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How To Make Yoghurt

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6 views5 pages

How To Make Yoghurt

Uploaded by

randhie hakim
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

Discuss the phase transition phenomena (such as condensation and freezing) in the
context of PVT behavior of pure substances. How do changes in pressure and
temperature affect these phenomena?

Phase transition phenomena, such as condensation and freezing, are fundamental


processes in pure substance and are closely related to their PVT (Pressure-Volume-
Temperature) behaviour how pressure and temperature changes affect these
phenomena, drawing on relevant scientific literature.
Condensation :
- Effect of pressure, condensation is the process by which a gas becomes a liquid.
The most important factor influencing condensation is pressure. At a given
temperature, increasing pressure reduces the volume of the gas, increasing the
likelihood that it will condense into a liquid. This is because higher pressure raises
the density of the gas, which increases the likelihood of molecular interactions
that lead to phase transition.
- Effect of temperature, temperature also plays an important role in condensation.
At constant pressure, decreasing the temperature reduces the kinetic energy of gas
molecules, allowing them to form a liquid. This is evident in the vapor pressure
curve, where a decrease in temperature at constant pressure leads to a decrease in
vapor pressure, which enables condensation.

Freezing :

- Effect of pressure, pressure also influences the process of freezing, or the


transition from liquid to solid. Most substances freezing points decrease as
pressure increases. This is because higher pressure raises the density of the liquid,
making it more difficult for molecules to separate and form a solid. However,
some substances exhibit non-linear behaviour, and the impact of pressure on
freezing can be complex, depending on the specific substance and its crystal
structure.
- Effect of temperature, temperature is the primary cause of freezing. At constant
pressure, decreasing the temperature lowers the kinetic energy of liquid
molecules, allowing them to form a crystalline structure and freeze. External
factors such as pressure can influence the freezing point, which is a specific
temperature at which this transition occurs.
2. Define a single-phase region in the context of a phase diagram. How do single-phase
regions differ from two- phase or multiphase regions, and what is their significance in
thermodynamics?

A single-phase region in a phase diagram represents an area where a system is made


up of a single homogeneous phase. This means that within this region, the system
exhibits uniform physical and chemical properties like temperature, pressure, and
composition.
Differences from Two-Phase or Multiphase Region
Two-Phase Region :
- Definition, a two-phase region is one where the system exists in two distinct
phases. For example, in a liquid-vapor equilibrium, the system consists of both
liquid and vapor phases.
- Characteristics, the equilibrium conditions between two phases defines the region
boundaries. Both phases can coexist in this region due to its composition and
temperature/pressure conditions.

Multiphase Region :

- Definition, a multiphase region is one where the system has more than two distinct
phases. This can happen in complex systems with numerous components and
varying conditions.
- Characteristics, the boundaries of a multiphase region are more complex, with
multiple equilibrium conditions between phases. The composition and
temperature/pressure conditions in this region permit the coexistence of multiple
phases.

Significance in Thermodynamics

Stability and Equilibrium :

- Single-Phase Region, these regions represent states of maximum thermodynamic


stability, in which the system is in equilibrium and does not change phase
spontaneously. The uniformity of properties within these regions indicates that the
system has reached a stable condition.
- Two-Phase and Multiphase Regions, these regions indicate that the system is not
at its most stable. The existence of multiple phases implies that the system is at a
point of equilibrium between different phases, which can be influenced by
external conditions such as temperature and pressure.

Practical Applications :

- Single-Phase Regions, these regions indicate that the system is not at its most
stable. The existence of multiple phases implies that the system is at a point of
equilibrium between different phases, which can be influenced by external
conditions such as temperature and pressure.
- Two-Phase and Multiphase Regions, these regions are important for understanding
phase transitions and transformations, which are necessary in various industrial
processes such as crystallization, phase separation, and electrochemical reactions.

3. Explain the concept of an ideal gas and the conditions required for a gas to be
considered ideal. What are the basic assumptions used in the ideal gas model, and
how does this model affect the behaviour of gases under various temperature and
pressure conditions?

An ideal gas is a theoretical model that describes the behaviour of gases under
different conditions. This concept is fundamental to thermodynamics and is based on
a number of assumptions that simplify the complex interactions between gas
molecules. To be considered an ideal gas, a substance must meet certain conditions:
- Gas molecules must only interact through perfectly elastic collisions. This means
that no attractive or repulsive forces exist between the molecules.
- The gas molecules must move randomly and independently from one another.
This randomness guarantees that the gas behaves consistently and predictably.
- The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible when compared to the
total volume of the gas. This assumption facilitates the calculation of gas behavior.

Basic Assumptions of the Ideal Gas Model

PV =nRT
No Interparticle Forces, except for perfectly elastic collisions, interparticle forces do
not exist, as previously stated. This assumption enables the simplification of gas
behavior under various conditions.

Random Molecular Motion, the molecules move randomly and independently, which
is critical for predicting gas behavior under different temperature and pressure
conditions.

Effects on Gas Behavior

The ideal gas model significantly affects the behavior of gases under various
temperature and pressure conditions:

Temperature and Pressure Relationships

- The ideal gas law establishes a clear relationship between temperature and
pressure. At constant volume, an increase in temperature corresponds directly to
an increase in pressure, and vice versa.
- At constant pressure, an increase in temperature results in an increase in volume,
and at constant volume, an increase in pressure causes a decrease in temperature.

Thermodynamic Processes

- Ideal gases can experience quasistatic processes that are reversible and do not
involve dissipative effects such as friction. These processes allow for the
calculation of thermodynamic properties without addressing any complications
within the system.

Real Gas Behaviour vs. Ideal Gas

- Intermolecular forces and molecular volume cause real gases to behave differently
than ideal gases. At high pressures or low temperatures, these deviations are
significant, and the ideal gas law no longer accurately describes gas behavior.
4. Compare the ideal gas law with the Van der Waals equation. How does the Van der
Waals equation address the limitations of the ideal gas model, and under what
conditions is the Van der Waals equation more accurate than the ideal gas law?

The van der Waals Equation of State


RT a
P= − 2
V −b V
Here, a and b are positive constants that are unique to each species; when they are
a
zero, the equation for the ideal-gas state is recovered. The term 2 refers to the
V
attractive forces between molecules that cause the pressure to be lower than it would
be in the ideal-gas state. The constant b is used to account for the finite size of
molecules, which causes the volume to be larger than it would be in the ideal gas
state.

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