Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized

Wastewater Treatment Systems

Shrutaswinee Hazarika and Devanshu Pandit

Abstract This paper aims to identify key factors that affect the performance and
sustainability of decentralized wastewater treatment plants. In view of this, a feasi-
bility analysis of three decentralized treatment plants of Ahmedabad, Gujarat based
on various technologies is carried out. A list of quantitative and qualitative parame-
ters such as efficiency of the technology, land use, ease of operation, requirement of
technical expertise, effluent quality, capital investment, operation and management
and user perspective are considered. The technologies assessed are fluidized aero-
bic bio-reactor (FAB), activated sludge process (ASP) and decentralized wastewater
treatment system (DEWATS). The results show that there is no technology that can
be used universally but to ensure long-term durability and sustainability of decen-
tralized wastewater plants, proper maintenance after installation is just as important
as technical analysis during design of the plant.

Keywords Decentralized wastewater treatment · India · Peri-urban

Feasibility study · ASP · FAB · DEWATS · Packaged treatment plant

1 Introduction

The current urban wastewater management process typically includes transportation

of wastewater over long distances from its source of generation to the central munic-
ipal treatment plant through sewers and finally ends at disposal of the effluent in a
nearby water body. With only 51% of the total sewage generated in metropolitan
cities of India, most of the effluent is disposed of untreated which directly con-
tributes to the contamination of freshwater source [1]. It has been stated in many
studies that inflow of untreated effluent into water bodies affects aquatic life due to
imbalance in nutrients, temperature and salinity [2]. However, with the increasing
awareness of the potential of wastewater, the government of India has implemented

S. Hazarika (B) · D. Pandit

Faculty of Technology, CEPT University, Ahmedabad 38009, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 207

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Innovations in Infrastructure, Advances in Intelligent Systems
and Computing 757, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1966-2_18
208 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

various schemes and policies which encourage recycling and reuse of water. More
than 30% of water used in residences are used for outdoor uses such as irrigation and
28% of water is used in toilet flushing which is both potential reuse opportunities
for treated water [3]. In a conventional centralized wastewater treatment system to
maximize the use of reclaimed water, additional water distribution pipelines must be
constructed so that the benefit reaches the customers which are dispersed in the city
area. This expansion of centralized water network proves to be very expensive with
the ever-increasing urban sprawl. Therefore, to alleviate this pressure on existing
municipal services decentralized system of wastewater management proves to be the
most appropriate solution. Further, government of India is encouraging decentral-
ized approach of wastewater treatment through the integrated township policy which
mandates all townships which are generally constructed in the city outskirts to have
their own decentralized water treatment plants and reutilize the treated wastewater
for multiple uses to prevent exploitation of city resources and preserve freshwater
sources [4].
Therefore, there is a need to evaluate existing decentralized wastewater treatment
plants to identify sustainability and applicability factors so that such systems can be
replicated in future.

2 Literature Review

Decentralized wastewater treatment systems treat waste at or near the source of

generation. They can serve individual houses, industries, business complexes and/or
small communities of residential houses. They can be large capacity septic tanks or
package plants which work similar to a centralized treatment system, typically using
small diameter sewers and a small-scale treatment facility.
The treatment process of domestic wastewater generally consists of four stages,
namely pre-treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment.
The first two stages of treatment are common in all the different treatment tech-
nologies. The following wastewater treatment methods are basically modification of
carrying out secondary stage of treatment.
Activated Sludge Process (ASP) [5] (Technology n.d.): This is one of the most
tested wastewater treatment technologies which are being used all over the world
since decades. Generally, all the conventional centralized sewage treatment plant
works on this principle. After the process of sedimentation, wastewater is contin-
uously mixed and aerated in an aeration tank where it is mixed with oxygen. The
aerated effluent is then sent to a clarifier where the flocs get settled at the bottom
of the tank which is recirculated to the aeration tank. The main advantage of using
this technology is that it can be operated at a range of organic and hydraulic loading.
Disadvantages include the requirement of constant supply of power, highly skilled
operators, expert design and construction.
Fluidized Aerobic Bio-Reactor (FAB): This system consists of floating media
of different shapes and sizes, which provides large surface area for the bacteria to
Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment … 209

Table 1 Details of WWTPs

Case Study Start-up year Design capacity Technology type
(m3 /day)
IFFCO 2002 500 Fluidized bio-reactor
IIT Gandhinagar 2015 600 DEWATS
Godrej Garden City 2014 1000 Activated sludge
process

grow on it. Air is provided in the FAB tanks to create an optimum environment for
bacterial growth. The main advantage of this system is very small amount of sludge
is produced and the space requirement of the plant is also very less.
Decentralized wastewater treatment system (DEWATS) [6] (Sasse 1998):
DEWATS is developed by Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association
(BORDA), Germany. In India, this system is being promoted by CDD Bangalore.
In DEWATS, secondary treatment is carried out in anaerobic baffled reactor and the
tertiary treatment is carried out through a bed of planted gravel filter. Anaerobic
baffled reactor is a chamber consisting of a number of baffles through which water
moves from top to bottom. Planted gravel filter is a filter media consisting of gravel
and water-resistant plants.

3 Research Methodology

A case study-based analysis is carried out where three WWTPs representing different
technologies installed by institutional and residential organizations were selected
(Table 1). During site visits, data related to treatment technology, site condition,
financial and managerial requirements of the plant are captured. A questionnaire
survey was done to interview developers, vendors, consultants, users and city officials
to gain knowledge of the market, the motivation and incentives behind installing
decentralized wastewater treatment plants and its limitations.

4 Case Study

4.1 Fluidized Aerobic Bioreactor (500 m3 /day)

This FAB treatment plant is situated in IFFCO Kasturinagar in Kalol district of

Gujarat. The township of Kasturinagar was developed on 51 acres of land as a resi-
dential colony for its staff. This township consists of 315 residential quarters, offices,
post office, recreational facilities for the young and old, water treatment plant and a
210 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

Fig. 1 IFFCO wastewater treatment plant

Table 2 IFFCO wastewater Parameter Outlet value GPCB standard

effluent quality
pH 7.56 6.5–8.5
TDS (mg/L) 1218 –
TSS (mg/L) 10 30
BOD (mg/L) 8 20
COD (mg/L) 22 –
Oil and grease Nil –
Residual chlorine 0.55 >0.5
Source Weekly Wastewater Analysis Report by Metro
Enviro-Chem Associates

sewage treatment plant [7] (Kumar n.d.). The distance between the township and the
factory is around 5 kms.
Project Design: As per CPHEEO manual sewage generated is 280 m3 /day and the
sewage treatment plant installed is designed for a capacity of 500 m3 /day keeping
in mind the future population demand as shown in Fig. 1. The plant is designed on
the principal of Fluidized Aerobic Bio-reactor technology and achieves the quality
of final treated water as follows (Table 2).
Process Description:
Fluidized Aerobic Bio-reactors system: The system comprises of two FAB reac-
tors containing plastic media as shown in Fig. 2. Bio growth takes place in the plastic
media which is kept in fluidized condition by blowing air through SS grids. No sludge
recycle is required to maintain liquor suspended solids and micro-organisms ratio.

1. The raw sewage from the township is collected in the well and it is pumped to
FAB-I. The sewage feed pumps to FAB are provided with strainers to prevent
floating materials from entering FAB-I.
2. The effluent flows to FAB-I to FAB-II. Both the reactors are provided with air
distribution grids and wire mesh box to arrest the media.
Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment … 211

Fig. 2 Fluidized aerobic bio-reactor I and II

3. Effluent from FAB-II is transferred to tube settler which acts as clarifier.

4. The sludge from bottom of tube settler is removed and taken to sludge drying bed
for dewatering and drying. The treated water from tube settler is taken to chlori-
nation contract tank and sodium hypo-chloride solution is added for disinfection
of treated water.
5. The treated water is again taken to dual media filter for removing suspended
solids. The filtered water is then passed through activated carbon filter to remove
residual organic matter and stored in clear water collection tank of capacity
100 m3 .
6. From the clear water tank, treated effluent is pumped to distribution network in
township for horticulture purpose.

Finance, Operations and Management: Kasturinagar Township is the first town-

ship to receive ISO-14001 certificate in May 2001. One of the major requirements
of ISO-14001 is to manage its wastewater and thus the township installed a decen-
tralized wastewater treatment plant. The entire project is funded by IFFCO including
capital investment and operations and management. Thermax Company is the current
agency which is responsible for operating the treatment plant and is on a contract
basis. The plant requires one supervisor and three operators. According to the super-
visor, they have not encountered any major problem till date.
The total cost of the treatment plant is about 60 lakhs which were recovered
within 5 years as per primary survey. The operations and management cost includes
the salaries of operators and cost of electricity consumption. With the installment of
the treatment plant, a savings of Rs. 25/m3 of water is done.
Feedback: The whole project was community oriented. The residents were made
aware about the environmental issues threatening life existence. The core group
members included housewives to workers to officers to achieve comprehensive
involvement. To encourage reuse of water, intensive awareness generation programs
were done.
212 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

The treatment technology was selected based on its level of maturity, level of
maintenance and space required. As per the views of the Joint General Manager
(EPC), they have successfully achieved 100% reuse of wastewater.

4.2 DEWATS (600 m3 /day)

The DEWATS treatment plant is situated in a public engineering institution, estab-

lished in 2008 by the Ministry of Human Resource Development. Currently, the
institution is developing its new campus at a 400 acres site in Palaj, Gandhinagar.
The site is located on the eastern side of river Sabarmati, across from the Gandhina-
gar city. The campus will be a 100% residential campus for staff and students and
it is developed in a phased manner where phase I will have 1200 students, phase II
will have 2400 students and phase III will have 4800 students. At present, phase I of
the development is completed and construction for phase II has begun (masterplan).
Project Design: A wastewater treatment plant is proposed with a capacity of
2.44 MLD against 2.35 sewage generation (theoretical) at the end of phase III. This
treatment plant is also developed phase wise and the present capacity of the treatment
plant is kept at 600 m3 /day as per the demand of phase I.
The primary and secondary treatments are based on DEWATS and tertiary treat-
ment includes pressure sand filter and ultrafiltration system as shown in Figs. 3 and
4. The treated water which meets the quality standards is used for non-direct human
contact purposes such as toilet flushing and horticulture (Table 3).
Process Description: The DEWATS installed in the campus is a combination of
the following treatment systems:
1. Primary treatment or sedimentation in settlers: the settler consists of two com-
partments where the first compartment occupies 2/3rd of the space and most of
the sludge gets deposited in the first compartment. From the outlet of the settler,
supernatant enters the anaerobic baffled reactor.

Fig. 3 Tertiary treatment

Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment … 213

Fig. 4 DEWATS (plant gravel filter)

Table 3 IIT Gandhinagar Parameter Outlet value Standard

wastewater effluent quality
pH 7.56 6.5–8.5
TSS (mg/L) 2 30
BOD (mg/L) <10 20
COD (mg/L) 40 –
Source Interview with operators and engineers

2. Secondary treatment in baffled reactors and anaerobic filters where anaerobic

degradation of suspended and dissolved solid takes place. In this phase, 70%
of BOD removal is achieved. The effluent from baffled reactor is directed to
anaerobic filter where non-settleable and dissolved solids are removed. 40–50%
of remaining BOD is removed in this phase.
3. Tertiary treatment in planted gravel filter: the treated wastewater from anaerobic
filter is transferred to PGF in such a way that it allows uniform distribution of
the flow over the filter area. Pressure sand filter and Ultrafiltration system: This
stage further reduces suspended solids, turbidity and organics. The final treated
water is then stored in a tank of capacity 2.4 MLD.
Finance, Operations and Management:
The motivation behind installing a decentralized wastewater treatment system is
that the institution is a green campus with a five-star GRIHA and LEED rating. The
entire project is funded by CPWD under Ministry of Human Resource Development.
The estimated cost of the treatment system was 1% of the total construction cost of
phase I of the campus. The operations and maintenance is done by Swastic Electricals
on yearly contract basis. The system requires one skilled operator and one inspector
for primary treatment and a helper to look after the PGF. In-house team and the
operating agency do regular inspections of effluent quality. This system requires
very less maintenance.
214 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

The total cost of the system is around 1.8 crores where the cost of tertiary treatment
itself is 1.4 crores. The yearly operations and management cost are 8.5 lakhs.
Feedback:
The treatment plant has proved to be a success in the case of IIT Gandhinagar
and 100% of the treated water is used for landscaping to keep the campus lush
green without any use of freshwater and the campus has achieved to be a zero-liquid
discharge campus.
But in phase II of the development, the institution has decided on dispensing the
tertiary treatment of PSF and UF. It was observed that treated water from effluent is
needed to be used immediately in the form of irrigation/horticulture. When water is
kept stagnant in toilet flushes, the BOD increased. Most of the residential apartments
and guest houses have low occupancy and thus the toilets are not used frequently,
that is why the flush system acts as a breeding pool for germs.

4.3 Activated Sludge Process (1000 m3 /day)

Godrej Garden City is one of the many township projects built on the concept of
water conservation. It is an integrated township and has numerous housing concepts
within its premises. More than 13,000 apartments are proposed including schools,
colleges, playgrounds, supermarkets, entertainment halls, offices, etc. At present,
2500 flats are occupied and the rest of the infrastructure of the township is under
construction.
It has become mandatory for every township to be a self-sustained one. Moreover,
the area of Jagatpur where the township lies has no water supply network or sewage
network. The source of water for drinking water is bore well.
The team of Godrej garden city believes in the principle of sustainable develop-
ment and with this aim, they have achieved to get platinum rating for this township.
The wastewater treatment plant installed in the township works on the principle of
ASP.
Project Design: Based on the present occupancy rate and future demand, four
WWTPs are currently operating in the township with 1000, 600, 250 and 100 KLD,
respectively. In this study, the plant with 1000 KLD capacity is studied. This plant is
a decentralized version of the conventional method of activated sludge process. The
treated water is within the prescribed standards and is used for horticulture purposes
(Table 4).
Process Description: The township has an underground network of sewer pipes
which connects all the apartment building and transport the collected wastewater
into the treatment plant. Activated sludge process technology consists of a number
of chambers through which wastewater flows clearing out impurities as follows.
1. The wastewater is collected in a screening chamber through a bar screen to
prevent rags, polyethene, bottles, etc., from entering the sedimentation tank.
2. The effluent is transferred to a horizontal tank where sedimentation occurs, and
the settled sludge is removed periodically.
Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment … 215

Table 4 Godrej Garden City wastewater effluent quality

Parameter Outlet value Standard
pH 8.2 6.5–8.5
TSS (mg/L) 0.55 <30
BOD (mg/L) 18 <20
COD (mg/L) 70 –
Odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable
Source Monthly Inspection Report

Fig. 5 Aeration chamber

Fig. 6 PSF and ACF

3. To achieve reduced organic loading of the effluent, if put in a large aeration tank
where air is pumped to enhance the breakdown of organic particles as shown in
Fig. 5. The effluent is transferred to a clarifier-settler. The sludge at the bottom
of clarifier-settler is sent back to the aeration tank.
4. For final treatment, the water is passed through three filter chambers as shown in
Fig. 6.
216 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

5. The supernatant obtained is then stored in tank and further treated with chlorine
from where it is used for irrigation purposes.
Finance, Operations and Management:
It has become mandatory for every township to be a self-sustained one. Moreover,
the area of Jagatpur where the township lies has no water supply network or sewage
network. The source of water for drinking water is bore well.
The team of Godrej garden city believes in the principle of sustainable develop-
ment and with this aim they have achieved to get platinum rating for this township.
The Operation and management are done by Prabhu Enviro Tech Private Ltd. with
one supervisor, three operators and one helper.
According to the General Manager, the total cost of installing the treatment plant
along with sewer network was 6 crores which were recovered within 6 years of
installation from the advance maintenance fees of all the buyers of property. The
operations and management cost per head is negligible. The Godrej garden city is
free from paying water/sewer tax under Ahmedabad Property tax.
Feedback:
From the interviews and site visit, it is clear that the township faces shortage of
water and this reuse of water for non- human purposes has proved to be a success in
terms of conserving water. The developer also gets benefitted in terms of increased
FSI and the residents are free from paying water and sewerage charges.

5 Summary

The key parameters studied for assessing the treatment plants are given in Table 5
where the annual O & M cost includes electricity cost, salary of staff, admin charges,
cost of chemicals, repairs and effluent inspection charges.
Based on the study, the following key factors for the success of any plant is
obtained as follows.
The design capacity of the plant must be in accordance to the anticipated future
demand. Most of the treatment plant fails because of running at a capacity much
lower than it is designed for. In such cases, effluent also does not meet the standards
of CPCB.
It is very important to consider the land area requirements of different treatment
plants in situations where land is scarce. Private developers generally opts for package
plants because of lesser land requirements.
The affordability of the treatment plant by the users should be carefully considered.
Package treatment plants prove to be very expensive for single households but when
it is for a community or township it is a viable option. DEWATS system has the
lowest capital investment required compared to on-site packaged plants. Ability to
pay for the O & M cost is also important to obtain the expected treatment efficiency
out of the treatment plant.
Feasibility Analysis of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment … 217

Table 5 Summary of treatment plants studied

Case study IFFCO Kasturinagar IIT Gandhinagar Godrej Garden City
Total area 51 acres 400 acres 200 acres
Treatment technology Fluidized aerobic DEWATS Activated sludge
bio-reactor process
Maturity of Matured Maturing Matured
technology
Year of 2002 2015 2014
commissioning
Design capacity 500 m3 /day 600 m3 /day 1000 m3 /day
Operating capacity 280 m3 /day 400 m3 /day 900 m3 /day
Area occupied by the 1497 m2 4046 m2 1057 m2
treatment plant
Outlet parameter
pH 7.56 6.5–8.5 8.2
BOD 8 3 18
COD 22 45 70
Uses of recycled water Horticulture Horticulture, toilet Horticulture
flushing
Uses of sludge Manure Manure Manure
Ease of upgradation Easy Easy Difficult
Number of operators 3 3 5
Total capital cost |60,00,000 |165,000,000 |60,000,000
Total O & M cost |1,020,000 |875,000 |4,200,000
Capital cost (Rs 0.12/m3 0.3/m3 0.6/m3
Lakh/m3 )
Operation cost Rs 2206/m3 Rs 1416/m3 Rs 4200/m3
(Rs/m3 )
Land area required 0.25 excluding sludge 6.74 1.057
(m2 /KLD) dying bed
Source of fund for Self-funded Ministry of human Self-funded
capital cost resource and
development
Sources of fund for O Self-funded Ministry of human Self-funded
& M cost resource and
development
218 S. Hazarika and D. Pandit

The result of user perspective survey conveyed that residents prefer treatment
plants that occupy less space and are aesthetically appealing. The plant should not
obstruct view and should be located at the back for safety reasons.

6 Conclusion and Scope for Future Work

This project work gives only an overview of the treatment technologies. It is important
to include life cycle cost assessment of the decentralized wastewater treatment plant
to understand financial feasibility in terms of Indian context. During the analysis,
it has been observed that inflation rate for CAPEX and OPEX is to be considered
because the treatment plants have different market conditions with respect to the year
of commissioning.
It is important to state that decentralized WWTP for individual household prove
to be uneconomical because of high power consumption with respect to lesser design
capacity. Based on personal interview, it was observed that middle or high-income
group of people were aware about the environmental benefits of installing decentral-
ized wastewater treatment system and were even ready to incur additional cost. But
it is impractical to assume the same for lower income group people.
It was seen that most of the WWTPs have private effluent quality inspection.
There is a requirement for stringent law enforcement for the proper monitoring of
the operation of the WWTP. There should be random visits from government officials
and penalty should be given to those who do not comply with the standards.
WWTP can never be a revenue-generating model as the product is treated water
and a small fraction of sludge. It is not possible to create a business out of it. But
in the long run, recycling and reusing wastewater can solve water issues to a great
extent. Therefore, there is a need for innovations in the field of wastewater treatment
and the government must encourage pilot projects on decentralized treatment plant
so that efficient and low-cost technologies can be developed.

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