COMPUTER

Computer is an electronic device that can input, store, process, and output data according to programmed
instructions.

Characteristics of computer:

1. Speed: Computers perform complex calculations and process data at incredibly high speeds, significantly faster than humans.
2. Accuracy: Computers deliver highly accurate results, minimizing errors in calculations and data processing.
3. Versatility: Computers can perform a wide range of tasks across various applications and fields, showcasing their adaptability.
4. Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of data, both temporarily in RAM and permanently in hard drives or SSDs.
5. Automation: Computers automate the repetitive tasks by execute predefined instructions automatically.
6. Connectivity: Computers connect to networks and other devices, facilitating communication and data sharing.
7. Scalability: Computers can be easily upgraded or expanded in terms of hardware and software to meet growing demands.
8. Reliability: Computers consistently perform tasks accurately and dependably over long periods without failure.
9. Security: Computers employ various security measures to protect data and resources from unauthorized access and cyber threats.
10. User Interface: Computers provide user-friendly interfaces, such as GUIs and command-line interfaces, for easy interaction.

Evolution of computer: abacus, Pascaline (by Blaise Pascal), Analytical Engine (by Charles Babbage)

Computer Generations:
 First Generation (1940s-1950s) - Vacuum tube technology, large and expensive, limited
programming capabilities.
 Second Generation (1950s-1960s) - Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, smaller, faster, and more
reliable computers, assembly language programming.
 Third Generation (1960s-1970s) - Integrated circuits (ICs) introduced, smaller, cheaper, and more
powerful computers, high-level programming languages.
 Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s) - Microprocessors revolutionized computing, personal
computers (PCs) emerged, GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) introduced.
 Fifth Generation (1980s-present) - Advancements in AI (Artificial Intelligence), parallel
processing, and supercomputing, widespread use of the internet and networking.
 Computer organization

Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data
processing.

IPO Model: Simplest workflow of computer.

Input  Process  Output

Block diagram: A block diagram of a computer is a visual representation of a computer's workflow structure
that shows how data and instructions flow between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

Devices use to Devices use to

input data and provide information
instruction to the user in desire
output

It performs calculations and store instructions

Von Neumann Architecture (stored memory diagram): is a conceptual framework for how computers
are organized and operate.
Five basic operations of computer system:

 Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
 Storing: Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial or additional
processing whenever required.
 Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical
operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into
useful information.
 Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results for the user such as a printed
report or visual display.
 Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are.

Five basic organization unit of computer system:

 Input unit: Device or mechanism that allows data (raw data) or instructions to be entered into the
computer system.
 Output unit: Device or mechanism that shows processed data (information) or results to the user or
another system.
 Storage unit(Primary Memory): Component of the computer that stores data and instructions
temporarily during processing; also known as RAM (Random Access Memory).
 Storage unit (Secondary memory): Component of the computer that stores data and instructions
permanently or semi-permanently; examples hard disk drives, solid-state drives.
 Arithmetical and Logical unit (ALU): Component of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logical
operations on data.
 Control unit: Component of the CPU that coordinates and controls the operations of the computer's
hardware components, including fetching instructions from the input unit, decoding these
instructions, executing them using the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU), accessing data from the
storage units (both primary and secondary memory), and directing the results to the output unit for
presentation to the user or another system.

Central processing unit: Arithmetical and Logical unit + Control unit

Input/output devices:

Input devices: keyword, mouse, pointing device (digital pen, touchscreen, graphic tablet), joystick, scanner,
webcam, microphone, special input device (MICR, OCR, OMR, BAR CODE READER,).

Output devices: monitor (crt, lcd, led, oled), audio devices (speaker, headphones, earphone, soundbar),
printer(impact and non-impact printer), plotter, projector, haptic feedback devices.

Storage devices: ram, rom, hard disk, pen drive, etc.

Processing devices: CPU, GPU, etc.

Printers:

Impact Printers:

1. Dot Matrix Printers:

 Definition: Dot matrix printers use a matrix of tiny pins to strike an inked ribbon against
paper, forming characters or images.
 Function: Pins impact the ribbon, transferring ink onto paper to create characters or images.
 Advantages: Relatively low cost, ability to produce carbon copies, can print on multi-part
forms.
 Disadvantages: Limited print quality, noisy operation, slower printing speed compared to
non-impact printers.
2. Daisy Wheel Printers:
 Definition: Daisy wheel printers use a wheel or disk with characters molded onto petals. A
hammer strikes the petal against an inked ribbon, transferring characters onto paper.
 Function: Characters are selected, and the wheel rotates to the desired position before
striking the paper.
 Advantages: High-quality text output, suitable for correspondence and documents.
 Disadvantages: Slow printing speed, limited graphics capabilities.
3. Drum and Chain Printers:
 Definition: Drum and chain printers use a rotating drum or chain mechanism to print
characters on paper.
 Function: Similar to daisy wheel printers, a hammer strikes the paper against an inked ribbon
to create characters.
 Advantages: Faster printing speed compared to daisy wheel printers, suitable for industrial
environments.
 Disadvantages: Limited graphics capabilities, may require frequent maintenance.

Non-Impact Printers:

1. Laser Printers:
 Definition: Laser printers use a laser beam to produce images on a photosensitive drum,
which attracts toner particles transferred to paper and fused using heat.
 Function: Laser beam creates an electrostatic image on the drum, toner is transferred to
paper, and heat fuses toner onto paper.
 Advantages: High-speed printing, high-quality output, quiet operation.
 Disadvantages: Higher initial cost, more complex maintenance.
2. Inkjet Printers:
 Definition: Inkjet printers use tiny nozzles to spray ink onto paper, forming characters or
images.
 Function: Nozzles spray tiny droplets of ink onto paper, creating characters or images.
 Advantages: High-quality output, ability to print in color, relatively low cost.
 Disadvantages: Slower printing speed compared to laser printers, higher cost per page for
color printing.
3. Thermal Printers:
 Definition: Thermal printers use heat to transfer ink onto paper, requiring special thermal
paper or ribbon.
 Function: Heat is applied to special thermal paper or ribbon, causing ink to react and form
characters or images.
 Advantages: Fast printing speed, low maintenance, silent operation.
 Disadvantages: Print quality may degrade over time, prints can fade when exposed to heat or
light.
Aspect Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers
Printing Utilizes a physical mechanism to strike an inked Use methods other than physical impact to
Mechanism ribbon against paper, creating characters or transfer ink or toner onto paper. Examples
 Aspect Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers
images through impact. Examples include dot
matrix, daisy wheel, drum and chain printers. include laser, inkjet, and thermal printers.
Typically lower print quality compared to non- Typically higher print quality, capable of
impact printers. Best suited for printing text and producing sharp text, vibrant colors, and
simple graphics, but may lack finer detail and detailed graphics. Ideal for applications
Print Quality resolution. requiring high-resolution output.
Generally slower printing speed compared to Generally faster printing speed compared to
non-impact printers. Printing speed is measured impact printers. Printing speed is measured in
in characters per second (cps) for impact pages per minute (ppm) for non-impact
Speed printers. printers.
Tend to be noisier during operation due to the Tend to operate more quietly compared to
physical impact mechanism. Noise level can be a impact printers. Suitable for environments
Noise Level concern in quiet environments. where noise reduction is desired.
Often require more frequent maintenance due Typically require less maintenance compared to
to the mechanical components involved in the impact printers. Maintenance tasks may
printing process. Components such as ribbons, include replacing toner cartridges or ink
Maintenance printheads, and pins may need replacement. cartridges and cleaning printheads.
Generally lower initial cost compared to non- Generally higher initial cost compared to
impact printers. However, ongoing costs impact printers. However, ongoing costs may
associated with consumables (e.g., ribbons, ink be lower due to fewer consumables and
Cost cartridges) may add up over time. reduced maintenance requirements.
Commonly used in environments where cost, Widely used in offices, homes, and businesses
durability, and multi-part form printing are for high-quality document printing, photo
important factors, such as in industrial settings, printing, graphic design, and other applications
Applications point-of-sale (POS) systems, and receipt printing. requiring superior print quality and speed.

Memory or Storage
 memory

primary secondary cache

memory memroy memory

rom(non- sequential
ram(volatile) direct aceess
volatile) access

mrom sram magnetic magnetic flash

optical disk
tape disk memroy

prom dram punch cards floppy disk cd flash drive

memory
eprom hard disk dvd card

eeprom solid state

blu-ray
drive

Memory is used to store data and instruction(information).

Primary Memory: Primary memory refers to the main memory of a computer system that directly
communicates with the CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents
when the power is turned off. Primary memory holds data and instructions that the CPU needs to access
quickly during program execution.

Function of Primary Memory:

Data Storage: Primary memory stores data and program instructions temporarily while the computer is
running. It holds the currently executing programs and their data, allowing the CPU to access them quickly
for processing.

Data Access: Primary memory provides fast access to stored data and instructions. It allows the CPU to read
or write data quickly, facilitating efficient program execution.

Data Transfer: Primary memory facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU and other parts of the
computer system, such as input/output devices and secondary storage devices.
Execution of Programs: Primary memory is essential for loading and executing programs. When a program is
launched, its instructions and required data are loaded into primary memory for execution by the CPU.

Temporary Storage: Primary memory serves as temporary storage for data and instructions during the
execution of programs. As data and instructions are processed, they are temporarily stored in primary
memory before being transferred to secondary storage for long-term storage.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

Definition: RAM, or Random Access Memory, is a type of primary computer memory that is volatile and
can be read from and written to by the CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is used to store data and program
instructions that are actively being used by the computer's operating system, applications, and processes.

Its Function are Temporary Storage, Fast Access, Dynamic Allocation and Volatile Nature

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory): It is a type of volatile computer memory

Function: Fast Access, stability, Used for Cache Memory

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory): It is also a type of volatile computer memory

Function: Storage, Refreshing, High Density, Used in Main Memory

ROM (Read-Only Memory):

Definition: ROM, or Read-Only Memory, is a type of primary computer memory that is non-volatile and
typically used to store firmware, BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), and other essential system
instructions. It contains data that is permanently programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be
modified by the user.

Function: Permanent Storage, Initial Boot Process, System Stability, Non-Volatile Nature

Rom types:

#####################################################################################
Secondary memory: Secondary memory, also known as auxiliary memory or external storage, refers to
non-volatile storage devices used for long-term storage of data and programs in a computer system. Unlike
primary memory (RAM), which is volatile and temporary, secondary memory retains its contents even
when the power is turned off.

Function:

Long-Term Storage: The primary function of secondary memory is to provide long-term storage for data and
programs that are not actively being used by the computer's CPU.

Large Storage Capacity: Secondary memory devices typically offer larger storage capacities compared to
primary memory (RAM), allowing for the storage of large amounts of data, including documents, multimedia
files, applications, and operating systems.

Data Backup: Secondary memory is commonly used for data backup and disaster recovery purposes,
providing a redundant copy of important files and data to protect against data loss due to hardware failures,
software errors, or other unforeseen circumstances.

Data Transfer: Secondary memory facilitates the transfer of data between different computer systems and
devices. It allows for the sharing and distribution of files, documents, and multimedia content across
networks, storage devices, and external media.

Virtual Memory: Secondary memory is also used to provide virtual memory space for the operating system
and applications, allowing them to use disk space as an extension of physical RAM when the system's
memory capacity is exceeded.

Sequential Access Storage Devices: Sequential Access Storage Devices are storage devices where data is
accessed and processed sequentially, in a linear manner, from the beginning to the end of the storage
medium. In sequential access devices, data is stored and retrieved in the order it was originally written,
and accessing a specific piece of data requires reading through all preceding data.

Characteristics:

Linear Data Access: Data is accessed and processed sequentially, one after the other, in the order it was
written to the storage medium.

Tape-Based or Serial Access: Sequential access devices often use tape-based or serial access methods, where
data is stored on a continuous tape or similar medium.

Time-Consuming Retrieval: Accessing specific data in a sequential access device can be time-consuming,
especially if the desired data is located far from the current position of the read/write head.

Common Examples: Examples of sequential access storage devices include magnetic tapes, where data is
written and read sequentially along the length of the tape, and some types of optical discs.

Suitable for Streaming Applications: Sequential access devices are well-suited for applications where data is
accessed in a linear fashion, such as streaming media playback or batch processing of large datasets.

Magnetic tape is a type of data storage medium that uses a long strip of magnetic material, typically made of
a thin plastic film coated with a magnetic material such as iron oxide. It is used for storing digital data in a
linear manner along the length of the tape.
Direct Access Storage Device (DASD): A Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) is a type of storage device in
which data can be accessed directly and quickly, without having to read through all preceding data
sequentially. DASD allows for random access to data, enabling efficient retrieval and modification of
specific data blocks or files.

Characteristics:

Random Access: DASD provides random access to stored data, allowing the read/write head to move directly
to the desired location on the storage medium without having to read through all preceding data.

Fast Access Time: DASD offers fast access times, enabling rapid retrieval and modification of data blocks or
files.

Block-Level Access: Data stored on DASD is typically organized into blocks or sectors, each identified by a
unique address. This allows for efficient retrieval and modification of individual data blocks.

Common Examples: Examples of DASD include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and
magnetic disks.

Widely Used: DASD is widely used in computer systems for storing and accessing data files, operating system
files, application programs, and other digital content.

Applications: DASD is used in a wide range of applications, including database management systems, file
servers, web servers, and enterprise storage systems.

Versatility: DASD devices come in various form factors and capacities, ranging from small drives for personal
computers to large-scale storage arrays for enterprise-level data centers.

Magnetic Disk: A magnetic disk is a type of data storage medium that consists of a circular, flat disk made
of non-magnetic material, typically coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Data is stored on the
magnetic disk using magnetization patterns, with each pattern representing a bit of digital information.
Magnetic disks are commonly used as secondary storage devices in computer systems, providing non-
volatile storage for operating system files, application programs, and user data.

Hard Disk: A hard disk, also known as a hard disk drive (HDD), is a type of magnetic storage device that uses
rotating disks or platters coated with a magnetic material to store digital data. It is a non-volatile storage
medium, meaning that it retains data even when the power is turned off. Hard disks are commonly used as
primary or secondary storage devices in computers, providing high-capacity storage for operating system
files, application programs, and user data.

Optical Disk: An optical disk is a type of data storage medium that uses optical technology to read and
write data. It consists of a flat, circular disk made of a polycarbonate substrate coated with a reflective
layer, onto which data is stored in the form of microscopic pits and lands. Optical disks are commonly used
for storing digital data, such as music, videos, software, and archival data.

Characteristics:
Optical Technology: Optical disks use optical technology, such as lasers and photodetectors, to read and
write data. A laser beam is used to scan the surface of the disk, and the reflected light is detected to retrieve
the stored data.

Non-Contact Reading: Unlike magnetic storage media, optical disks use a non-contact method for reading
data, reducing wear and tear on the disk and extending its lifespan.

High Storage Capacity: Optical disks offer high storage capacities, ranging from hundreds of megabytes to
tens of gigabytes or more, depending on the disk format and technology used.

Multiple Formats: Optical disks come in various formats, including CD (Compact Disc), DVD (Digital Versatile
Disc), and Blu-ray Disc. Each format offers different storage capacities and is used for different types of data.

Read-Only and Read/Write Formats: Optical disks are available in both read-only (e.g., CD-ROM, DVD-ROM)
and read/write (e.g., CD-R, DVD-RW) formats. Read-only disks are pre-recorded with data and cannot be
erased or rewritten, while read/write disks can be recorded with data multiple times.

Common Applications: Optical disks are commonly used for distributing software, music albums, movies, and
other digital content. They are also used for data backup, archival storage, and sharing files between
computers.

Longevity: Optical disks have a long lifespan when properly handled and stored, making them suitable for
long-term data storage and archival purposes.

Storage Capacity:

CD: CDs typically have a storage capacity of up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data.

DVD: DVDs offer higher storage capacities compared to CDs, with single-layer DVDs capable of storing up to
4.7 gigabytes (GB) of data.

Blu-ray Disc: Blu-ray Discs have the highest storage capacity among the three formats, with single-layer discs
capable of storing up to 25 GB of data and dual-layer discs storing up to 50 GB.

Data Formats:

CD: CDs primarily use the CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory) format for distributing pre-recorded data such as
music albums, software applications, and multimedia content.

DVD: DVDs support various formats, including DVD-ROM (Read-Only Memory) for pre-recorded content,
DVD-R/RW and DVD+R/RW for recording data, and DVD-Video for storing movies.

Blu-ray Disc: Blu-ray Discs use the Blu-ray format, which supports high-definition video playback and high-
capacity data storage. They are commonly used for distributing HD movies, games, software, and other
multimedia content.

Applications:

CD: CDs are commonly used for distributing music albums, software applications, and other pre-recorded
content.

DVD: DVDs are used for a wide range of applications, including movies, software distribution, data backup,
and archival storage.
Blu-ray Disc: Blu-ray Discs are primarily used for high-definition movies, video games, software distribution,
and archival storage of large data files.

Flash memory is a type of non-volatile computer storage that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. It is commonly used in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and other
storage devices. Here are some key characteristics of flash memory:

Non-Volatile: Flash memory retains stored data even when power is removed. This makes it suitable for use
in devices where data needs to be preserved without the need for continuous power.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM): Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that
allows for multiple write and erase cycles. This means that data can be written to and erased from flash
memory cells electrically.

Solid-State: Flash memory is a solid-state storage medium, meaning it has no moving parts. This makes it
more durable and less susceptible to mechanical failure compared to traditional hard disk drives (HDDs).

Fast Access Times: Flash memory offers fast read and write speeds, especially in comparison to mechanical
storage devices like HDDs.

Highly Portable: Flash memory is often used in small, portable devices such as USB flash drives, memory
cards, and SSDs due to its compact size and low power consumption.

Endurance: Flash memory has a limited number of write/erase cycles before it may become unreliable.
However, modern flash memory technologies, such as NAND and NOR flash, have improved endurance
compared to earlier generations.

Applications: Flash memory is used in a wide range of consumer electronics, including smartphones, digital
cameras, music players, and tablets. It is also used in industrial applications, embedded systems, and
enterprise storage solutions like SSDs.

Flash Drive (USB Flash Drive): A flash drive, also known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive, or memory stick, is
a portable data storage device that uses flash memory to store digital data. It consists of a small, rectangular
plastic or metal casing with a USB connector at one end. Flash drives are commonly used for storing,
transferring, and backing up files such as documents, photos, videos, and music.

Memory Card: A memory card is a small, removable data storage device used in electronic devices such as
digital cameras, smartphones, tablets, and portable gaming consoles. Memory cards use flash memory
technology to store digital data, including photos, videos, music, and documents. They come in various form
factors and types, including Secure Digital (SD), microSD, CompactFlash (CF), and Memory Stick.

Types of computer https://youtu.be/FUJ-nvjSP20?si=Kmioq_uqJZxHtSBZ

Classification of computer

 On basis of type- analog, digital, hybrid

 On basis of size – micro, mini, mainframe and super computer
 On basis of purpose – general purpose and special purpose
Analog Computer: An analog computer is a type of computer that processes continuous data and performs
calculations using physical quantities, such as voltage, current, or mechanical movements, to represent and
manipulate information. Unlike digital computers, which operate on discrete binary data, analog
computers work with continuous signals and can model real-world phenomena with high precision.

They are used in specialized applications like engineering simulations, control systems, and scientific
research.

Digital Computer: A digital computer is a type of computer that processes data and performs calculations
using discrete binary digits or bits. These binary digits represent numeric values and are manipulated using
electronic circuits to perform arithmetic, logical, and data processing operations. Digital computers are the
most common type of computer and are widely used in various applications, from personal computing and
business operations to scientific research and industrial automation.

They are the most common type of computer and are found in various devices, from smartphones and
laptops to servers and supercomputers.

Hybrid Computer: A hybrid computer is a type of computer that combines the features and capabilities of
both digital and analog computers. It can process both digital and analog data, making it suitable for a
wide range of applications that require the strengths of both types of computing.

Microcomputer: A microcomputer is a type of computer that features a microprocessor as its central

processing unit (CPU). It is a compact and relatively inexpensive computing device designed for individual
use, small businesses, and educational purposes.

They include desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and other compact devices.

Minicomputer: A minicomputer, also known as a midrange computer, is a type of computer that falls
between mainframe computers and microcomputers (personal computers) in terms of processing power,
storage capacity, and cost. Minicomputers were prominent in the computing landscape from the 1960s to
the 1980s, providing significant computing power and functionality for various applications, particularly in
business, scientific research, and academic institutions.

They were commonly used in businesses, universities, and research institutions for tasks like data
processing, scientific computations, and online transactions.

Mainframe Computer: A mainframe computer is a high-performance, large-scale computer system capable

of processing vast amounts of data and supporting numerous simultaneous users and applications.
Mainframes are designed for reliability, availability, and scalability, making them well-suited for mission-
critical applications in large organizations, such as banks, government agencies, airlines, and multinational
corporations.

they are used by large organizations for critical applications like banking, finance, telecommunications, and
government services.
Supercomputer: A supercomputer is a high-performance computing system designed to execute complex
calculations and process massive amounts of data at extremely fast speeds. Supercomputers are among
the most powerful and fastest computers available, capable of tackling computationally intensive tasks
and solving large-scale scientific, engineering, and mathematical problems.

They are used for complex calculations, simulations, scientific research, weather forecasting, and other
tasks requiring massive computational power.

General Purpose Computers:

Definition: General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide range of tasks and applications. They
are versatile and can be used for various purposes, including personal computing, business applications,
education, entertainment, and more.

Characteristics:

Flexible: General-purpose computers can run different software applications and perform diverse tasks based
on user needs.

Multi-functional: They can handle a wide range of tasks, from word processing and web browsing to gaming
and multimedia editing.

Customizable: Users can install and customize software and hardware components to tailor the computer to
their specific requirements.

Examples: Personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, and smartphones are common examples of general-
purpose computers used in everyday life for a variety of tasks.

Special Purpose Computers:

Definition: Special-purpose computers are designed to perform specific tasks or functions. They are
optimized for a particular application or set of applications and may have limited functionality outside of
their intended purpose.

Characteristics:

Targeted: Special-purpose computers are built to excel in a specific area or domain, offering optimized
performance for particular tasks.

Efficient: They are often highly efficient at performing their intended function, with specialized hardware and
software tailored for the task at hand.

Limited versatility: Special-purpose computers may lack the flexibility of general-purpose computers and may
not be suitable for tasks beyond their intended purpose.

Examples: supercomputer, kiosks, ATM, gaming console

 Number systems:
Introduction:

In computing, a number system is a mathematical notation for representing numbers in a digital form that
can be processed by computers

Most common number systems are binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal.

Base or Radix: The base or radix of a number system is the total number of unique digits or symbols used to
represent numbers in that system.

Binary (Base-2):

 Base: 2
 Range: 0 to 1
 Unique Digits: 0, 1

Octal (Base-8):

 Base: 8
 Range: 0 to 7
 Unique Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Decimal (Base-10):

 Base: 10
 Range: 0 to 9
 Unique Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Hexadecimal (Base-16):

 Base: 16
 Range: 0 to 15
 Unique Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

If any number system has n base, then its range is (0, n-1).

Conversion:
From decimal to others base

From others base to decimal

Conversion between binary, octal and hexadecimal

Arithmetic operation:
Signed number and unsigned number

BCD (binary coded decimal)

Excess 3 code

Gray code

Complement:
1’s complement and 2’s complement

Other complement

Various binary codes:

binary codes:

encoding refers to the process of converting data from one form or representation to another form. It
contains character encoding, data compression, audio video encoding, etc.

Character encoding involves representing characters (letters, numbers, symbols) as binary data that
computers can understand and process.

Decoding is the process of converting encoded or compressed data back into its original format or
representation. In computing, decoding is the reverse operation of encoding.

Computer understands only binary language of 0 and 1. Therefore when a key is pressed on keyboard, it is
internally mapped to a unique code, which is further converted into binary code

Binary codes

Alphanumric Numeric
code codes

Binary coded
ASCII(7bits) EBCDIC(8bits) UNICODE(utf)
Decimal(BCD)

Weighted non-wegihted
code code

excess 3 code
and gray code

Floating numbers:
Normalization
 Programming concept

Classification of programming language and language translators

Programming language:

A programming language is a formal language that specifies a set of instructions that can be used to produce
various kinds of output. Programming languages are used to create computer programs, which are sequences
of instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks or operations. These instructions can range
from simple arithmetic calculations to complex data processing and manipulation. Programming languages
provide a structured way for programmers to communicate with computers and develop software
applications.

Machine Language (Lowest Level)(binary language):

 Machine language is the lowest level of programming language, consisting of binary code that the
computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit) can understand directly.
 It is machine dependent language as, Machine language is specific to the architecture of the
computer's CPU, meaning that programs written in machine language are not portable across
different hardware platforms.
 Machine language programs are difficult to read and write for humans due to their binary
representation.
 It is a binary language (consist of 0’s and 1’s) and hence doesn’t require any translator.
 It has two parts: op code(instructions) and operand(data to memory location)

Assembly Language:

 Assembly language is a low-level programming language that provides a symbolic representation of

machine instructions using mnemonic codes.
 Each mnemonic corresponds to a specific machine instruction, making assembly language programs
more readable and understandable than machine language.
 Mnemonic code example: add for addition, etc.
 Assembly language allows programmers to work at a slightly higher level of abstraction than machine
language while still having direct control over hardware resources.
 Assembly language programs are typically converted into machine language using an assembler, a
special program that translates assembly code into binary machine code.
 It is still use now, it is use in intel or AMD processors(x86) and ARM (mobile phones embedded)

Mid-Level Languages:

 Mid-level languages strike a balance between low-level and high-level languages.

 They provide some abstraction over hardware while still allowing fine-grained control.
 Mid-level languages often facilitate system-level programming and hardware interaction.
 Examples include: C, C++ and Rust

High-Level Languages:

 High-level languages are programming languages that provide a higher level of abstraction and are
closer to human languages.
 These languages are designed to be more readable, writable, and maintainable than low-level
languages, allowing programmers to focus more on solving problems than managing hardware
details.
  High-level languages offer built-in data structures, libraries, and abstractions that simplify
programming tasks and promote code reusability.
 Examples of high-level languages include Python, Java, JavaScript, Ruby, and C#, which are widely
used for software development in various domains.
 High level language requires Compiler/Interpreter to translate source code to machine code.
 They are machine independent language.

Object code:

 Object code is the program written in machine language is called object code.
 Object code refers to the output of a compiler or an assembler after it translates the source code
written in a high-level programming language or assembly language into machine code. Machine
code is the low-level code that a computer's central processing unit (CPU) can execute directly.
Object code is often represented in binary form, which consists of sequences of 0s and 1s that
correspond to specific instructions and data for the CPU to execute.
 Object code is typically not human-readable like source code, but it is machine-readable and can be
executed directly by the computer. It serves as an intermediary step between the high-level source
code and the machine code that the computer can understand and execute.

Source code refers to the human-readable version of a computer program that is written in a programming
language. It consists of statements, instructions, and commands written by a programmer to perform specific
tasks or operations. Source code serves as the input to a compiler or interpreter, which translates it into
machine code or bytecode that can be executed by a computer.

Language translator:

Compiler:

 A compiler is a software tool that translates the entire source code at same time written in a high-
level programming language into machine code or bytecode.
 The compilation process typically involves several stages, including lexical analysis, parsing, semantic
analysis, optimization, and code generation. And Linking and Loading process.
 Once the compilation process is complete, the resulting machine code or bytecode can be executed
directly by the computer's CPU or by a virtual machine.
 Examples of compiled languages include C, C++, Java (compiled to bytecode), and Swift.

Interpreter:

 An interpreter is a software tool that translates and executes source code line-by-line or statement-
by-statement at runtime.
 Instead of generating machine code or bytecode beforehand, the interpreter reads each line of
source code, translates it into machine code or bytecode, and executes it immediately.
 Interpreted languages often provide immediate feedback to the programmer and are well-suited for
interactive development and debugging.
 Examples of interpreted languages include Python, Ruby, JavaScript, and PHP.

Assembler:

 An assembler is a translator that converts assembly language code into machine code.
 The assembler translates these mnemonic codes into binary machine instructions that the
computer's CPU can execute directly.
Flowchart:

 A flowchart is a visual representation of the sequence of steps or operations in a process or

algorithm. It uses different shapes and symbols to represent various elements such as actions,
decisions, inputs, outputs, and flow control.
 Flowcharts are often used to illustrate the logic of a program or system, making it easier to
understand, analyse, and communicate complex processes.
 Flowcharts can be created using various software tools or drawn by hand on paper. Common
flowchart symbols include rectangles for processes, diamonds for decisions, parallelograms for
inputs/outputs, and arrows for flow direction.
 Flowcharts are especially useful during the initial stages of software design and problem-solving, as
they provide a high-level overview of the process before implementing it in code.

Algorithm:

 An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules used to solve a problem or perform a specific
task. It describes the logic and sequence of operations necessary to achieve a desired outcome.
 Algorithms can be expressed in various forms, including natural language, pseudocode, or
programming language code. They are independent of any specific programming language or
implementation details.
 Algorithms are used to solve a wide range of problems in computer science, mathematics, and other
fields. They serve as the foundation for writing efficient and correct computer programs.
 Writing algorithms requires careful planning, analysis, and consideration of factors such as input
data, output requirements, time complexity, and space complexity.

Pseudocode is a high-level description of a computer program or algorithm written in plain, human-readable

language. It is not an actual programming language but rather a way to express the logic and structure of a
program in a format that is easy for humans to understand. Pseudocode serves as an intermediate step
between the problem-solving stage and writing actual code in a specific programming language.

Three programming paradigms:

 Structured programming paradigm

 Procedural programming paradigm
 Object oriented programming paradigm

A program, in the context of computing, refers to a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer how
to perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal. Programs are written by programmers in programming
languages and executed by computers to carry out various functions and operations.

Data representation

Number system: https://youtu.be/0UVSPwzGw4U?si=bDXNGuvxIhCRtOb2

Number system: https://youtu.be/lPied7jsfkQ?si=R0U15mOKNTf9e_Sd

Data conversion: https://youtube.com/playlist?

list=PLxCzCOWd7aiFOet6KEEqDff1aXEGLdUzn&si=u4rbYLdrXais7KhL
data conversion: https://youtu.be/MPMX7TKcGis?si=l8GFEzcAWF4jF8X_
Programming concept:

Classification of computer language: https://youtu.be/PDRwYWyaF3o?si=1k4V9wFBvi0zHB2d

https://www.youtube.com/live/f6G8z8bWFb8?si=IaWgOja43wnX4W2S

assembler, compiler, interpreter: https://youtu.be/QNBKWHneOxk?si=4fyaydy0uXLf6T3m

https://youtu.be/qcEBXrqFLe8?si=5_fAkWp0jGLNIXz8

programming concept: https://youtu.be/Ykiz7EAlsO4?si=88j-v4xCbEhkg5a3

https://www.youtube.com/live/hPCAS3VW7_I?si=vj1Qfkjb_ehc-oBK

https://youtu.be/hiJYrNO2v_4?si=zWXGN4dYBqv1nhym

syllabus:

computer basics

basic computer organization

devices (input, output, storage and processing) and printer specially

memory storage devices

data representation

programming concept

optional (computer and its ethics and computer networks).