-hand loop.
5. Unexpected prohibited traffic movements, especially where traffic is light, are difficult to
enforce and cause danger. If possible the geometric layout should be designed to make
prohibited movements difficult, e.g. on one-way loops entry contrary to the one-way
movement can be restricted by the use of suitably shaped traffic islands to supplement
the traffic signs.

11.6 TYPES OF JUNCTION

Grade-separated junctions generally fail into four categories depending upon the number of
roads involved and their relative importance. These categories are as follows:

• Three-way junctions;
• Junctions of major/minor roads;
• Junctions of two major roads; and
• Junctions of more than two major roads.

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Each category is discussed briefly below with reference, where appropriate, to the basic line
diagram layouts shown in Figure 11-1.

THREE-WAY JUNCTIONS (LAYOUTS A AND B)

For some Y-junctions where grade-separation of only one traffic stream is required, Layout
A may be appropriate. The movements associated with the missing leg would have to be
channeled to another location. This would only be appropriate of the traffic volumes on the
missing leg were slight and were capable of being served by an at-grade junction elsewhere.
See Figure 10-1 for an indication of appropriate volumes.

Layout B shows a typical three-leg junction. It is appropriate for traffic where the major road
is Class 1 and the minor road is Class 2-5. This configuration is appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour). With
a single loop lane, it is appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher loop
traffic would require multiple loop lanes.

JUNCTIONS OF MAJOR/MINOR ROADS (LAYOUTS C AND D)

Layouts C and D are the most simple for major/minor road junctions and both transfer the
major traffic conflicts to the minor road. These configurations are appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour), with
traffic of up to 10,000 ADT on the minor road. They are appropriate for traffic where the
major road is Class 1 and the minor road is Class 2- 5. With a single loop lane, it is
appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher loop traffic would require
multiple loop lanes.

Layout C shows the ‘half cloverleaf’ type of junction, which has the advantage of being
easily adapted to meet difficult site conditions.

Layout D shows the normal ‘diamond’ junction, which requires the least land appropriation.
The choice between these options is generally dependent on land requirements.

JUNCTIONS OF TWO MAJOR ROADS (LAYOUTS E AND F)

Layouts E and F show the two basic junction layouts use where high traffic flows would
make the use of simpler layouts unsatisfactory. They are appropriate for traffic volumes on
both crossing roads of between 10,000 and 30,000 AADT (3,000 vehicles per hour): in other
words, where a Class 1 road crosses another Class 1 road.
.
Layout E shows a ‘full cloverleaf’ junction involving only one bridge but requiring a large
land appropriation.

Layout F shows a typical roundabout interchange involving two bridges. This layout would
only be suitable if the secondary road containing the roundabout was of a low design speed
but carried a comparatively higher volume of traffic.

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JUNCTIONS OF MORE THAN TWO MAJOR ROADS

These junctions are difficult to design, operationally difficult, occupy large areas of land and,
requiring numerous bridges, are extremely expensive. This type of junction, although
presently unlikely in the near future in Rwanda, can often be reduced by changes in the
major road alignments, which will simplify the traffic pattern, to a combination of the more
simple and economic layouts described above.

Figure 11-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions

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12 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Road user safety has economic consequences in terms of property damage and loss of
earnings or production resulting from physical injury, in addition to the emotional
consequences of pain, suffering and death. Safety and economy are the foundations on which
competent design rests. Inadequate consideration of either will automatically result in
inadequate design. Examples of some design mitigation measures to address safety are
shown in Figure 12-9 at the end of this chapter.

Miscellaneous design items in this chapter include provision for pedestrian and bicycle
safety; safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-byes and parking bays, parking lanes,
public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers, service roads, and emergency escape
ramps.

12.2 PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE SAFETY

In Rwanda, pedestrians and cyclists use the road to the same extent as motorists, and as such
roads must be designed with their needs in mind.

To effectively plan and design pedestrian facilities, it is necessary to understand the typical
pedestrian. Likewise, to provide adequately for bicycle traffic, the designer should be
familiar with bicycle dimensions, operating characteristics, and needs. These factors
determine acceptable turning radii, grades, and sight distance.

EAC recommends using a pedestrian speed of 1.2 m/s.

Adult typical bicycle performance design criteria is:

• speed range of 13-24 km/h
• coefficient for braking of 0.32
• minimum height of 1.0 m
• width of 1.5 m

PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLE USE OF SHOULDERS

As per the EAC, it is suggested that, for roads with a significant

component of bicycle/pedestrian traffic, consideration be given
to paving the shoulder with the same material as the traffic lanes
to encourage this traffic to separate from the vehicular traffic.

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PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLE SEPARATE FOOTWAYS

Letting pedestrians and bicyclists use the shoulders is not entirely satisfactory, as there is
little to protect the pedestrian and bicyclist from adjacent speeding traffic. This is of
particular concern on high-speed and/or high volume roads. In these situations it is
preferable to provide a separate footway several meters beyond the edge of the shoulder and
separated from it by a grass strip.

The following traffic volume and pedestrian volume criteria serve as a guide for the
provision of footways instead of pedestrians/bicycle use of shoulders:

Table 12-1: Guideline for Provision of Separate Footway

Traffic Volume AADT Pedestrian Flow/day

1000 AADT 1000

This is a simplification of the suggestions found in EAC Final

Report, Vol II, p. xxxvi. However, p. xxxvii of the same document
states that footpaths should be considered when the combined flow
of pedestrians and cyclists is more than 400 per day.

The warrants indicated in the text box are certainly exceeded for most of the National Roads
(Class 2) roads in Rwanda, particularly on market days. For Rwanda, it is therefore
suggested that the above warrant from the EAC merely indicates that a separate foot/cycle
path should be considered under these circumstances, while the provision of such is a guide
and not a requirement.

Standard footway and cycleway widths are:

Table 12-2: Footway and Cycleway Widths

Minimum Standard Width for Heavy

Type
width (m) Width (m) Usage (m)
Pedestrian footway (away from carriageway) 1.0 2.25 3.5
Cycleway (away from carriageway) 2.0 2.5 3.5
Combined Cycleway and Footway 2.0 3.0 4.5
Cycle Lane (one way) 1.5 2.0 2.5

This is in agreement with EAC suggestions.

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Recommended clearances for cycle facilities are:

Table 12-3: Cycleway Clearances

Type Recommended clearance (m)

Minimum overhead clearance 0.50
Clearance to wall, fence, barrier or other fixed object 0.50
Clearance to unfenced drop-off, e.g. embankment, river, wall 1.0
Minimum clearance to edge of traffic lane for speed limit of:
50 km/h 0.50
80 km/h 1.00
100 km/h 1.50

This is in agreement with EAC suggestions.

12.3 MOTORCYCLE/CYCLE LANES

The EAC indicates two types of motorcycle tracks:

• restricted track
• exclusive track

A restricted motorcycle track can be developed within the carriageway of an existing road.
It is usually sited on the right side of the road, preferably between the curbs and the parking
lane. Some form of physical barrier or pavement markings define the corridor set aside for
the cyclists and route markings are necessary to define the route and reduce potential
conflicts. However, at crossings and intersections, this kind of cycle track ceases as a
separate mode and conflicts may occur with other forms of movement.

An exclusive motorcycle track is a complete separate right-of-way established for the sole
use of cyclists. This kind of cycle track separates the cyclists from other motorists. This type
of exclusive cycle track differs from the restricted cycle track in that it normally has a wide
right-of-way and is not developed from the existing carriageway of a road. It helps to
separate conflicts at crossings and intersections with the provision of underpasses and other
related facilities.

The EAC recommends the following warrants for

determining the need for an exclusive cycle lane:
• the total volume of traffic exceeds the
provided lane capacity, and
• the volume of motorcycles exceeds 20% of
the total volume of traffic.

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As per recent traffic studies, presently in Rwanda:

• for Class 2 roads, the motorcycle volume is less than 20% of the total traffic volume
• for Class 3-5 roads, the traffic volume does not exceed the lane capacity

As such, the employment of a cycle lane is a feature the need of which should be monitored
to determine whether or not there is some future scope for such lanes.

12.4 REST AREAS AND SCENIC OVERLOOKS

Rest areas and scenic overlooks are desirable elements of the complete highway
development and are provided for the safety and convenience of the highway user.

REST AREAS

A rest area is a roadside area with parking facilities separated from the roadway, provided
for the motorist to stop and rest. The rest area shall provide the user with an opportunity to
halt in an atmosphere that affords a distinct change from the monotony of driving.

Rest areas are of three types: major, minor and truck parking bays.

• Major rest areas are designed for long rest breaks, offering a range of facilities and
separate parking areas for heavy and light vehicles. These are designed to allow
drivers to take rest and sleep breaks required under driving hours regulations.

• Minor rest areas are designed for shorter rest breaks, and at a minimum should
provide sufficient parking space for both heavy and light vehicles. While it is not
anticipated that these stops will be used for long rest breaks/sleep opportunities,
separate parking areas for heavy and light vehicles may be required at some
locations.

• Truck parking bays are primarily designed to allow drivers of heavy vehicles to
conduct short, purpose-based stops including load checks, completing logbooks and
addressing associated operational needs.

Rest area intervals should be as follows:

• Major rest areas should be located at maximum intervals of 100 – 120 km

• Minor rest areas should be located at maximum intervals of 50 – 60 km
• Truck parking bays should be located at maximum intervals of 30 – 40 km.

This is in agreement with EAC recommended practice.

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Given that the distance from Kigali to the neighboring countries of Uganda, Tanzania,
Burundi and Congo are approx. 100 kms, there is a reduced scope for consideration of such
rest areas. They should further only be considered on Class 2 roads.

Additionally, planning for rest areas should take into account the following requirements:

a) Detailed rest area strategy

b) Proximity to a town
c) Location
d) Proposed Layout
e) Pedestrian Access and Visibility
f) Speed
g) Access
h) Minimum Signage Requirements
i) Minimum Facilities
j) Additional Facilities
k) Cross-Border Compatibility

SCENIC OVERLOOKS

A scenic overlook is a roadside area provided for motorists to park their vehicles, beyond
the shoulder, primarily for viewing the scenery or for taking photographs in safety. The
attraction of such a facility depends upon the presence of scenic and historical points of
interest. The facilities shall be designed so as to avoid marring the landscape.

SITE SELECTION

Site selection for both safety rest areas and scenic overlooks should consider the scenic
quality of the area, accessibility, and adaptability to development. Site plans should be
developed that should include proper and safe location of entrances and exits, road signs and
markings, acceleration and deceleration lanes as required, and parking areas for cars and
trucks. They may also include certain types of rest facilities (benches, tables, shelters,
drinking fountains, restrooms).

As far as possible, locations for such facilities shall be avoided where adjacent roadway
gradients are in excess of 4%.

12.5 BUS LAY-BYES AND PARKING BAYS

Rural Bus lay-byes serve to remove buses from the traffic lanes. Parking bays are provided
for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway. The location and design of lay-
byes should provide ready access in the safest and most efficient manner possible. Providing
lay-byes clear of the lanes for through traffic can considerably reduced the interference
between buses, taxis and other traffic.

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To be fully effective, lay-byes should incorporate:

 a deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area
 a standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of vehicles
expected to occupy the space at one time
 a merging lane to enable easy reentry into the through-traffic lanes.

The standard design for a bus bay is shown in Figure 12-1, without and with channelizing
islands, although the dimensions can be adjusted to suit local traffic situations. Bus bays
should be at least 3.25 m wide and should be placed adjacent to the paved or gravel shoulder
so that buses can stop clear of the carriageway. The length of a bus bay in rural areas should
be not less than 15 m. Where multiple bus bays are provided - such as when the road passes
urban areas - the length of the individual bus bays should not be less than 15 m. On heavily
trafficked roads, a channelizing island 1.0 m wide may be provided along the road edge line
to direct bus drivers to stop clear of the road shoulder.

Figure 12-1: Bus Bays With and Without Channelizing Island 1

1
Tanzania Road Geometric Design Manual, p. 9.8.

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Locating bus lay-byes and parking bays on the near side of junctions is to be discouraged.
Where possible, bus turnouts should be positioned subsequent to junctions. This location
minimizes congestion and delays at the junction. It is preferable that they are located at least
75m past an intersection.

12.6 PARKING LANES

Parking lanes differ from parking bays in that they allow for parking of vehicles rather than
buses and taxis. They should be provided at all congested business and shopping areas. The
parking lane width for parallel parking is 3m, which may be reduced to 2.5m where available
space is limited. Where additional parking capacity is desired and sufficient carriageway
width is available, angle parking may be adopted.

12.7 PUBLIC UTILITIES

GENERAL

All highway improvements, whether upgraded within the existing right-of-way or entirely on
new right-of-way, generally entail adjustment of utility facilities. The costs of utility
adjustment vary considerably depending on the location of project. Utilities include:

1) sanitary sewers
2) Water supply lines
3) overhead and underground power and communications lines
4) drainage and irrigation lines

Public utilities in Rwanda include but are not limited to:

• RWANDA ELECTRICITY CORPORATION

• RWANDA WATER AND SANITATION CORPORATION
• RWANDA TELECOMMUNICATIONS. There are ten companies providing telephone and
internet services in Rwanda. Telecommunications in Rwanda are regulated by the
Rwanda Information Technology Authority under the Rwanda Development Board,
and the Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency (RURA).

The following factors should be considered in the location and design of utility installations.

1. Utility lines should be located to minimize need for later adjustment, to

accommodate future highway improvements, and to permit servicing such lines with
minimum interference to traffic.

2. Longitudinal installation should be located on a uniform alignment as near as

practicable to the right-of-way line so as to provide a safe environment for
traffic operation and preserve space for future highway or street improvements
of other utility installations. When this is not possible, pipes should be laid under

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the sidewalks. In situations where the sidewalk is narrow or does not exist, pipes are
laid at the edge of the paved road.

3. To the extent feasible and practicable, utility line crossings of the highway should
cross on a line generally normal to the highway alignment. Those utility crossings
which are more likely to require future servicing should be encased or installed in
tunnels to permit servicing without disrupting the traffic flow.

4. The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the highway right-of-way
limits should conform to the clear roadside policies and specific conditions for the
particular section involved. Safety of the traveling public should be a prime
consideration in the location and design of utility facilities on highway rights-of-way.

5. Sometimes attachment of utility facilities to highway structures, such as bridges, is a

practical arrangement and may be authorized.

6. All utility installations on, over, or under highway right-of-way and attached
structures should be of durable materials designed for long service-life expectancy,
relatively free from routine servicing and maintenance, and meet or exceed the
requirements of the applicable industry codes or specifications. Casing pipe shall be
steel, concrete, or plastic pipe as approved by the RTDA/MININFRA, except that if
horizontal directional drilling is used to place the casing, high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) pipe must be used in place of plastic pipe. The minimum depth of cover
shall be 60mm.

7. On new construction in road locations no utility should be situated under any part
of the road, except where it must cross the highway. For underground cables
crossing the road, unprotected cables are to be placed 80 cm below a gravel road; or
cables encased with concrete pipe are placed 100 cm below a concrete/asphalt road
or paved sidewalk.

8. For water and sewerage pipes up to 150 millimeters diameter, pipes are laid at a
depth as indicated in Table 12-4. For larger pipes, the depth is generally greater than
1.5 meters.

Table 12-4: Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts

Diameter Depth Width Bedding thickness

(mm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
150 85 70 10
125 72.5 70 10
100 70 50 10
75 57.5 40 -
≤50 55 40 -

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9. For telecommunication lines, a depth of 1.0-1.2 meters for primary cable and 0.6-0.8
meters for secondary cable is specified.

10. Utility poles and other aboveground utility appurtenances that would constitute
hazards to errant vehicles should not be permitted within the highway clear zone. The
only exceptions permitted would be where the appurtenance is breakaway or could be
installed behind a traffic barrier erected to protect errant vehicles from some other
hazard. The clear zone dimension that is to be maintained for a specific functional
classification is found in Chapter 4: Cross Section Elements.

11. Street lighting is to be placed at least 1 meter behind a curb on a main road. Street
lighting should not be allowed on un-curbed roads. Similarly, power poles are to be
placed at least 60 cm behind curbs; in rural areas, the poles shall be placed at least 10
meters from the center of the road.

12. The minimum vertical clearance of wires above roads is indicated in Table 12-5.

Table 12-5: Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface in Meters

Type of Location Guys, Open-Supply Wires, Voltage to Ground

messengers, 0 to 750 750 to 15,000 to
etc. 15,000 50,000
When crossing above:
Railroads 8.2 8.2 8.5 9.1
Streets, alleys, and roadways 5.5 5.5 6.1 6.7
Private driveways 3.1 3.1 6.1 6.7
Walkways for pedestrians 2.4 4.6 4.6 5.2
only
When wires are along:
Streets or alleys 5.5 5.5 6.1 6.7
Roads in rural districts 4.3 4.6 5.5 6.1

12.8 RAILWAY GRADE CROSSINGS

While Rwanda currently does not have a rail line, there are active plans to construct such a
connection from Kenya through Uganda and to Rwanda.

The horizontal and vertical geometrics of a highway approaching an at-grade railway

crossing should be constructed in a manner that does not necessitate a driver to divert
attention from roadway conditions.

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If possible, the highway should intersect the tracks at a right angle with no nearby
intersections or driveways. This layout enhances the driver's view of the crossing and tracks
and reduces conflicting vehicular movements. Where this is not possible, the angle of skew
shall be not greater than 45º (see Figure 12-2). Crossings should not be located on either
highway or railway curves. Roadway curvature inhibits a driver's view of a crossing ahead
and a driver's attention may be directed towards negotiating the curve rather than looking for
a train. Railway curvature may inhibit a driver's view down the tracks from both a stopped
position at the crossing and on the approach to the crossings.

Figure 12-2: Railway Crossing Details

Where highways that are parallel with main tracks intersect highways that cross the tracks,
there should be sufficient distance between the tracks and the highway intersections to
enable highway traffic in all directions to move expeditiously and safely.

It is desirable that the intersection of the highway and railroad be made as level as possible
from the standpoint of sight distance, rideability, braking and acceleration distances (see
Figure 12-3). Vertical curves should be of sufficient length to insure an adequate view of the
crossing, and crest and sag curves are the same as for the roadway design. The sight distance
requirements down the tracks are similar to those for a roadway junction.

Not to scale

Figure 12-3: Railway Crossings Details

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It is necessary to install signing to provide a safe crossing. Traffic control devices for
railroad-highway grade crossings consist of signs and pavement markings. Standards for
design and placement of these devices are covered in the SADC Signs Manual.

The decision to grade separate a highway-rail crossing is primarily a matter of economics. It

should be based on long-term, fully allocated life-cycle costs, including both highway and
railroad user costs, rather than on initial construction costs. Such analysis should consider
the following:

1) Eliminating of train/vehicle collisions (including the resultant property damage

and medical costs and liability).
2) Savings in highway-rail grade crossing surface and crossing signal installation and
maintenance costs.
3) Driver delay cost savings.
4) Costs associated with providing increased highway storage capacity (to
accommodate traffic backed up by a train).
5) Fuel and pollution mitigation cost savings (from idling queued vehicles).
6) Effects of any “spillover” congestion on the rest of the roadway system.
7) Benefits of improved emergency access.
8) Potential for closing one or more additional adjacent crossings.
9) Possible train derailment costs. 2

This is in agreement with EAC suggestions.

12.9 SAFETY BARRIERS

Many accidents on high-speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and colliding with
hazardous obstacles such as trees, bridge supports, or simply rolling down a high
embankment. Similarly, a vehicle leaving a lane on a dual carriageway runs the risk of
collision with an oncoming vehicle. Barriers may also protect roadside facilities from vehicle
impact. The risk of these types of accidents can be reduced by the use of safety barriers
(guardrails). The purpose of the barrier is to absorb or deflect the impact with as little
severity as possible.

SAFETY BARRIER WARRANTS

The best solution in addressing a hazard is to remove the hazard. For instance, where the
hazard is a high fill slope, it is worth considering whether the sideslope can be flattened to
make it less hazardous. If a large tree is a hazard it should be removed.

2
Ethiopian Geometric Manual, op.cit. 2001.

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Safety barriers, or guardrails, are a compromise between the conflicting demands of

construction costs and safety, and are themselves a hazard. To be warranted guardrails
should be a lesser hazard than that which they are intended to replace.

On existing roads an important warrant for guardrail installation is an adverse accident

history. Another warrant for the installation of guardrails is to install these where the driver
cannot anticipate the danger associated with the roadway segment.

In the case of proposed roads, it is necessary to consider whether an accident would be more
likely with or without guardrails, and whether the outcome of such an accident is likely to be
more serious without guardrails than with them. In certain areas where guardrails may be of
benefit, for instance in mountainous terrain, it is often the case that the additional width
requirement for such installation cannot be achieved without significant earthwork costs,
often comprising rock materials

Another factor is that where guardrails are employed they need to be maintained. The
responsible authority cannot be held liable for not installing guardrails, but could be held
liable for an accident due to an un-maintained portion of guardrail.

The routine employment of barriers is problematic for several other reasons:

• In addition to the construction cost of the guardrail itself, there are other related
costs. These include the need to construct a wider roadway width to provide a
platform for the construction of the guardrail. The cost increases particularly in
mountainous terrain and in rock cuts, and adds more to the construction costs than
the cost of the guardrail itself.
• Traffic volumes are light on low-standard roads. It is likely that, in light of these
volumes, if the placement of guardrails were quantified using a cost/benefit analysis,
the indication is that they would not be cost effective.
• Where mountainous terrain with steep side slopes is encountered, the conscientious
driver will automatically adjust his behavior to compensate for the safety hazards
anticipated associated with the terrain, minimizing the need for the guidance
provided by the guardrail.
• Guidelines, rather than standards, usually govern the placement or non-placement of
guardrails. Thus they are not a requirement for the road construction.
• The above factors can create problems with liability. Liability is minimized when
guardrail placement is not a requirement. Conversely, if guardrails are placed but not
maintained, the chances of a finding of liability are much greater. 3

The conclusion reached from consideration of the above is that guardrails should not
routinely be constructed where long and steep side slopes are encountered. However, a
compromise in the interest of safety is to provide delineators at all such sections.

3
Ethiopian Geometric Manual, op.cit. 2001.

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Short sections of guardrail should be employed on the approaches to all bridges. Without
these, an errant driver can impact the blunt end of the bridge rail, or proceed down the steep
sideslope into the river. Guardrails should be used at all four corners of the bridges, and if
steel guardrails are chosen they should be of a parabolic end section configuration such that
the guardrail begins a distance from the edge of the lane. The end treatment should not be
blunt, but should be buried into the ground. The section closest to the bridge railing should
be strengthened by decreasing the spacing of the guardrail posts to provide a transition from
the deformable rail section to the solid bridge railing. The end of the last rail should be
doweled into the face of the bridge rail.

Where guardrails are employed, they should include reflectors to aid in the guidance of
vehicles at night.

AASHTO GUIDELINES

AASHTO Design Guidelines are given in Roadside Design Guide, Jan 1996 (Yellow Book).
In this reference, AASHTO provides requirements, warrants, and guidelines for such
barriers. It also employs a cost/benefit analyses approach in the determination. It states:

“The primary purpose of all roadside barriers is to prevent a vehicle from leaving the
traveled way and striking a fixed object or terrain feature that is considered more
objectionable than the barrier itself. 4”

The Roadside Design Guide gives a modified warrant chart developed by one state that
addresses the decreased probability of encroachments on lower volume roads [please note
that the mountainous terrain portion of the project road is also a relatively low speed road].
Note that using this figure 5 (Figure 12-4), for instance with AADT at less than 400 and 1.5:1
V/H side slopes, guardrails are only warranted when the embankment height is greater than
15 meters.

Figure 12-4: Embankment Warrants Based on Fill Height, Slope, and Traffic

4
Roadside Design Guide, Jan 1996, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, (AASHTO), p. 5-1.
5
Roadside Design Guide, op. cit., Fig 5-2, p. 5-4.

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The topic of guardrails is not discussed in the

EAC reference. The guidelines given below
are similar to AASHTO Yellow Book and
Tanzanian Warrants.

For Class 1-2 roads, guardrails are required for roads having a speed limit in excess of 70
km/h and a traffic volume of greater than 1500 AADT. In addition to at bridge approaches,
they shall be placed at section of high embankment as indicated in Figure 12-4; at bridge
piers and abutments; and at concrete columns such as light poles

For Class 3-5 roads, guardrails are only mandated at approaches to narrow bridges, being
those of a width of 7.32 meters or narrower.

Safety barriers should be placed sufficiently far from the carriageway edge so as not to cause
a hazard to vehicles, nor to reduce the effective width of the carriageway.

SAFETY BARRIER TYPES

There is no standardization of the configuration of safety barriers at present. A description

of each type of guardrail and a brief discussion of the positive and negative elements of each
type follows. 6

JERSEY BARRIERS

Of the guardrail types available, the Jersey barrier of reinforced concrete, shown in Figure
12-5, is the configuration classified as the safest. Constructed of concrete, this rigid barrier
has the best chance of preventing the vehicle from proceeding beyond the barrier. It also has
the best chance of avoiding vehicle and occupant injury if impacted, as the profile allows the
vehicle to ride up the barrier. It also has the least maintenance costs. However, the following
problems have been noted:

Figure 12-5: Jersey Barrier

6
Guide for Selecting, Locating and Designing Traffic Barriers, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), USA, 1977.

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• Jersey barriers must be continuous, as an opening, in addition to providing no

protection, is in itself a hazard. The hazard at openings for vehicles can be mitigated
if the barriers can be off-set/overlap such that the barrier at the far end of the opening
is not exposed to vehicles.
• Small keyways can be provided at the base for drainage.
• Jersey barriers are often used in medians in conjunction with paved shoulders. Inlets
in the median where Jersey barriers are used are needed to collect runoff and spaced
such that water does not spread out into the travel lanes.
• The beginning and end of the barriers usually include no transition sections, and thus
represent a hazard when hit head-on. Tapered median sections at the end can help
mitigate the effect of a blunt impact but can cause a vehicle to flip over and roll if hit.
• Typically they are used on high speed roads where the median area is reduced to
narrow the footprint of the travel way. This can lead to headlight glare problems so
the height of the barrier or the use of screens on top of the barrier needs to be
considered to try to mitigate this issue.
• Stopping Sight Distance is impacted by Jersey barriers on horizontal curves to the
left with minimum radius. Changing the radius or widening the inside shoulder will
help mitigate this concern.

GROUTED ROCK GUARDRAIL

This rigid barrier makes economic sense in that it employs materials available locally in its
construction, and also serves as a means of labor-intensive employment. However, the rail
tends to be of a wider configuration than the others, and therefore requires a larger
construction width. As it is of solid and substantial construction, it also represents a hazard
of itself. This could be mitigated by the inclusion of end sections, and by the employment of
a cross-section more closely approximating to that of a Jersey barrier. These are similar to
the common culvert headwalls or the slope protection as shown in Figure 12-6:

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Figure 12-6: Grouted Rock Barrier

STEEL RAIL GUARDRAIL

This is perhaps the most common worldwide configuration of guardrail. This flexible barrier
allows energy absorption by the barrier, leading to usually less severe accidents. Using a
steel rail supported by wood or concrete posts, its configuration is shown in Figure 12-7.
Special attention should be paid to the end sections.

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Figure 12-7: Steel Rail Guardrail

WIRE-ROPE BARRIERS

This type of guardrail consists of two strands of cables fed through concrete posts, as shown
in Figure 12-8. These guardrails are the least desirable configuration due to two factors:
• If the cable is snapped due to an impact, the entire length of guardrail becomes
ineffective and requires maintenance. By comparison, if a steel rail configuration is
hit, only one segment is ineffective.
• Wire rope barriers are very dangerous for motorcyclists, who constitute a significant
portion of Rwanda’s traffic and they can be dangerous to people standing near them
when the cable is hit.
• It appears that in some cases the cable is lost due to theft, whether for use in towing a
vehicle or for some other reason.

Figure 12-8: Wire Rope Barriers

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12.10 SERVICE ROADS

Service roads (also known as access roads or frontage roads) serve numerous functions,
depending on the type of arterial served and the character of the surrounding area. They
control access to the arterial, function as a street facility serving adjoining properties, and
maintain circulation of traffic on each side of the arterial. Service roads segregate local
traffic from the higher speed through-traffic and intercept driveways of residences and
commercial establishments along the highway.

AASHTO recommends a minimum spacing of about 50 m between the arterial and the
service roads in urban areas, but this is not practical in Rwanda. The design of service roads
is influenced by the type of service the road provides. Service roads should be of a minimum
6.0 m width for larger trading centers and towns. They should not include curbs, which
would result in parking within the 6.0m width and hence a reduction in effective
lanes/function.

12.11 EMERGENCY ESCAPE RAMPS

Where long, descending gradients exist, the provision of an emergency escape ramp at an
appropriate location is desirable for the purpose of stopping an out-of control vehicle away
from the main traffic stream.

NEED AND LOCATION

Highway alignment, gradient, length, and descent In some countries, the decision
speed contribute to the potential for out-of control of whether or not to construct
vehicles. For existing highways a field review of an emergency escape ramp is
the problem grade may reveal damaged guardrail, complicated by a tendency of
gouged pavement surfaces or spilled oil, indicating local communities to “harvest”
locations where operators of heavy vehicles have ramp materials for use in local
had difficulty negotiating a downgrade. construction. If such is the case,
the maintenance effort must be
While there are no universal guidelines available increased to ensure that
for new and existing facilities, a variety of factors adequate arresting materials
are used in selecting the specific site for an escape remain in the ramp.
ramp. Each location presents a different array of
design needs requiring analysis of factors including topography, length and percent of grade,
potential speed, economics, environmental impact, and accident experience. Ramps should
be located to intercept the greatest number of runway vehicles, such as at intermediate points
along the grade. Emergency escape ramps should only be considered for Class 1 and 2
roads.

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Escape ramps generally may be built at any feasible location where the main road alignment
is tangent. They should be built in advance of curves that cannot be negotiated safely by a
runaway vehicle, and in advance of populated areas.

TYPES

There are four emergency escape ramps types. These designs are sandpile; and arrester beds,
classified by grade: descending grade, horizontal grade, and ascending grade. These four
configurations are illustrated in Figure 12-9. All function by application of the decelerating
effect of loose material.

Sandpiles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site, are usually no more than
120 meters in length. The influence of gravity is dependent on the slope of the surface. The
increase in rolling resistance is supplied by the loose sand. Deceleration characteristics of
sandpiles are usually severe and the sand can be affected by weather. Because of these
characteristics, the sandpile is less desirable than the arrester bed. However, at locations
where inadequate space exists for another type of ramp, the sandpile may be appropriate
because of its compact dimensions.

Escape ramps are constructed adjacent to the carriageway. The use of loose material in the
arrester bed increases the rolling resistance to slow the vehicle. Descending ramps can be
rather lengthy because gravitational effects are not acting to help reduce the speed of the
vehicle. 7.

The preferred type of escape ramp is the ascending type with an arrester bed. Ramp
installations of this type use gradient resistance to advantage, supplementing the effects of
the aggregate in the arrester bed, and generally, reducing the length of ramp necessary to
stop the vehicle. The loose material in the arresting bed increases the rolling resistance, and
also serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after it has come to a safe stop.

Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a particular situation and must be compatible
with location and topographic controls at possible sites.

7
Ethiopian Design Manual, op. cit.

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Source: AASHTO
Figure 12-9: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The design and construction of effective escape ramps involve a number of considerations as
follows:
1. To safely stop an out-of-control vehicle, the length of the ramp must be sufficient to
dissipate the energy of the moving vehicle.

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2. The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangential to the carriageway to relieve
the driver of undue vehicle control problems. If possible, it should also be on the
same side of the road as the vehicle so it doesn’t have to cross in front of oncoming
vehicles.
3. The width of the ramp should be adequate to accommodate large vehicles, i.e.
minimum 5m width. Widths of ramps range from 3.6 to 12 meters.
4. The in-fill material used in the arrester bed should be clean, not easily compacted,
and have a high coefficient of rolling resistance. In-fill material should be single-
sized natural or crushed coarse granular material or sand. The use of single-size
aggregate minimizes the problems due to moisture retention as well as minimizing
required maintenance, which must be performed by scarifying when the material
compacts. Such material will maximize the percentage of voids, thereby providing
optimum drainage and minimizing compaction. Loose gravel or sand can also used.
A maximum particle size of 40 millimeters is recommended.
5. Contamination of in-fill material can reduce the effectiveness of the arrester bed by
creating a hard surface layer at the bottom of the bed. Therefore, an aggregate depth
up to 1.0m is recommended. To assist in decelerating the vehicle smoothly, the depth
of the bed should be tapered from a minimum of 75 millimeters at the entry point to
the full depth of aggregate in the initial 30 to 60 meters of the bed.
6. A positive means of draining the arrester bed should be provided to avoid
contamination of the arrester bed material. This can be accomplished by grading the
base to drain, intercepting water prior to entering the bed or edge drains. Geotextiles
can be used between the sub-base and the bed materials to prevent infiltration of
fines.
7. The entrance to the ramp must be designed so that a vehicle traveling at a high rate of
speed can enter safely. Sight distance preceding the ramp should be provided so that
an operator can enter safely. The full length of ramp should be visible to the vehicle
operator. The angle of a departure for the ramp should be small. The main roadway
surfacing should be extended to a point at the bed entrance such that both front
wheels of the out-of-control vehicle will enter the arrester bed simultaneously.
8. Advance signing is required to inform a driver of the existence of an escape ramp and
to prepare the operator well in advance so that the operator will have enough time to
decide whether or not to use the escape ramp. Regulatory signs near the entrance
should be used to discourage stopping or parking at the ramp.
To determine the distance required to bring a vehicle to a stop with consideration of the
rolling resistance and gradient resistance, the following equation may be used:
V2
L=
254(R ± G ) / 100

Where: L = distance to stop (i.e. the length of the arrester bed), m

V = entering velocity, km/h
G = percent gradient of ramp
R = rolling resistance expressed as equivalent percent gradient
(Table 12-6)

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Table 12-6: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials

Surfacing Material Rolling Resistance Equivalent

(kg/100 kg GVM) Grade (%)a
Crushed aggregate, loose 50 5.0
Gravel, loose 100 10.0
Sand 150 15.0
Pea gravel 250 25.0
Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent gradient.

For example, assume that topographic conditions at a site selected for an emergency escape
ramp limit the gradient of an ascending ramp to 10 percent (G = + 0.10). The arrester bed is
to be constructed with loose gravel for an entering speed of 140 km/h. Using Table 12-4, R
is determined to be 0.10. The length necessary is determined from the above equation. For
this case the length of the arrester bed is about 400 meters.

A plan and profile of an emergency escape ramp with typical appurtenances is shown in the
Standard Detail Drawings.

Where a full-length ramp is to be provided with full deceleration capability for the design
speed, a "last chance" device should be considered when the consequences of leaving the
end of the ramp are serious. The use of a ramp end treatment should be designed with care to
insure that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.

Mounds of in-fill material between 0.6 and 1.5 meter high with 1:1.5 slopes, have been used
at the end of ramps in several instances as the "last chance" device.

MAINTENANCE

After each incident the in-fill materials should be reinstated. The arrester beds should be
inspected periodically and the in-fill materials replaced as necessary.

12.12 VERTICAL AND LATERAL CLEARANCES

The SADC-harmonized guidelines for vehicle dimensions specify the maximum height
allowed for vehicles is a double-deck bus not exceeding 4.65 m. The vertical clearance
should be above this figure with some allowance for clearance and roadway resurfacing.

Vertical clearances are:

• 2.6m clearance for pedestrian underpasses
• 5.5 m clearance under bridge structures including pedestrian overpasses

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• 7.0 m clearance under high-power cables

• 6.0 m clearance under low-power cables.

Lateral clearances are:

• width of 0.6 m on each side of a bridge for traffic volume of less than 400 veh/day
• width of 1.0 to 1.2 m on each side of a bridge for traffic volume of 400 to 2000
veh/day
• width of approach roadway width for traffic volume of over 2000 veh/day (and for
bridges over 30 m span, the width should be increased by 1 m).

This is in agreement with EAC suggestions.

12.13 SPEED MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

Speed management encompasses a range of measures aimed at balancing safety and vehicle
speeds efficiency on a road network. It aims to reduce the incidence of driving too fast for
localized conditions, which results in road traffic crashes and serious injuries and fatalities.
Numerous practices have been implemented in urban areas to reduce speeds.

As per the EAC, the need for traffic calming across the EAC Partner States is being met
without the benefit of a systematic approach involving both the professionals and the public.
Sometimes the traffic signing is not adequate and the measures are not visible to the road
users. Harmonization of the planning, signing and design of traffic calming measures is
recommended.

A traffic calming program may be reactive, responding to citizen requests for action, or it
may be proactive, with staff identifying problems and initiating action. 8 The problem is, the
engineering component is left out of the reactive solution with an often result in a
diminishing of roadway function.

ROAD HUMPS (SPEED BUMPS)

The EAC has significant text devoted to the development of the proper sizing of speed
humps, but no information on warrants for the proper selection of speed humps. An
apparent result has been the over-emphasis on the use of speed humps as a speed control
measure where other measures are more appropriate.

8
Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, Chapter 8: Warrants, Project Selection Procedures, and Public
Involvement, ITE/FHWA, August 1999.
.

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Speed bumps create problems for various types of traffic. There is a problem with jarring of
emergency rescue vehicles such as fire trucks, ambulances, and police response vehicles, as
well as an approximate delay of between 3 and 5 seconds per hump for fire trucks and up to
10 seconds for ambulances carrying patients. In addition, some low vehicles have difficulty
in negotiating speed humps even at very low speeds, and tend to cross then at an angle. For
these reasons, speed humps are not typically used on major roads, bus routes, or primary
emergency response routes.

Some traffic studies have indicated that drivers tend to increase their speeds beyond what
they would normally drive when driving between recurring speed bumps.

WARRANTS AND GUIDELINES

Warrants are minimum requirements that should be met before speed humps are considered.
Many communities have found it convenient to standardize eligibility requirements for speed
humps.

The strongest argument for warrants is standardization. Traffic control devices in the United
States follow the MUTCD. Australians and Canadians have opted for standardization of
traffic calming measures as well. Warrants may serve to insulate traffic managers from
political pressure to install traffic calming measures where inappropriate.

Warrants compel nothing. Transportation engineers always have a degree of discretion, and
street improvements are always subject to availability of funds. In this sense, if speed humps
were subject to warrants, traffic managers would not be required to install humps if the
warrants were met, only discouraged from installing them if the warrants were not met. 9

Warrants from the cited reference were included for several traffic departments, and they
usually included factors for traffic volume, pedestrian volume, 85th percentile speed,
minimum and maximum speed, accidents per year, prohibitions on emergency and transit
routes, and sometimes “resident concurrence.”

Guidelines offer a variation to warrants. Guidelines consider the same factors as do warrants
(e.g., speeds, volumes, collisions, pedestrians) when a decision is being made whether or not
to traffic calm a street. However, warrants tend to have criteria with definitive thresholds
(e.g., when design speed is above value A, then traffic calming measure B should be used).
In contrast, guideline criteria can be more qualitative, and the preferred traffic calming
measures are suggested rather than mandated.

SUGGESTED GUIDELINES

Suggested guidelines for the installation of speed humps in Rwanda are if all of the
following criteria are met:

9
Traffic Calming, op. cit.

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Table 12-7: Guidelines for the Installation of Speed Humps

Speed Hump Warrants

1 Traffic volume AADT 1000<AADT<5000
th
2 85 Percentile Speed > 50 km/h
3 Pedestrian Crossing Volume >100 per hour
4 Accidents per Year >6
5 Maximum Street Width 12 meters
6 Maximum Gradient 6%

In addition:

1. Speed bumps should never be placed on National Highways (Class 1 and 2 roads) or
International Trunk Roads.
2. Speed bumps should never be placed on gravel roads. On such roads, under differing
light conditions, they cannot be seen and as a result constitute a genuine hazard.
They also cannot be maintained to a standard profile and hence create a further
hazard and may contribute to erosion problems of the road and side slopes.

These limitations for Road Humps are in

agreement with EAC suggestions.

ROAD HUMP DESIGN

Road humps (speed bumps) are 75 – 100 mm high and 4.0 – 9.5 m long. There are two main
types of road humps:
• circular, which are intended for traffic speed reduction only, and
• flat-topped humps, which are intended for speed reduction and for use as a pedestrian
crossing.

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The figures below illustrate standard details for speed humps.

Source: EAC Manual

Figure 12-10: Circular Road Hump

Figure 12-11: Flat-Topped Road Hump

CALMING ISLAND

There are many alternatives used for traffic calming in place of speed humps. One example
is illustrated in the alternatives of a speed bump and a calming island presented to the

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community, where the community ranked the island much higher, as seen in photos in
Figure 12-12: 10

Figure 12-12: Speed Hump vs. Calming Island

RUMBLE STRIPS

As illustrated in the following figure, rumble strips should have rounded profile, a maximum
height of 15 mm, and should be installed in groups of four extending the full width of the
carriageway, including the shoulders (if paved). The standard layout should comprise three
groups of strips, with the first pair 90 m apart and the second pair 60 m apart. Where
approach speeds are less than 80 km/hr, the number of groups can be reduced to two or even
one. The last group should be 25-50 m in advance of the hazard. It is further recommended
that the spacing and width of rumble strips should be 200 mm.

Figure 12-13: Rumble Strip

10
Traffic Calming, op. cit.

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OTHER TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES

Other measures to reduce vehicle speeds are often preferable to road humps and rumble
strips. These may include road narrowing, raised zebra crossings, islands, and use of
combination of measures.

12.14 CURBS AND SAFETY

Curbs serve several useful functions:

• they define the edge of traffic lanes, traffic islands and footways – during both day
and night (they reflect vehicle headlights);
• they support pavements and island structures so that edge break-up is avoided;
• they protect adjacent areas including the sidewalk from encroachment by vehicles;
• they assist in drainage of the carriageway.

Curbs are of three types: barrier curbs, semi-mountable, and mountable curbs, as illustrated
in Figure 12-14:

Figure 12-14: Types of Curbs

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The main types of curbs and their applications are listed below:

BARRIER CURBS

Barrier curbs are used to provide protection to footways, traffic islands, pedestrian guardrail,
traffic signs, etc. Curbs on footways should have a height of 150 – 200 mm above the road
level. If they are higher, pedestrians may prefer to walk in the road. Barrier curbs should not
normally be used on roads with vehicle speeds in excess of 70 km/h.

SEMI-MOUNTABLE CURBS

These curbs can be used where high speeds would make the use of barrier curbs hazardous.
They are useful in defining and protecting the edges of the carriageway and traffic islands at
intersections.

MOUNTABLE CURBS

These curbs are used to define traffic islands and road edges in urban conditions where there
is a high risk of the curbs being hit by vehicles.

DROP CURBS

These curbs are used to provide easier access for pedestrians, bicyclists and wheelchairs. An
example is shown in Figure 12-15.

Figure 12-15: Drop Curb

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CURBS WITH DRAIN CHANNELS

These lead to drainage grates, and use of such curbs is an effective way of providing proper
drainage in urban areas, also reducing the risk of water penetration into the edge of the
pavement.

NO CURBS IN RURAL AREAS

All of the above curb applications occur in urban settings. Curbs should not be used in rural
settings as they represent a safety hazard and can cause an errant vehicle, which would
otherwise proceed to the shoulder and sideslope, to overturn. An example of misuse of a
curb in a rural region is shown in Figure 12-16.

Figure 12-16: Don’t Use Curbs in Rural Areas

12.15 LINED TRAPEZOIDAL U-DITCHES AND SAFETY

A present common practice is to place u-shaped masonry ditches at the road edge. Two such
examples are shown in Figure 12-17:

Figure 12-17: Unsafe U-Ditches 11

11
Photo credits: 1st photo: NACE Action Guide Volume III-4: Roadway Safety. National Association of
County Engineers, 2000. 2nd photo: A Guide Towards Safer Roads in Developing Countries: A Guide for
Planners and Engineers, TRL/ODA, 1991, Berkshire, England.

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This practice should be discontinued for several reasons:

1. U-Ditches are very unsafe for travelling vehicles, parked vehicles, and pedestrians. The
vertical drop of approx. 0.8 meters occurring adjacent to a traffic lane is an extreme
hazard. It is difficult to obtain information to quantify the severity of the hazard as most
references, such as US State and Federal Departments of Transportation (DOT) do not
allow such a configuration. The AASHTO Green Book is silent of the issues of roadside
ditches, but the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide [the so-called “Yellow Book”]
includes several references regarding the relatively recent science of roadside safety and
clear zone concepts. This reference also mentions that approx. 30% of road fatalities
involve single vehicle run-off-the-road accidents, making the roadside environment very
important for safety.

2. Note that, in addition to vehicular safety concerns, a vertical-walled ditch also creates
problems for parking vehicles (drivers will worry about falling into the ditch and will
therefore park away from the ditch and thereby interfere with the traffic lanes and traffic
flow); pedestrians can break a leg or have other injuries; and the steep-walled, flat
bottom configuration can result in a disease vector in terms of ponded garbage, and
mosquito larvae.

3. Other references indicate that road agencies customarily start with a v-ditch and only
transition to a trapezoidal or u-ditch when the flow volume becomes too great for a v-
ditch to accommodate. However, calculations used in recent projects indicate that for
most situations the flow can be accommodated using a v-ditch.

4. The impetus for using a u-ditch seems to derive from past practice, as well as references
from certain sources stating that it is easier, using hand labor, to maintain a flat-bottomed
ditch than a v-ditch. However, the v-ditch proposed for Rwanda has an included angle of
greater than 90°, which means that the ditch can readily be cleaned with a shovel.

Some further sources are quoted as follows:

NACE Action Guide Volume III-4: Roadway Safety. National Association of County Engineers, 2000.

“Roadside drainage features, including culvert openings, head walls, and ditches, are among the
more common contributors to fatal and serious injury crashes. Often drainage features have been
constructed without consideration of their potential to affect a vehicle leaving the road, and this
can be very hazardous.

There has been a considerable volume of work done to improve the design and installation of
drainage features. Frequently, features provide for a forgiving environment, usually by allowing
the vehicle to pass safely over the feature rather than to be abruptly stopped, vaulted into the air,
or rolled over by it. Such safety features add comparatively little to the cost of the structure….”

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Maintenance of Drainage Features for Safety, FHA July 2009:

“The curbs, gutters, channels, and ditches that carry the run-off away from the roadway can have
a serious effect on an errant motorist or bicyclist when not designed and maintained correctly….

Drainage ditches should be designed so a vehicle leaving the roadway can cross over them
without the vehicle overturning, being abruptly stopped or causing the driver to lose control….

Ditch side slopes that are too steep and ditches that are too deep can initiate instability in a
vehicle causing it to roll over or cause the vehicle to snag against the ditch back slope and
abruptly stop or vault the vehicle into the air.”

SLABS OVER SIDE DITCHES

It has been a regular practice to use concrete slabs to allow pedestrian access to buildings or
houses adjacent to the road. In fact, often these slabs protrude into the road lane. The slabs
are also easily broken, creating a safety hazard. An example of a small foot slab is shown in
Figure 12-18.

In place of this practice, short sections of 600mmØ (or smaller) buried pipe culvert with a
minimum of 0.2m of cover, should be used.

Such a decision also has safety advantages. The slabs have no radii from the roadway, and it
is easy for a driver of a vehicle to misjudge his wheelpath and fall into a ditch. With a pipe
culvert, the fill allows for the construction of adequate radii. The radius also results in a
sideslope rather than a dropoff for errant vehicles.

Figure 12-18: Unsafe Slabs over a U-Ditch

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Figure 12-19: Effect of Engineering Design on Road Safety 12

12
Overseas Road Note 6, p. 22.

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13 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with road furniture and markings. These features include the elements
intended to improve the driver's perception and comprehension of the continually changing
appearance of the road. Elements addressed herein include traffic signs, road markings,
marker posts, traffic signals, and lighting: 1

• Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient
maneuvering on the road.
• Road markings delineate the pavement edges and thereby clarify the paths that
vehicles are to follow.
• Marker posts assist in a timely perception of the alignment ahead and, when
equipped with reflectors, provide good optical guidance at night.
• Traffic signals are key elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and
for some rural junctions.
• Lighting is provided to improve the nighttime safety of a road.

Consistent with EAC recommendations, traffic signs, road

markings, and marker posts shall conform to the requirements of
the SADC - Road Traffic Signs Manual.

13.2 TRAFFIC SIGNS

The extent which signs and markings are required depends on the traffic volume, the type of
facility, and the degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient operation.

The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric design.
However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic signing as a means
of informing and warning drivers, and controlling drivers. Design of traffic signs and road
markings is an intricate part of the design process.

Traffic signs are of three general types: 2

• Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement
• Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
• Informatory Signs: convey information of use to the driver

1
SADC Road Traffic Signs Manual, 3rd Edition, 1999, South Africa.
2
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways (MUTCD), U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, USA, 1988.

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The EAC recommends the use of Full Fiberglass Traffic Signs

System (FFTSS) to help overcome the persistent problem of
vandalism of road signs made of metallic materials that have a
ready market as scrap metal. FFTSS signs are therefore mandated
for all new construction and shall be employed wherever older
signs require replacement.

13.3 ROAD MARKINGS

The function of road markings is to encourage safe and expeditious operation. Road
markings either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve independently to indicate
certain regulations or hazardous conditions. There are three general types of road markings
in use- pavement markings, object markings and road studs.

Pavement markings consist of centerlines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines, etc.
Nighttime visibility of these markings can be markedly improved by mixing small glass
beads into the paint or thermoplastic before applying it to the road surface. Other pavement
markings such as stop and pedestrian crossings and various word and symbol markings may
supplement pavement markings.

The EAC recommends and we concur with the adoption of an all-

white pavement marking system. This provides for greater
uniformity and has economical and technical advantages since the
whole life cost of white markings is cheaper and white markings
have better retro-reflectivity under similar circumstances to
yellow lines.

The EAC is silent on whether the centerline markings should

indicate passing and no-passing zones. For Rwanda, it is
recommended that such indication is given for all paved Class 2
roads.

MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS

By determining graphically the sight distances on the plans and recording them at frequent
intervals, the designer can appraise the overall layout and affect a more balanced design by
minor adjustments in the plan of profile. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are
tentatively established, the practical means of examining sight distances along the proposed

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highway is by direct scaling on the plans. Determining sight distances and hence passing
and no-passing zones is not presently accomplished by use of highway design software,
and must be done by hand. A method for scaling sight distances is demonstrated in Figure
13-1. The figure also shows a typical sight distance record that could be shown on the final
plans.

Figure 13-1: Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans

Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is desirable
to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station. Both
horizontal and vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths recorded.
In the case of two-lane highways, passing sight distance in addition to stopping sight
distance should be measured and recorded.

Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as

buildings, hedges, wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These generally
are plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as indicated at the

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upper left in Figure 13-1. The cut slope obstruction is shown on the worksheets by a line
representing the proposed excavation slope at a point 600 millimeters (approximate average
of 1070 millimeters and 150 millimeters) above the road surface for stopping sight distance
and at a point about 1100 millimeters above the road surface for passing sight distance. The
position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled from the plotted highway
cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be measured between points on
the one traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the middle of one lane to the middle of
the other lane. Such refinement on two-lane highways generally is not necessary and
measurement to the centerline or traveled way edge is suitable. Where there are changes of
grade coincident with horizontal curves that have sight-limiting cuts slopes on the inside, the
line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level either lower or higher than the assumed average
height. In measuring sight distance the error in the use of the assumed 600-or 1100-
millimeters height usually can be ignored.

Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the
right center of Figure 13-1. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 millimeters apart and
with scratched lines 150 millimeters and 1070 millimeters from the upper edge, in
accordance with the vertical scale, is a useful tool. The 1070 millimeter line is placed on the
station from which the vertical sight distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about this
point until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance between the initial station
and the station on the profile intersected by the 150 millimeters line is the stopping sight
distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile intersected by
the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.

A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure 13-1. Sight distances in
both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile
sheet of the proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled to the nearest
10 meters and those greater than 500 meters to the nearest 50 meters. Sight distances can
easily be determined also where plans and profiles are drawn using computer-aided design
and drafting systems (CADD), although such programs presently do not automatically make
this determination.

Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones (Ref MUTCD). No-passing zones thus
established serve as a guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zone so
determined should be checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings
are placed.

Object Markers. Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in

order to provide the appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects
should be adequately marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material. Where
the object is in the direct line of traffic, the obstruction and marking thereon should be
reflectorized.

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Road Studs. Road studs are manufactured plastic objects incorporating reflectorized
patches. Hybrid markings consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs
can be useful for nighttime driving in unlit areas. They are generally placed along the
centerline of the road, in the middle of the “broken-line” portion of the marking, for added
demarcation. The studs can also be used to give an audible and tactile warning of crossing
any line that incorporates them, such as a pedestrian crossing.

EAC Partner States are encouraged to use road studs. In

particular, road studs should be used throughout the regional
routes to ensure durable and all weather visibility of centerlines.

All permanent pavement and object markings shall be formed in thermoplastic materials and
shall be reflectorized.

13.4 MARKERS POSTS

Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditious
operation. There are three types of marker posts in use – guide posts, kilometer posts, and
road reserve marker posts.

Guide posts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes
in shoulder width, abrupt changes in the alignment, approaches to structures, etc. For
changes in shoulder width and approaches to structures, guide posts should be placed at 50m
intervals, 0.25m past the edge of the shoulder. For spacing of guide posts at curves, see
Table 13-1.

Table 13-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves

Curve Radius (m) Guide Post Spacing (m)

500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5

Kilometer posts are suggested for all Class 1 and 2 roads. The kilometer posts shall be
numbered as per convention obtained from the RTDA or beginning at the trunk road the link
road intercepts. Kilometer posts shall be installed along the whole road at an interval of
distance of 5 kilometers from each other and they should be placed in stagger thus forming a
10 km interval on each side of the road. They shall be placed every 1 km, 0.25m past the
edge of the shoulder.

This is in agreement with the suggestions of the EAC.

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Unauthorized encroachments tend to develop within the road reserve area. These unwanted
developments can be limited by providing Road Reserve Marker Posts to properly demarcate
of the border of the road reserve.

Road reserve marker posts are recommended on both sides of the road at intervals of 100
m from each other when traversing inhabited areas and at 300 m on other areas. Whenever
new villages are formed along the roads, additional road reserve marker posts should be
erected to meet the 100 m interval.

This is in agreement with the suggestions of the EAC.

Marker posts shall be constructed from either concrete or plastic. Plastic marker posts may
have the following advantages:
• Lower initial costs;
• Lower maintenance cost due to their ability to absorb an impact and remain intact;
• Minimal damage to impacting vehicle;
• Safer highway environment; and
• Unlikely to be removed by local population for alternative use.

The incorporation of reflective panels into the marker post greatly improves their visibility at
night.

13.5 TRAFFIC SIGNAL

Traffic Signals control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by indicating the priority of
movement for certain predetermined or traffic-actuated intervals of time. They are key
elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions. The
phasing of the signals at each road junction should be integrated to achieve optimum
efficiency. In designing the road, careful consideration should be given to the junction
location and geometry with respect to traffic signal visibility and pedestrian requirements.

The layout of traffic lanes at signal-controlled junctions determines the functioning of the
junction. Adequate provision should be made for right and left turning lanes and signals
must be phased accordingly. Consideration should also be given to the provision of
pedestrian signals at major junctions.

Presently, traffic signals based on only the red and

green light (a two lights system) are allowed under the
laws of Rwanda, although these are not employed in
practice. AS per EAC, this should be prohibited.

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13.6 LIGHTING

Lighting is provided to improve the safety of a road. Statistics indicate that the nighttime
accident rate is higher than during daylight hours, which, to a large degree, may be attributed
to impaired visibility. In urban areas, where there are concentrations of pedestrians and
junctions, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents. However, lighting of rural
highways is seldom justified except at junctions, intersections, railway level crossings,
narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, and areas where there is activity adjacent to
the road (e.g. markets).

To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting installation,
luminaries should be mounted at a height of at least 9 meters. High mounted luminaries
provide greater uniformity of lighting and mounting heights of 10 to 15 meters are
frequently used. High mast lighting (special luminaries on masts of 30 meters) is used to
illuminate large areas such as intersections. This type of lighting gives a uniform
distribution of light over the whole area and thus illuminates the layout of the intersection.

Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind vertical curbs whenever practical. The
appropriate distance is 0.5m behind the curb for roads with a design speed of 50 km/h or
less, and 1.2m or greater for roads with a design speed of 80 km/h or greater. Where poles
are located within the clear zone, regardless of distances from the edge of the carriageway,
they should be designed to include a frangible impact attenuation feature. However, these
types of poles should not be used on roads in densely populated areas, particularly with
footways. When struck, these poles may collapse and cause injury to pedestrians or damage
adjacent property. Because of lower speeds and parked vehicles on urban roads, there is
much less chance of injuries to vehicle occupants from striking fixed poles as compared to
higher speed roads.

On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or on the right hand side
of each carriageway. However, with median installation, the cost is generally lower and
illumination is higher on the high-speed outer lanes. On median installations, dual mast
arms should be used, for which 12-15 meter mounting heights are favored. These should be
protected with a suitable safety barrier. On narrow medians, it is preferable to place the
lighting poles so that they are integral with the median barrier.

When it is intended to install highway lighting in the future, providing the necessary
conduits/ducts as part of the initial road construction can result in considerable savings. 3

3
An International Guide for Roadway Lighting, AASHTO, Washington DC. 1984.

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14 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

14.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the survey requirements associated with the geometric design process.
Survey data for design purposes consists of mapping of sufficient detail for the level of
design being undertaken. In some instances, a digital terrain model (DTM) for use with
computer design software may be required.

The survey data product is dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial
photography (or Google® maps), field topographical survey, or a combination of the two.

The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1. Size and scope of the project
2. Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
3. Estimated data collection costs
4. Level of accuracy and detail needed

The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements
(type of data, accuracy, and area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for
obtaining the survey data and for selecting the method of data collection.

14.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION: PHOTOGRAMMETRY VS. FIELD SURVEY

A topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than
photogrammetry. The effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or
rural), ground cover, etc.

Photogrammetry is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost-
effective. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetry is usually the preferred choice.
However, if a project is short, has dense foliage, or requires only mapping of limited
features, a field survey is the logical choice. Some field work will be required at any event
for most projects to compile information on property lines, rights-of-way (ROW), utilities,
culverts, trees, buildings, bridges and sign data unavailable through aerial photography.

Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within ±60
millimeters. If more precise vertical accuracy is required, the data must be obtained through
a field survey. If precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for highway pavement
elevations, or if obstructed views occur, photogrammetric data can be supplemented with
survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be collected before the
photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Table 14-1 provides
guidelines for when photogrammetry, survey, or a combination of both should be used. It

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must be noted that this table is a guideline only, and that appropriate methods also depend on
factors such as project location (rural or urban), and length.

Table 14-1: Survey Data Requirements

Project Type Appropriate Collection Typical

Terrain Data Method Bandwidth
New Construction and Mapping1 & DTM2 Photogrammetry2 100 m - 150 m
Reconstruction

Resurfacing & Rehabilitation Mapping1& DTM2 Photogrammetry2 25 m - 120 m

Resurfacing & Rehabilitation

Over 0.5 km long Mapping1 & DTM2 Survey 25 m - 120 m
Under 0.5 km long No Mapping3 N/A N/A
Resurfacing Mapping1& DTM
(may be required) Survey 25 m - 100 m
1 2
Intersection Reconstruction Mapping &DTM Photogrammetry2 100m - 150 m
New Bridge & Bridge
Replacement4
Over 6 ha Mapping1 & DTM2 Survey 100 m - 150 m
Under 6 ha No Mapping3 NA 100 m – 150 m

1. Mapping scales will be 1:2000

2. If accuracy greater than 60 mm is required, the DTM needs to be supplemented with surveyed elevations
3. Instead of new mapping, consider the use of record plans and photo enlargements supplemented by field
survey checks.
4. For bridges, mapping scales must be enlarged. The bandwidth should be a distance up/downstream
consistent with the Bridge Design Manual.

14.3 SURVEY DATA PRODUCTS

While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design,
they should also serve the requirements of Construction. The project designer has the
responsibility to ensure that survey data obtained by Design meets the Construction needs,
eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground data.

Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000
scale. In addition, 1:500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or
bridge sites.

If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross
sections. DTMs allow more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in
construction. Using the DTM approach, earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be

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calculated based on the final design centerline. With DTM data, cross sections for stakeout
purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired station numbering.
DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if Construction needs require
centerline cross section data.

Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e.
*.ttn or *. dtm files) for use in the CADD system.

Field survey data must be obtained using total stations or GPS, the output from which should
be compatible with the CADD system to be used.

14.4 SURVEY DATA BY PROJECT TYPE

Table 14-1 shows the amount and type of survey data that is generally required and the
method of data collection for each project type. Some projects may require a combination of
products. The table shows typical bandwidths by project type. These should be kept as
narrow as possible but should be usable for ROW mapping. The bandwidth can vary within
a project and the DTM band can be smaller than the mapping band.

Bridge rehabilitation projects will generally not require any terrain data unless necessary for
major rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used for
new bridges and bridge replacement projects.

Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping.
However, limited data may be required such as pavement elevations where superelevation
adjustments are anticipated. Other projects may require very limited data such as pavement
and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed then a field survey is preferred.

14.5 FIELD SURVEYS

Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most
up-to-date surveying equipment such as total stations or GPS to examine the road alignment
and cross sections and any bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered necessary to
complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.

Since projects are to be carried out utilizing CADD, it is essential to organize the
topographic surveys as the first step of a coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore
the whole topographic survey should be made using total stations which will directly record
the alignment, profile, and cross section data on diskette files which will be retrieved by the
CADD system during the design stage. A control traverse should be established using GPS
or coordinated and tied into the national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the
field in permanent concrete posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings.

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The existing road centerline should be identified and staked every 25 meters. The
coordinates will be recorded automatically using Total Station theodolites.

The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections will also be taken.

The following methodology will be used to establish the original setting out data for the re-
establishment of the centerline:
• The control traverse will be established, monumented, and the coordinates in X, Y, Z
accurately measured and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete beacons will
be established at intervals of 150 - 300 meters. These beacons will be located as close
as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where one beacon is visible from the
other along the road.
• Using the established polygon network of beacons, each of the centerline points will
be coordinated.
• Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the
coordinated points will be established.

Cross sections will be leveled for each centerline point to a minimum of 25 meters distance
from the centerline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and
embankments will be taken. Topographic survey information will be collected for an
adequate distance on each side of the centerline and cross sections at appropriate intervals,
depending on the type of terrain. Each cross section will comprise such numbers of points as
to enable it to properly define the existing road and such other spots as are required to define
the ground shape for an adequate distance beyond the existing construction width. The data
will be used to generate a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All pertinent
features including buildings, drainage structures details, built up areas, etc. will be recorded
for inclusion on the design drawings.

New alignments will be recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp
curves exist and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal alignments shall be given due attention with respect to sight distance,
maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and safety. In introducing new
alignments, major bridges and drainage structures as control points or as node points are to
be retained on the new centerline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a
need for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen realignment
will be established. The centerline of the road will be defined at every 25 meters interval.
Topographical cross-sections, extending at least 25 meters either side of the centerline, will
be taken at each of the centerline reference points.

Recommended bridge and major culvert sites will be surveyed and mapped at a scale of
1:500 with contours at 0.5 meters intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of
the site surveys will be tied to the elevation of the primary traverse.

Topographic data will be processed by the project computer system as work progress.

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Detailed site investigation and surveys shall be carried out for areas susceptible to flooding
or landslide and at all recommended new or replacement drainage structure locations
including a sufficient length upstream and downstream to the structure. All topographical
surveys under taken shall be acceptable to international standards for such works.

Each survey crew will be equipped with an electronic total station, a three-prism line road,
and an electronic field book. The total station will have unlimited on-board data storage by
utilizing integrated circuit data storage cards. Each card, containing at least 32 KB of
memory, should be capable of storing 500 points. The use of an electronic field book will
allow the Total Station operator to code in descriptions and other important information for
each data point.

Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
• One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
• One team to survey the center line and the longitudinal profile,
• One team to survey the cross sections, and
• One team for the land acquisition survey

The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains
horizontal coordinate points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to
develop a full topographic map of the area. The computer file must be capable of being
downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting program. These programs
should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional digital terrain model. The
plot can be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The step-by-
step procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:

• Base map information may be obtained from the Rwanda Mapping Authority.
• The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance of 2 km. A coordinate
system will be established for the roadway sections.
• A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System will be used to locate
precisely the topographic control points required for the project. A series of receiver
stations will be used to generate these points with a high degree of accuracy by
measuring signals generated from a group of three or four geosynchronous satellites.
The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point will be determined after a review
of the existing coordinate information.
• A bench circuit will be run using accepted level procedures and degrees of accuracy.
Each benchmark will be monumented and assigned coordinate points. Once
horizontal and vertical controls are established, the survey crews will then cross-
section the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section will be dependent on
the terrain of the roadway and the different natural and man-made features. The
minimum distance from centerline for cross-sectioning will be 25 meters. The
number of points will depend on the topography, road lane characteristics, project
road features within the right-of-way, and as required for the purpose of design and

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computations of quantities for earthwork and profile course. Areas where existing
roads cross the alignment and areas affected by cross drainage will require additional
topographic survey. Such supplementary topographic survey will be carried out
concurrently during the progress of survey along the alignment. 1

14.6 THE NATIONAL GRID

Rwanda is a signatory to the African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) convention, and
hence the Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA) has adopted for its geocentric
datum the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF-5000) system, locally referred to
as TM Rwanda, to be consistent with the convention’s other signatories. 2 All cadastral
information in Rwanda is recorded using this system, and hence all coordinates, bearings and
elevations indicated in the text below and on the drawings conform to this system, the
parameters of which are as follows: 3

Table 14-2: TM Rwanda Data Parameters

Parameter Description
Projection Transverse Mercator
False Easting 500000.000000
False Northing 5000000.0000000
Central Meridian 30.000000
Scale Factor 0.99990000
Linear Unit Meter
Geographic Coordinate System GCS ITRF 2000
Datum D ITRF 2000
Prime Meridian Greenwich
Angular Unit Degree

Note that in attempting to locate these roads using Google Earth™ maps, this system uses a
different datum, so a conversion is required in order to relate the Google Earth™ coordinates
to the Rwanda coordinates. The conversion can be accomplished between the two systems
using the following website:

http://ws.plexscape.com/Services/CoordSysWS/Pages/Transformations.aspx

Instructions: Put the values in on the bottom left and then hit the convert coordinates
on the top right.

1
H. Bonchard and F.H. Moffitt, Surveying (Fifth Edition), International Textbook Co., Scranton PA, 1965.
2
http://afrefdata.org/
3
Parsons, Task 1.2 RICA Report, 9 Jan 2012, p.3.

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For reference, the Google Earth™ maps use the WGS 1984 UTM Zone 36S system. The
coordinates in terms of northings and eastings in both meters and degrees/minutes/seconds
are as per the following table:

Table 14-3: WGS 1984 UTM Zone 36S Data Parameters

WKID 32736 Authority: ESPG

Projection Transverse Mercator
False Easting 500000.000000
False Northing 10000000.0000000
Central Meridian 33.000000
Scale Factor 0.9996
Latitude of Origin 0.0
Linear Unit Meter
Geographic Coordinate System GCS WGS 1984
Datum D ITRF 2000
Angular Unit Degree (0.0174532925199433)
Prime Meridian Greenwich (0.0)
Datum: D WGS 1984
Spheroid WGS 1984
Semimajor Axis 6378137.0
Semiminor Axis 6356752.314245179
Inverse Flattening 298.257223563

The website http://www.magnetic-declination.com/ indicates that the magnetic declination

for Rwanda is very slight, at approx. 0º 53’ positive on average.

14.7 TOPOGRAPHY

All points of detail are to be located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage
and offset being recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such
as bearing and distance, to be used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are to be
checked by detailed face measurements. All physical features adjacent to the line whether
natural or artificial are to be recorded within a range of 25 meter either side of the centerline
in open country and in small villages (market centers) and towns.

14.8 BENCH MARKS

Standard benchmark leveling procedure is to be followed with the following limitations

observed:

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• A benchmark is to be established every 300 - 500 meters along the line close to the
right of way, and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts) Bench marks must
be inter-visible (see Figure 14-1 Standard Bench Mark).
• Every benchmark is to be checked leveled by a forward run and a subsequent
backward run forming a closed "loop."
• The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:

C=±K

Where C = Maximum permissible error of closure in centimeters,

K = distance between bench marks in kilometers

This gives Table 14-4 for comparison of accuracy

Table 14-4: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys

K (km) 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0

C (cm) ±0.7 ± 1.0 ± 1.4 ± 2.2 ± 3.2

Figure 14-1: Standard Bench Mark

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14.9 PROFILE AND CROSS SECTIONS

Profile and cross-section leveling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is to be done by
direct leveling to two decimal places of a meter, and wherever practicable the cross section
levels are to be obtained in the same manner. Where impracticable direct leveling may be
replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or Rhodes arc for cross-section work.

Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark as in the case of
failing light, a sudden storm, etc., a Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established from
which the work may be resumed.

Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 meters each side of the centerline.
Profile leveling will be run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks, previously
established, and the leveler must close on each successive benchmark as a turning point. For
each succeeding length of profile any error from the preceding length shall be discarded, the
elevation of the intervening benchmark, previously established, being accepted and used for
the succeeding length of profile.

The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 1.5 centimeters.
Check that closure on each successive benchmark is within the prescribed tolerance. Where
the difference is outside this limit the run must be repeated.

14.10 PHOTOGRAMMETRY

The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming,
especially if changes to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground conditions
or changing design criteria. The use of photogrammetry can speed up these procedures and
provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site engineering works such as access to
borrow pits, spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works, to be designed at a later date.

As an example, photogrammetry from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield

uncontrolled contour mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-meter
intervals. It is advisable to correct the contour model by establishing two ground control
points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the photographs either to the national or local
grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of photogrammetry relate to the
lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.

It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order to

be able to select an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For
interpretation in areas of high relief the viewer would use every photograph in the run (80
percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief exaggeration). For areas of low
relief the viewer could select every other photograph, to double relief exaggeration. In
extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer could select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.

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The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground
resolution of the interpretation. Table 14-3 indicates the optimum scales of photography
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.

14.11 DETAILED SURVEY AND ALIGNMENT DESIGN

With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag the
approximate centerline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto
photogrammetrically-plotted contour maps and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the
office prior to embarking on detailed field work.

Table 14-5: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks

Task Activity Optimum Air

Photo Scale
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Terrain classification 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Landslide hazard mapping 1: 10,000 - 1: 20,000
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of chosen corridor(s) for geotechnical
purposes 1: 10,000 - 1 : 15,000
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design and
quantities 1: 10,000 - 1 : 15,000
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and
quantities 1 : 5,000 - 1 : 10,000

If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical mapping surveys should be
undertaken at scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It will be easier for personnel to locate
themselves with the required accuracy if an approximate centerline has been set out, but the
engineer should be prepared to modify the location of the centerline in the light of the
geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should ideally be carried out
prior to the centerline flagging exercise using aerial photograph enlargements or compass
traverse as a means of location positioning.

With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed. Design
of the detailed vertical and horizontal alignments will require topographical mapping at a
scale of 1:1,000 with contour intervals at a maximum of 2 meters, using ground survey,
photogrammetry or a combination of the two. Ground survey may be preferable at this stage

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due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of photogrammetry will require the
establishment of a base line traverse and the commissioning of air photography at a scale of
between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. Plan and profile drawings, and schedules of earthwork and
retaining wall designs and quantities can then be produced for contract documentation. 4

4
Ethiopian Design Manual, op.cit.

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15 PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN

15.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter has been prepared as a guide and checklist for personnel engaged in road
design. It is not intended as a textbook nor should the contents be considered mandatory in
the design of all road projects. It is recognized that whilst the design procedure is generally
the same for any project, there are many specific issues which the designer must consider in
proceeding with the design of each individual project

Reference is made in this chapter to the procedures to be followed in the preparation of data
for processing by computer-aided methods. However, whether the designer uses manual or
computer methods, he must always be aware that good engineering judgement must be
exercised at all times. A complete review of all field data, project requirements, economics
and applicable specifications must be considered in order to produce the most technically
sound and economic design for each project.

The designer must also be aware of any relevant safety and environmental regulations and
incorporate these features in the design. The steps of the design process are shown in Figure
15-1. The chapter ends with the presentation of a checklist for road link design.

15.2 REVIEW OF FIELD DATA

Horizontal Alignment. In many instances the designer has little control over the location of
the horizontal alignment due to right-of-way restrictions or other factors. The following
items should be considered:

1. Review topographical data along with horizontal alignment to insure that steep
gradients are avoided where possible.
2. Review topography to insure that alignment does not parallel major drainages, which
may result in channel changes, extra culvert lengths due to skews, etc.
3. Review curve data to insure that degree of curvature meets the allowable maximum
for the required design speed. Also avoid broken curves in alignment or short
tangents on switch back curves that make it impossible to design adequate
superelevation transitions.

Projects to be designed by computer-aided methods should have horizontal alignment data

submitted as follows:

1. If the project has been located on photogrammetric manuscripts, the designer need
only submit beginning station and degree of curvature and coordinates of every
horizontal P.I.

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Define BASIC PARAMETERS
 Road function
 Traffic flow
 Terrain type

SELECT DESIGN CLASS

Consider RELAXATIONS DETERMINE TRIAL ALIGNMENTS

of STANDARD with and IDENTIFY ELEMENTS not
appropriate warning meeting GEOMETRIC STANDARDS
measures
Yes
Do all elements meet DESIGN Yes
No
Are the CLASS STANDARDS?
ECONOMIC
CONSEQUE
NCES of No
UPGRADIN
G the design
large?

Are design elements consistent

with DESIGN SPEED?

Complete design(s)

No Does the project have an

Review Project acceptable ECONOMIC RETURN?

Yes

Can the economic return be Yes

improved by amended alignment?

No

Figure 15-1: The Design Process

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2. If the project has been located by ground surveys, the designer should submit
horizontal alignment data in notebook form.

The designer will furnish ERA with copies of horizontal alignment listing (HAL), which will
list all stations and coordinates of P.C., P.I. and P.T. of each curve, including curve data.

Terrain Cross Sections - the terrain cross sections (original cross sections) should be
reviewed for accuracy keeping the following points in mind:

1. Check to see that notes are complete and that cross sections extend sufficient distances
from the centerline to accommodate the template and will permit shifting of the
alignment, if necessary, without re-cross sectioning.
2. Check all benchmarks, turning points, H.I.'s etc., to insure that cross section elevations
will be reduced correctly.

Check to see that stream profiles have been surveyed and so noted in the field notes to
distinguish them from cross sections.

For projects where terrain data is taken directly from aerial photography, the designer will
convert the data for processing. The level of detail from aerial photographs depends on the
flying height, cloud cover and ground vegetation.

Topography Data - Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be
collected electrically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.

Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be more complete and accurate in that it
will include all planimetric features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing
improvements, in addition to elevation contours and spot elevations.

The topography data should be checked for completeness and accuracy against other maps
available to the designer.

Topography data will be of great use to the designer in determining right-of-way restrictions,
swamp or rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other physical features
that affect the design.

15.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

Prior to commencing the design, the designer should tabulate all design criteria to be used on
the particular project so that other personnel working on the project will be aware of it. This
data will be obtained through discussions with the ERA Engineer, commitments to local
governing bodies, or through his own analysis of design requirements.

The following items should be tabulated and included in the design file:

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

1. Design speed.
2. ADT present and future. The ADT should be noted as actual count, listing the date of
count or estimate.
3. A typical section sketch should be prepared showing the proposed geometric section,
such as finished and subgrade widths, ditch dimensions, crown and superelevation, cut
and fill slope selections, etc.
4. The files should show design criteria used in determining drainage requirements, such as
25-year flood frequency, hydrologic chart, etc.
5. Right-of-way widths should be noted including agreements for construction easement.
6. If a soils profile has been taken, it should be part of the file with cover thickness
tabulated. In some areas, a chemical analysis at culvert locations may be required to
determine need for protective coating of pipes.
7. The designer should note whether the profile grade should roll with the terrain, avoiding
high fills and cuts, or whether grades should be as smooth as possible.
8. All control profile elevations should be noted such as, existing pavements to be matched,
minimum pipe cover requirements, railroad elevations crossings, bridge elevations to be
matched, as well as any other elevation requirements which may have been agreed to
with abutting property owners.
9. Locations of possible borrow and aggregate pits should be noted.
10. The designer should note the requirements for earthwork balancing such as maximum
balance distance, whether tight balance or borrow and waste designs should be followed
and whether ditches can be widened or slopes flattened to achieve better balanced design.
11. Shrinkage and swell factors should be noted, whether calculated or estimated.
12. Location of rock outcrops, swamps, springs should be indicated.
13. The need for fencing, gates, cattle guards, cattle passes, curbing, guard rail, etc., should
be noted and criteria used for determining these needs.
14. The need for road approaches, and acceleration, deceleration and passing lanes should be
noted.
15. All available information on base course and surfacing should be noted to determine
thickness, asphalt requirements, need for bituminous seal coats, etc.
16. All other items that may have a bearing on the design should be noted such that all
personnel involved in the design will be aware of criteria and design requirements. The
designer should obtain copies of all correspondence on the project and make it part of the
design file. 1

15.4 SITE TRIP

It is imperative that the designer makes a field trip to the site and walks the entire alignment
reviewing the topography before start of actual design. At this time he can note special
problems and design considerations discussing these items with the ERA Engineer or his

1
Ethiopian Design Manual, op. cit.

Chapter 15: Procedure for Design 15-4

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

staff. The designer should take photographs of special problem areas to enable him to best
solve design problems.

After this field trip and discussions, the designer has a much better overall picture of the
project and its requirements and can best determine the extent of construction details to go
on the plans. Projects to be designed for contract work will require more details and
explanation on pay quantities than force account projects.

15.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN DRAWINGS

During the early stages of design, preferably prior to the field trip, the following preliminary
design drawings or sketches should be prepared:

1. Typical section of roadway showing geometric (sketch is adequate).

2. Drainage plan map showing all drainage areas and stationing were they cross the
proposed road. This drawing need not be to scale.
3. Profile plot of existing centerline ground line. This can be plotted at a scale of usually
1:1000 vertical and 1:10,000 horizontal.
4. Plan plot of alignment. This shows all planimetric features of the terrain - (scale is
usually 1: 10,000). Right - of - way lines should be superimposed on this drawing to
determine if there will be any restrictions.
5. Soils profile plot and material pit drawings showing type and depth of material.
6. Stream profiles extending a sufficient distance upstream and downstream to determine
pipe grade and skew angles.

15.6 PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE

Up to this time the designer has been primarily engaged in reviewing and assembling field
data, setting design criteria and establishing project requirements with very little design work
accomplished. The following guideline will assist the designer in proceeding with
preliminary design:

1. If the Designer is at liberty to change the horizontal alignment he should make the
decision whether the proposed alignment is the most feasible or whether offsetting the
alignment could result in a more economical design. The horizontal alignment should be
coordinated with the profile by studying a continuous stretch of the plan and profile,
visualizing the road in three dimensions to determine if changes are required.

2. Calculate drainage areas and waterway openings for all pipe culverts, box culverts and
bridges. After determining the waterway openings the pipe sizes should be calculated to
determine control points on the grade line. The Designer need not make the final

Chapter 15: Procedure for Design 15-5

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

decision as to exact pipe size or type of structure (CMP, RCP, or concrete box culvert) at
this time, and an approximation will suffice.

No effort is make in this handbook to describe the methods used to determine drainage
structure requirements since these methods are given in the Drainage and Bridge
Manuals. It is recommended that the Engineer obtain copies of these manuals for
drainage structure calculations.

3. Spot culvert locations on the profile plot noting flowline elevations and sizes of pipes.
Note control elevations that must be met such as minimum pipe cover, existing
pavement, and bridge elevations.

4. The first trial grade line can now be drawn on the profile plot. The grade can either be
the finished pavement or the subgrade profile.

The following items should be considered in laying the trial grade:

1. Projects staring at a "T" intersection should begin with a minimal grade for a minimum
of 20 meters from the intersection before entering steeper grades in order to provide
better sight distance and to allow stopping and starting of vehicles on near level grades.

2. Vertical P.I.'s should be placed at even stations or plus 50's for ease in calculating grades
and staking. Where possible, V.P.I.'s should be spaced 300 - 500 meters apart and curve
lengths should be determined to provide proper site distance for the design speed. Where
possible, minimum curve lengths of 100 meters should be maintained and extremely long
crest vertical curves should be avoided since many drivers refuse to pass on vertical
curves.

3. Avoid placing V.P.I.'s where intersecting side roads will be on crest vertical curves as
this reduces sight distances and creates safety hazards.

15.7 CHECKLIST FOR FINAL ROAD LINK DESIGN

A flowchart for the design process was presented in Figure 15-1. Figure 15-2 serves as a
checklist for ensuring that all critical elements of the final design have been addressed.

Chapter 15: Procedure for Design 15-6

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

FIGURE 15-2: CHECKLIST FOR FINAL ROAD LINK DESIGN

General
 1. Has the design standard been selected?
 2. Does the selected standard fit into the environment and road hierarchy?
 3. Has the design speed been selected?
 4. Does the standard selected provide for the design vehicle(s)?
 5. Does the standard selected provide for the traffic volume?
 6. Does sufficient right-of-way exist, or can it be obtained?

Cross Sections
 7. Are the cross-section widths adequate for the levels of traffic flow predicted?
 8. Have cross-sections been widened at sharp horizontal curves?
 9. Does the design include adequate shoulders?
 10. Has the full carriageway cross-section been continued across culverts and minor
bridges up to 30m span?
 11. Are side slopes and back slopes adequate?
 12. Does the cross section provide for drainage?
 13. Have the clear zone requirements been met?
Alignment
 14. Are stopping sight distances along the road above the minimum values required for
the design speeds for both horizontal and vertical alignments?
 15. Are the radii of horizontal curves, with superelevation where required, above the
minimum values identified for the design speed?
 16. Have reverse curves, broken-back curves, and compound curves been avoided?
 17. Are isolated curves of sufficient radius?
 18. Is superelevation according to standards?
 19. Are the vertical curves adequate for the design speeds?
 20. Are the gradients below the maximum permissible values?
 21. Are the gradients as indicated on cross-sections and longitudinal sections sufficient
to avoid standing water?
 22. Does the alignment allow regular overtaking opportunities, including for single lane
standards?
 23. Have climbing lanes been introduced where necessary to provide adequate and safe
overtaking opportunities?
 24. Is road access too open or too restricted?
 25. Do the combined geometric design elements produce a consistent and safe
alignment?
 26. Will the road allow safe driving in darkness?
 27. Will the design lead to reduced severity in the event of an accident?

Chapter 15: Procedure for Design 15-7

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Junctions
 28. Does the junction design minimize potential conflicts to the extent
possible/practical?
 29. Is the type of junction selected appropriate for the conditions present?
 30. Do the junction approaches provide adequate visibility?
 31. Does the junction cater to the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles as
required?
 32. Have turning lanes been considered?
 33. Has lighting been considered?
Provision for Pedestrians
 34. Has pedestrian usage been estimated, and have appropriate facilities been provided
for pedestrian and non-motorized safety both along and across the road?

Miscellaneous
 35. Has provision been made for the placement of utilities?
 36. Have traffic signs, signals, road markings and guideposts been provided?
 37. Have centerline and edgeline markings been designed which give adequate
guidance/control for drivers?
 38. Has adequate provision been made for the provision of bus lay-byes, and for parked
and stopped vehicles?
 39. Are railway crossings adequately designed?
 40. Have guardrails been considered, especially at bridge approaches?
 41. Is there any scope for the installation of emergency escape ramps?
 42. Have speed limit zones, safety barriers, and emergency escape ramps been
considered?

Departures from Standards

 43. Are departures from standards necessary? Have these been documented and has
proper action been taken?

Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer

....................................................................................................................................................

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

16 PLANS AND DRAFTING

16.1 GENERAL

The final plans are the graphic portrayal of the complete highway design. These plans,
together with the specifications, enable the Engineer and the contractor to locate and
construct on the ground the highway facility as visualized by the designer. Plans should be
kept as simple as possible yet be complete enough so that the need not be compelled to try to
guess what the designer intended.

Unique drawing numbers must be included on the drawings. The minimum size of lettering
chosen must be legible after plan reduction.

16.2 COMPLETENESS OF PLANS

The completeness of plans and profiles and level of detail adopted for a given project shall
be consistent with the type of road, and the nature of the work to be undertaken.

Plans for tender and construction purposes shall be produced at 1:2000 scale on A1 size
paper, which may be reduced to A3 size for tender purposes. The plans shall include a title
sheet, project location plan, plan and profile drawings, typical section and cross sections,
structural details, and road furniture details.

1. Title sheet: The title sheet is a standard form and shall show the road functional
classification number, the project number, and project length and location, with arrows
designating the beginning and ending stations on the route map. Design criteria such as
design speed, maximum curvature, gradient, terrain class, etc., will be tabulated. An
index of all drawings will be shown and a title block for signatures by the Consultant
will appear in the lower right hand corner.

2. Typical cross section sheet: This sheet will show the road section or sections with all
dimensions, such as lane, carriageway, and shoulder widths and other details.

3. Plan and Profile sheets: These sheets are standard with the upper half for alignment and
the lower half for profile.

• The alignment in rural areas is normally plotted at a scale of 1:4000 (A3) and will
show centerline in heavy lines and right-of-way lines in lighter lines. Thick marks
will be shown on the centerline every 100 meters, with a heavier tick mark every 5
stations. The alignment will be clearly defined with stationing, bearings, curve data,
and north arrow. Alternatively, the setting-out data can be presented in a computer
file.

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Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

• The location of all land lines, forest boundaries, city limits, present roads, existing
and proposed fences pole lines, channels, ditch structures, bridges, culverts, utility
lines, large trees, improvements within or adjacent to right-of-way, approach roads,
right-of-way markers, and detour roads shall be properly shown to scale. Notes will
accompany the notations clearly stating the work to be accomplished, such as: to be
removed, to remain in place, work by others, construct, etc.

• Description, location and elevation of all benchmarks are generally noted along the
profile portion of the plan and profile sheet.

• The profile is normally plotted at a scale of 1:200 vertical and 1:2000 horizontal
(A1) on the lower half of the plan and profile sheet. The horizontal scale must be the
same as the scale used in the alignment, or plan view.

• The elevation of the ground and proposed grade line should be plotted accurately,
noting P.V.I. station, elevation, length of curve, middle ordinate, beginning and
ending of curve and percent gradient. The grade line should be continuous along
parabolic curves and should be the profile grade (top of finished surface or subgrade)
as noted on the typical section.

• All cross drainage structures and bridges shall be noted, including graded ditches,
ditch blocks, grade of special ditches and cross section of ditches and dikes. Existing
culverts must be shown with dashed lines, and new structures must be shown with
solid lines.

4. Structure detail sheets. These sheets include bridge details, curb and gutter details,
concrete box culverts, pipe culverts, headwalls, drains, underpasses, and other special
structures. These drawings should be complete and include location, elevations,
dimensions, estimate of quantities, and applicable specifications, if not covered in the
specifications.

5. Detail Drawings: These can include junction and driveway details, bus lay-by details,
climbing lane details, guard rail details, striping details, destination sign details, and
fencing details, as appropriate. Standard details are given in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings.

6. Mass Haul Diagram: Earthwork quantities are represented graphically and are
tabulated on this sheet.

7. Material Pits. This drawing will show the location, shape and size of material pits for
borrow, subbase, base course, mineral aggregate for bituminous material and chips,
and concrete aggregates. In addition to the sketch of the pit, the location of test holes

Chapter 16: Plans and Drafting 16-2

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

and the results of sample tests should be tabulated. Existing roads to be used or haul
roads (length and location) should be noted.

16.3 SIZE OF PLANS

All drawings should be the standard A1 size and printing should be bold and large to permit
legibility when reduced 1/2 size (to A3 size).

16.4 UNIFORMITY OF PLANS

The designer should strive to maintain uniformity in preparation of road plans rather than
giving them "his personal touch". Plans prepared using uniform standards are easier to
understand by both the engineer and the contractor and will generally result in fewer
disputes or claims.

16.5 ABBREVIATED PLANS

Certain types of construction projects use less intense design than other types. Projects such
as rehabilitation projects usually do not consist of new alignments and may have only spot
geometric improvements. Such projects may require only minor engineering control, and
therefore the plans may be abbreviated. For instance, in the above example, no plan and
profile sheets need be included except in areas requiring relocations or substantial grade or
curve changes. Plans will be similar to complete plans except plan and profile sheets will be
limited to sections affected by such improvements.

However, sufficient information concerning horizontal and vertical alignment must be

shown to enable the contractor to stake the project. 1

1
Ethiopian Design Manual, op. cit.

Chapter 16: Plans and Drafting 16-3

Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

APPENDIX

A. TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS

The desirable standards to be adopted in the typical road design are depicted in Figures
A-1 through A-7. The cross sections take into account the requirements of vehicular
traffic and the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized traffic. The typical section can be
revised in escarpment sections as shown in Figure A-3.

Special typical sections for urban/peri-urban traverse are shown in Figures A-4 and A-6
for two-lane and four-lane configurations, respectively. Note that many towns have
master plans that will show a slightly different configuration from the town sections
shown. In such cases, the typical section should represent the minimal requirements.

Figure A-1 below presents typical cross sectional elements of a dual carriageway (Class
1).

Figure A-1: Typical Section Elements of a Dual Carriageway (Class 1)

Appendix A-1
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure A-2 presents typical cross sectional elements of Class 2-5 roads, in both fill and
cut:

Figure A-2: Typical Section Elements of a Class 2-5 Roadway

Figure A-3 below presents typical cross sectional elements of Class 2-5 roads, in steep
terrain:

Figure A-3: Steep Terrain Section

Appendix A-2
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Figure A-4 below presents typical cross sectional elements for a Two-Lane Town
Section, while Figure A-5 presents typical cross sectional elements for a Four-Lane Town
Section. Where Road Reserve is tight and an outward crossfall may flood neighboring
properties, the crossfall can be made to drain to the median as depicted in Figure A-6.

Figure A-4: Two Lane Town Section

Figure A-5: Four Lane Town Section

Appendix A-3
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Add Figure A-7: Four Lane Town Section Crossfall Slope to Median

Figure A-8 shows a typical section for a side ditch in expansive clay soil on the left, a
berm on the cut slope at right, and a cutoff ditch at the top of the slope on the right.

Figure A-8: Typical Section for Expansive Clay soil Ditch and Deep Cut

Appendix A-4
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

Appendix A-5
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Road Geometric Design Manual

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 RTDA
ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL
Final, December 2014