Unit one – Introduction to Research

1. Introduction to Research

Research is a means by which you will be acquire knowledge.

Methods of acquiring knowledge:

Human beings acquire knowledge in different ways. They may go to experienced persons and
learn something. They may also arrive at a solution to some problems they face by their own
thinking and reasoning and as a result get some knowledge. Some people may also accept what
is generally accepted by many as a source of knowledge. Beyond these, knowledge can be
obtained by applying scientific procedures. The following are four methods of acquiring
knowledge:

A. Authority

From whom do you think people will get knowledge about their religion? From whom students
get knowledge about different ideas? People for example get knowledge about their religion
from priests and sheiks. Students also get knowledge about different ideas from teachers. When
knowledge is obtained from individuals from qualified procedures of knowledge, the source of
the knowledge is said to be Authority. In earlier times elders and philosophers (like Plato and
Aristotle) were accepted as source of knowledge.

B. Tradition

There is a knowledge that we accepted as true without questioning it in our society. For example,
our culture’s way of dressing we know is not culturally accepted for males to wear female’s
dresses. We don’t ask why this is so but we accept it as correct. When we accept without the
traditions, customs or culture of our forefathers or the society with in which we are living, the

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source of knowledge is said to be tradition. But we shouldn’t take that what is traditionally done
is always right.

C. Experience

Which months of the year are raining seasons in most parts of our country? They are June, July
and August. Nobody told us this, but we know from our own experience of the flow of seasons in
the year, we could see the above facts. Therefore, our personal experience or our observation of
the experiences of other people is another fundamental source of knowledge.

D. Reasoning

Here knowledge will be obtained based on some rules and forms of logic. It can be seen in
two ways:

1. Deductive reasoning – This is a thinking in which one will go from general

statements to specific statements. It is a means to evaluate the correctness of any
given conclusion or idea by going from the known to the unknown. It consists of:
 A previously established fact which is known as Major premise.
 A particular case to which the fact can be applied. This is known as Minor
premise.
 A conclusion. (i) and, (ii) must be true for a conclusion to be necessarily true.
Example of deductive reasoning
- All animals are mortal (will die)
- Cat is an animal.
- Therefore, cat is mortal.
2. Inductive reasoning- this is going from specific to general ides. Here conclusion will
be given by observing particular instances (situations) and generalizing from them to
the whole phenomenon.
3. Example of inductive reasoning
- Mammals are mortal
- Insects are mortal
- Birds are mortal

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 - Fishes are mortal
- Plants are mortal
- Reptiles are mortal.

- Therefore, all living things are mortal.

E. Scientific method
This integrates the most the most important aspect of the inductive and deductive
methods. Here knowledge will be obtained through a step by step process of collecting
data, analyzing it and reaching at conclusion. It is helpful to establish laws and get
solutions to problems.
Scientific approaches have four basic steps:
 Conducting research. First we begin by observing phenomena. These can be people
or objects. This is one means to get information. For example, you may observe
growth of plants whenever there is adequate rainfall.
 Formulating assumptions. Based on your observation you guess the possible cause-
effect relationship. For instance, from the above observation, you can assume that
whenever there is adequate rain fall plants grow better. This kind of assumption is
known as hypothesis.
 Conducting experiment. After formulating assumptions’ it is important to conduct
an experiment to check if the assumptions are true. In this case, we can take two
plants to grow in different places; one with adequate rain fall and the other with
inadequate rain fall. If the plant with adequate rain fall grows better than the other one
then our assumption is proved to be true.
 Forming conclusions- based on the results of the experiment, you can make
generalizations. For instance, in the above example, if repeated experiments show the
same results, we can conclude that adequate water is the necessary condition for plant
growth.

1.1. The what of Research

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Definition – In the most profound sense research simply means trying to find an answer to
questions, an activity every one of us does all the time to learn more about the world around us.
Research refers the application of the scientific method in the study of problems.

It can also be defined as a close searching, a studious, critical investigation of a well defined
topic. The word is derived from the Latin word ‘circare,’ which means “to go round” This is
essentially what you do when you research a topic: you try to encircle it, to mark its boundaries.

Research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers to questions about events through the
application of scientific problems.

Characteristics of Research

Generally, research has the following characteristics.

i. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem. It attempts to answer a

question or to determine the relation between two or more variables.
ii. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. If answers to a research question go to
the same direction repeatedly, it will enable us to formulate a generalization. for example
if a number of comparison of university students male and female students English
language ability show us that males achieve better than females, we may have such a
generalization that university male students are superior in English language than
females.
iii. Research involves gathering of data/information. There are different ways of
gathering data or information. For example, for the above case, the researcher may
prepare a new test and give it to male and female students or take their scores from the
existing documents.
iv. Research requires expertise. The researcher should be knowledgeable about how to
conduct research as well as about the issue that is being treated by the research. To
compare male and female university students English language ability, the researcher, in
the first place, should know how to make the comparison. Beyond this, he/she should

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 know how other researchers and writers said about English language ability of males and
females.
v. Research is characterized by careful designed procedures. It is not something to be
conducted through trial and error or blindly. There are systematic steps in research:
 Identification of research problem
 Selection of research methods
 Data collection
 Analysis and interpretation of data
 Reporting of results
vi. Research requires courage. A researcher should be courageous to face difficulties that
he/ she may encounter when conducting research or after its completion. At times it may
be difficult to get data from your study subjects. For example, you may not be allowed
to meet and study prisoners in a prison. But you should not be desperate and stop your
effort. On the other hand your research result may raise questions and oppositions from
some people.
vii. Research procedures should lead to valid conclusion. Regardless of the form research
takes or the ends to which it is directed, research should be valid. Validity should be seen
in two respects: External and Internal.

1.2. Quality criteria of Research

What is validity?

Validity refers to the extent to which the results of an evaluation procedure serve the particular
uses for which they are intended. It is concerned with whether our research is believable and true
and whether it is evaluating what is supposed or purports to evaluate. In this regard, Burns
91999:160) stresses that “validity is an essential criterion for evaluating the quality and
acceptability of research.” Generally, researchers use different instruments to collect data.
Therefore, the quality of these instruments is very critical, because “ the conclusion researchers
draw are based on the information they obtain using these instruments” (Fraenkel 7 wallen2003:
158).

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 1.21. Validity (External and Internal.)

a. External validity

External validity refers the degree to which the results of a research can be generalized to a
larger group. Suppose there are 5,000 elementary school teachers in region X and you want to
study their attitude towards self contained method of teaching. Let’s say that you took 20
teachers from a school and studied their attitude. In the result you found them having not good
attitude towards the method. Therefore, you cannot generalize that teachers in region X have
negative attitude towards self contained method of teaching, because twenty teachers can not
represent 5,000 teachers in the region. In such cases the result the results of your research will
lack external validity. Therefore, External validity is the extent to which results of a research can
be generalized to large population.

b. Internal validity
Internal validity refers the degree to which results from a research can be interpreted
accurately. For research results to be useful, the procedures that we follow should be
carefully designed. Suppose you want to study about the effect of homework provision on
academic achievement. What other factors other than home work provision can you
mention as factors that may affect academic achievement of students?
 The ability of the learners,
 The method by which they are learning, etc can be some of them. Suppose you
took two groups with the following characteristics:

For group one students For group two students

Homework is given There is no homework
They are intelligent students They are very weak students
They learned using discussion method They learned using lecture method
Under the above conditions, let’s say that you found achievement of group one students better
than that of group two students.

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Therefore, can you conclude that home work provision improves achievement? No, you can’t,
because the better achievement of group one students may be due to their ability or due to the
type of method used. Hence, our generalization lacks internal validity. For the conclusion to be
valid, all other factors that may affect achievement other than homework provision should be
kept constant. Therefore, Internal validity refers the extent to which result can be interpreted
accurately (correctly).

1.2.2. Reliability

What is reliability?

One of the main requirements of any research process is the reliability of the data and findings.
In the main, reliability deals with the consistency, dependability, and replicability of the results
obtained from a piece of research (Nunan, 1999: 14).

The term ‘Reliability’ comes from measurement theory and refers to the ‘consistency of data ,
scores or observations obtained using elicitation instruments, which can include a range of tools
from standardized tests administered in educational settings to tasks completed by participants in
a research study (Chalhoub- Devile 2006:2).

In other words reliability indicates the extent to which our measurement instruments and
procedures produce consistent results in a given population in different circumstances (the
degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different
observers or by the same observer on different occasions). The variation of the circumstances
can involve differences in administrative procedures, changes in test takers over time, differences
in various forms of the test and differences in test raters. If these variations cause in
consistencies, or measurement error, then our results are unreliable.

It is not the test or the measuring instrument that is reliable or unreliable. Reliability is a property
of the scores on a test for a particular population of test takers.

Obtaining the similar results in quantitative research is rather straight forward because our data
are in numerical form. However, in qualitative approaches to research achieving the identical
results are fairly demanding and difficult. It is because the data are in narrative form and
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subjective. Therefore, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985: 288), instead of obtaining the same
results it is better to think about the dependability and consistency of the data. In this case the
purpose is not to get the same results rather to agree that based on the data collection processes
the findings and results are consistent and dependable. The dependability of the results can be
ensured through the use of triangulation and other techniques.

1.3. Classification of Research

1.3.1. Basic and Applied Research

Based on the objectives or purposes a researcher intends to accomplish, research can be

classified as basic and applied.

a. Basic research

Basic research is a type of research that is intended to expand body of knowledge rather than for
solution of immediate practical problems. This is primarily concerned with the formulation of a
theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. It does not necessarily provide results
of immediate and practical use. Its major aim is to obtain and use the empirical data to formulate,
expand or evaluate theory. It is also called pure or fundamental research. It employs careful
sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the sampling subjects. Mostly
research works conducted in a laboratory setting are grouped under basic research.

b. Applied research

Applied research is a type of research which is conducted to solve immediate practical

problem/s/.This is directed to the solution of immediate, specific and practical problems. The
findings of applied research will be evaluated in terms of universal validity (usefulness). It is
mainly intended to improve school practice and add to greater teacher effectiveness in a
particular manner. Applied research is mainly intended to improve school practices and add to
greater teacher effectiveness in a practical manner. One form of applied research is action
research, conducted by a teacher, administrator or other educational professionals to aid in
decision making in the local school. It focuses on the solution of day to day problems at the local

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level. Applied research is also designed as action research. Action research is a type of applied
or decision oriented research. Therefore, it is conducted by the teachers, supervisors and school
administrators themselves for dealing with classroom problems and improving classroom
practices.

1.3.2. Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed methods Research

According to the nature of data being collected and analyzed, research can be classified as
qualitative and quantitative.

a. Qualitative Research.

This refers to research that involves the meaning, concepts, definitions, characteristics and
description of things. It is a type of research that describes phenomena I words instead of
numbers and measures.

b. Quantitative research

This refers to research that involves measures, traits, characteristics or attributes of things. It is a
type of research that describes phenomena in numbers and measures instead if words.

c. Mixed methods research

According to Morse and Richards (2002: 27) in Zoltan Dorneiy (2001: 148), there is no clear
chasm between qualitative and quantitative techniques. It is our experience that many qualitative
projects involve counting at some stage, and many questions are best answered by
quantification.

A mixed method study involves the collection or analysis of both qualitative and qualitative data
in a single study with some attempts to integrate the two approaches at one or more stages of the
research process. In other words, mixed methods research involves the mixing of qualitative and
quantitative research methods or paradigm characteristics (Johnson and Christenson 2004).

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Researchers have been referring to studies that combine qualitative and quantitative methods
under a variety of names, such as multi trait- multi method research, interrelating qualitative and
quantitative data, methodological triangulation, mixed method studies and mixed methods
research. Recently, mixed method research has been increasingly seen as third approach in
research methodology.

Qualitative and quantitative forms of research both have roles to play in theories.

the issue is not whether to use one form or another, but rather how these work

together to foster the development of theory. Although most researchers tend

to use qualitative and quantitative methods in supplementary or complementary

forms, what we are advocating is a true interplay between the two. The qualitative

should direct the quantitative and the quantitative feedback in to the qualitative in

a circular, but at the same time evolving, process with each method contributing

to the theory in ways that only each can. Strauss and Corbin’s (1998: 34) in

Zoltan Dorneiy :34)

The purposes of mixed method research

According to Sandelowski (2003) in Zoltan Dorneiy (2001), there are two main and somewhat
conflicting purposes for combining methods:

a. To achieve a fuller understanding of a target phenomenon and

b. To verify one set of findings against the other.

In the first instance, the goal is to achieve an elaborate and comprehensive understanding of a
complex matter, looking at it from different angles. The second purpose is the traditional goal of
triangulation (to validate ones conclusion by presenting converging results obtained through
different methods.

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Harden and Thomas (2005: 257) state the following about the compatibility of different research
paradigms.

… much research in the ‘real world’ does not fit in to neat categorizations of ‘qualitative’

and ‘quantitative’ and also does not appear to be too concerned with the

epistemological issues that so exercise some commentators.

1.4. Data types- primary and secondary

Data, for example, in historical evidence, the historian must distinguish data from a primary
source, namely data provided by actual witnesses to the incident in question, and evidence
from secondary sources, in which a middle man has come between the original and the present
observer.

Primary data

A primary source of data is one that has had some direct physical relationship to the events that
are being reconstructed. A person who directly observes an event would be classified as
primary source. This would also apply to a photograph or sound recording of the event. The
witness of a person whose life is being reconstructed as a history is also fall in the same
category.

In terms of documentary evidences, records kept and written by participants in, or witnesses of
an event constitute primary sources.

Documents normally classified as primary sources are constitutions, charts, laws, court
decisions, official minutes or records, autobiographies, letters, diaries, genealogies, contracts,
deeds, wills, permits licenses, declarations, proclamations, certificates, bills,receipts, news
papers and magazines, accounts, maps diagrams etc.

Secondary data

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 A secondary source is one that does not bear a direct physical relationship to the event that is
the object of study. It is related to the even though some intermediate process. Therefore, it is
one in which the person describing the event was not present but has obtained his description
from someone else who may or may not have directly observed the event. Most history text
books and encyclopedias are examples of secondary sources.

Secondary sources are subject to an inherent danger of inaccuracy. Whenever evidence is

transmitted from one person to another, it tends to become distorted. At times such evidences
represent a lot of unverified hearsay or rumor. For this reason many historians insist on
primary sources when possible, using secondary sources only as a way of bridging gaps in the
various piece of primary evidence.

1.5. Designing Research problems

The first step in the research process is the choice of suitable problem. Research starts with a
felt difficulty and takes place when there is a problematic situation and a need to solve
problem. A research problem can be stated in question or statement form, but the question is
better because it is straight forward to guide the researcher.

Broadly speaking, any question that you want to be answered and assumption or assertion that
you want to challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for
your study. However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed in
to research problems and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study.

As human beings, we are curious about the unknowns. We ask many questions and try to find
out answers to them. However, not every question can become a research question. A research
problem has to indicate the possibility of empirical investigation- that is of data collecting and
analysis.

1.5.1. The importance of formulating a research problem in a research process

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 The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research
process. It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. In the
absence of a destination it is impossible to identify the shortest or indeed any route in the
absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan is possible.

A research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the building is
dependent up on the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong, you can expect
the building to be also. Likewise, the research problem serves as the foundation of a study: if it
is well designed, you can expect a good study to follow.

The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follow the type of study
design. That can be employed, the research instrument that can be used or develop and the type
of analysis that can be undertaken.

The formulation of a problem is like the “input” in to a study, and the “output” the quality of
the contents of the research report and the validity of the association or causation (result)
established- is entirely dependent up on it. Hence, the famous saying about computers,
‘garbage in, garbage out’ is equally applicable to a research problem.

1.5.1. Source of Research problem

There are some important sources which are helpful to a researcher for selecting a problem.

1.5.1.1. Professional experience

This refers to the source of a research problem from one’s own work environment and
observation of everyday events.

Example- 1. A teacher can make use of a class dynamic interaction between teacher- pupil,
pupil- teacher and pupil- materials as a source of research problem.

2. Classroom interaction as well as students’ attitude, motivation, socio economic status and
peer influence.
1.5.1.2. Inference from theory

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The second important source of research problem lies in the influences that can be drawn from
various educational and psychological theories known to the researcher. It will help to determine
whether a particular theory can be translated in to actual practice and this should be proved
empirically.

Example- A computer study on the positive impact of ‘input’ and ‘output’ for developing
students’ productive skills (speaking and writing).

1.5.1.3. Professional literature

Among the source of problems one has to be thoroughly acquired with the literature in the field
of one’s interest by visiting such resources one can explore gaps in existing knowledge. These
types of sources, not only indicate research problem, but also suggests how research is
conducted.

Example- Research reports, research abstracts, articles, journals, yearbooks and research guides.

1.5.1. 4. Technological and social changes

These changes demand development of new courses and curriculum for students in educational
institutions. These developments constantly bring forth new problems for research. These
innovations in education need to be carefully evaluated through research process.

Example- Reaching with plasma in Ethiopian schools

- Adoption of CLT in Ethiopian educational policy

Kumar (1999:36) also classified sources of research problems in to four:

1. People
2. Problem
3. Program
4. Phenomena

1.5.2. Common errors during the choice, selection / designing of a research problem

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  Choice of a problem that ca not be answered by conducting a research.
 Failure to specify the problem i.e. collecting data without asking a research question
beforehand.
 Statement of a problem in such broad terms that any results could be interpreted as
being related/ unrelated to the problem.
 Related of a problem in such narrow terms that answers apply only to specific cases.
 Choosing a problem that is beyond the researcher’s ability to evaluate.
 Failure to search the literature thoroughly, the problem may already be answered.

1.5.3. General concerns/ considerations in selecting or designing a research problem

When selecting a research problem or topic, there are a number of considerations to keep in mind
there by insure that your study will be manageable and that you will remain motivated:

 Interest, stimulus and motivation

 Magnitude
 Continued focus
 Measurement of concepts
 Level of expertise
 Relevance
 Availability of data
 Ethical issues, etc.

1.5.4. Steps in the formulation of research problems

The steps are based on the principle of ‘narrowing the problem’ and meant to help you in
formulating a research problem.
 Identify: abroad area of interest in your academic/ professional field.
 Dissect: the broad area in to sub-areas (hold a brain storming session with
yourself, peers, professionals and others to identify the sub areas.
 Select: a sub area or areas in which you would like to conduct your research. Start
with a process of elimination.
 Raise research questions: that you would like to answer through your study.

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  Formulate objectives: main and sub for your study.
 Assess: these objectives to ascertain the feasibility of attaining them in the light of
the time, resources and technical expertise at your disposal.
 Double check: that you are sufficiently interested in the study and have adequate
resources for undertaking it.

Generally, a good research topic should be small enough for a conclusive investigation and large
enough to yield interesting results.

1.5.5. Basic criteria to evaluate a research problem

Before the proposed research problem can be considered appropriately, several searching
questions should be raised. Only when these questions are answered in the affirmative way, the
problem can be considered a good one.

Two general factors can evaluate an already targeted research problem: Interest and Feasibility
i.e. “Do I want to do research on this topic?” and “Can I do the research on this topic?” are two
important evaluating questions. More specifically, the following criteria are common to
evaluate any research problem:

1. Is the problem researchable?

2. Is the problem new?
3. Is the problem significant?
4. Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher?

1.5.6. Statement of research problem

General back ground to statement of research problem.

The first major section after the problem has been selected is to define the research problem in a
form amenable to research i.e. capable of being tested or answered.

 Discussing the problem well and clearly.

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  Whitney (1964) in Lokesh (1997: 67) suggest that “ to define a problem means to put a
fence around it, to separate it by careful distinction from like questions found in related
situations of need.
 The researcher must be certain that he knows exactly what his problem is before he
begins work on it. Specifying a problem explicitly and narrowing it down to workable
size are extremely important at the very start.
 Monroe and Engel (1982) in Lokesh said “ to define a problem means to specify it in
detail and with precision. Each question and its subordinate questions to be answered are
to be specified. The limits of the investigation must be determined frequently, it is
necessary to review previous studies in order to determine just what is required to be
done. Sometimes, it is necessary to formulate the point of view of educational theory on
which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they must be
explicitly noted.

1.5.7. Importance of statement of research problem in a research process (Why it is

important to state and define the problem well.)

A problem statement:

a. Introduces the reader the importance of the problem.

- Orient the reader for the significance of the study, main objective, research
questions and hypothesis.
b. Places the problem in context and its scope.
c. Provides the frame work for reporting the results. You could relate the findings to
prior research, or it could be presented as a comparison or you could draw
implications from the findings to generalize to other related conditions.

A clear statement of the problem:

a. is the foundation for the further development of the research (research objectives,
methodology, work plan, budget, etc.)

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 b. makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own
study design can benefit.
c. Enable you to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should
be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results. This is important to
highlight when you present your project to donor agencies, staff, advisors and relevant
bodies to your research.

1.5.8. Basic components of statement of research problem

 A brief description of the problem in context, characteristics and background information,

 A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy between what is and
what should be) and of the size, distribution and severity of the problem (who is affected,
where, since when and what are the consequences for those affected and the services.)
 An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a discussion of why
certain factors need more investigation to understand the problem fully.
 A brief discussion of any solution to the problem that has been tried in the past, how well
they have worked and why further research is needed (justification for your study).
 A description for the type of information expected to result from the project and how this
information well be used to help solve the problem.
 General statement of the problem should encompass explanation of:
- The main focus of the study.
- Previous research findings in the area, unstudied cases and contradictory points or
findings,
- The place and subjects of the study.
- Importance of the study.
- The target intension of the study.etc.
 After selecting and specifying the research problem, the researcher should specify the
variables involved in the problem and define them in operational terms as well as drawing
the kind of relationship among the variables.

Example-1. Research problem: Effectiveness of programmed instruction on the performance

in speaking skill of high school students.

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 2. Variables involved in the problem: “Effectiveness”, “programmed
instruction” and “high school students”.
3. Operational definition: should be given to these variables, because the
dictionary meanings of the terms are not enough for research purpose. (Yalew
Endawoke (2006: 50) ,Fundamentals of research methods.

1.5.9. Types and ways of presenting leading research questions in the problem statement
and the logic to formulate them.

Leading research questions are not research problems rather they arise from the research problem
so as to limit the scope of the research problem, make clear and detail.

Example: 1. Research problem: The efficiency of the secondary level grade nine English
Language curriculums in raising learners’ autonomy.

This problem may indicate the scope, level and framework of the study, but it doesn’t clearly
indicate what the researcher is going to do. So, by producing leading research questions, the
researcher can identify his path or show the clear direction of the research as follows:

1. Do the contents in the curriculum encourage learners to try activities themselves?

2. Do the activities in the curriculum push students to develop their own ways based on
what is already there?
3. Do the contents make teachers to accept students’ ideas and productions (writing or
speaking?)

The logic of formulating quantitative problem is deductive i.e. starting with general construct or
theory then identifying some operational variables to quantify the general construct or theory,
and finally deciding on which variables to be observed. In short the steps are:

1. Review of the construct,

2. Identification of the variable, and
3. Operational definition of variables.

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 Types of questions Questioning techniques Types of research/design
Descriptive question - What is ….? survey
- What it seems…?

Correlation question - Is’ X’ related to ‘Y’? Correlation design

- Can we predict ‘Y’ from the point view of
‘X’?

Difference question - Is there difference of characteristic between Experimental or non- experimental

‘X’ and ‘Y”?

Cause and effect question - What is the impact of ‘X’ on ‘Y’? Experimental or non- experimental

Table 1: Type of question, questioning technique and type of research or design to answer the question

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Unit Two- Research Variables

Objectives

2.1. Issues about variables.

Variables in a research are defined differently by different scholars. But many of the writers use
the wording ‘anything that takes two or more values ‘in the identification of variables in a
research. For example, a variable is simply a measurable characteristic that varies; it may change
from group to group, person to person over a period of time.

Best and Kahn (1993: 133) also define variables as ‘conditions or characters that the
experimenter manipulates, controls or observes during his study.’

Similarly, Sharma 2000:96) describes a variable as “anything that is subjected to change or

fluctuation.” According to these definitions, then anything that changes or takes on different
values is considered as a variable. Age, for instance, is a variable because it can take different
values for different people or for the same person at different times. Generally variable is an
event that varies. Human beings may vary in terms of physical characteristics as height, weight,
etc.; in terms of intelligence self concept or the ways by which we are taught, etc. all these things
can be considered as variables.

Naturally, everything changes sooner or later. But a variable is a factor whose change or
difference for various reasons is the researcher wants to study. For example, amount of rain is
probably a variable to a metrologist studying precipitation but not to gastronomist who is
studying stars, though the rain may be annoying to the astronomer for it makes the stars invisible.
Similarly rain might not be a variable to a biologist who is studying lung cancer, which of course
might have something to do with the environment that in turn causes lung cancer.

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Therefore, it is more meaningful to say that it is the researcher who chooses his variables, not the
other way round. The world does not tell to the researcher what aspects of it to study. The main
point here to remember is that good researcher does not choose his variables randomly or
casually, rather he chooses them with extreme care, for such choices are among the central ones
he/she must make. It is very essential to bear in mind that poorly chosen variables yield useless
results.

For the reason that variables are chosen based on the purpose of the study, as explained above,
and since there exist different types of studies, certainly convoy the existence of different types
of variables.

2.2. Types of research variables

There is no common ground or criteria to the classification of variables. In this regard, some
scholars such as Sharma (2000: 192) states four types of variables exist in educational
experiment research: dependent, Independent, controlling and intervening variables. However,
for our case, we will see variables in to two categories.

a.Independent variables

An independent variable, which is also called predicator variable, is a variable that is responsible
for bringing about changes in a phenomenon or situation. It is this variable that the researcher
manipulates or controls in his or her study to discover the relationship or effect on the observed
phenomena (Best and Kahin 1993)

This is a variable that affects the value or characteristic of another variable (the dependent
variable). It can be manipulated or controlled by the researcher so that the effect can be seen.
Independent variables can also be classifying variables.

For example (1) in a study about the effect of homework provision on the academic achievement
of students, the independent variable is homework provision. The researcher can control the
situation of homework provision. Therefore, homework provision is under the will of the
researcher.

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Example (2) a researcher wants to study about “Gender differences in professional attitude.”
What is the independent variable that can be varied by a researcher? It is gender. The researcher
will take males and females and compare the professional attitudes. In this case the independent
variable is a classifying variable.

a. Dependent variable

This is a variable being affected or assumed to be affected by the independent variable. It is a

measure of the effect of the independent variable.

In the first example given above academic achievement is the dependent variable.

I the second example above, the dependent variable is the professional attitude.

In other words, it is a variable which is regarded as the outcome of the change brought about by
changes in the independent variable. It is called out put response or criterion variable. It is the
factor whose change as a result of variations in the independent variable is observed and
measured to determine the relationship with the independent variable.

For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students’ scores on a test of the content taught
by the procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation
in the independent variable.

How to determine variables as dependent and independent

It should be clear that in the real world, variables are neither independent nor dependent. But the
researcher decides how to consider them, and his or her decision is based on the research
objective. Hence, the distinction between independent and dependent variables is analytic and it
is related only to the research purpose. An independent variable in one investigation may be
dependent variable in another and the same researcher in different situations may classify the
same variable in different ways.

If one wants to explain peoples’ variation in political participation, the later will be his/her
dependent variable. Peoples’ political participation may be regarded as a predicator variable,

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because the social class to which an individual belongs may predict his political participation
which was indeed true in the past when there was social class stratification. But if one wants to
explain variation in social class, such as why some individuals are in the lower class and others
in the middle, then the later one, social class variation, will be dependent variables as it could be
affected by for instance, individual’s educational attainment. In this case, educational attainment
is going to be an independent variable which was a dependent one in the first case. Namchmias
and Namchmias, C. (1997:59)

The above altogether imply that variables are determined as independent and dependent by the
investigator based on the nature and objective of his /her study. Nature of study in this context is
used to refer to the type of research to carry out. Independent and dependent variables are used
only when we are talking about experimental research, dealing with cause and effect, where the
former is manipulated and the latter is passively observed.

Controlling variables

In conducting experimental study factors, in addition to the considered independent variable that
might affect the dependent variable should be kept constant. When an investigator controls a
variable, he wishes to balance its effect across subjects and groups, so that he will ignore it and
just studies the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Therefore, if a
person suspects something might impact his result, he either includes it as a variable or holds it
constant, or control between all groups. Consider the study on the effect of homework provision
on the academic achievement of students.

What factors other than home work provision may affect achievement of students?

Many factors may influence achievement of students. The presences of tutorial program,
additional reading materials, teachers’ method of teaching, etc are some. Now suppose you want
to conduct the study and for this purpose you took two groups with the following features.

Group one students

1. There is homework provision.

2. There are additional tutorial classes after school periods of home.

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 3. There are additional reading materials given by parents.
4. They are usually taught by discussion methods for better understanding of ideas.

Group two students

1. There is no homework provision.

2. There are no additional tutorial classes.
3. There are no additional reading materials given.
4. They are usually taught by lecturing method.

To compare the achievement of these two groups of students let’s say you gave them the same
test to both group members. In the result you found the achievement of group one students
highly greater than the achievement of group two students.

From the above result, can you conclude that homework provision improves academic
achievement? Why? No, it is not possible to conclude that homework provision improves
academic achievement. The reason is that the greater achievement of group one students may be
due to the fact that there are additional classes for them, or because of additional reading
materials for them, or because they were allowed to discuss on what they are learning. So
variation in homework provision cannot be taken as the only reason for observed differences. If
you need to see the effect of variation in homework provision up to achievement, group one and
group two students should be equal with respect to the conditions of 1, 2, 3, and 4. This is
what is called controlling.

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Unit three: Research Designs – Qualitative & Quantitative
Based on the nature of the research problem, and the questions asked to address the problem and
the literature review, a researcher chooses either quantitative or qualitative research design or
method. These inform the specific research design or method to be used and the procedure
involved in them, such as sampling, data collection instruments or protocols, the procedures, the
data analysis, and the final interpretation of results.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

The major characters of quantitative research are:

 Describing the research problem through description of trends or a need for an

explanation of the relationship among the variables.
 Providing a major role for the literature through suggesting research questions to be
asked and justifying the research problem and creating a need for the direction (purpose
statement and research question s or hypothesis) of the study.
 Creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypothesis those are specific,
narrow, measurable and observable.
 Collecting numerical data from a large number of people using instruments, with preset
questions and responses.
 Analyzing trends (general direction), comparing groups, or relating variables using
statistical analysis, and interpreting results comparing with prior predictions and past
research.
 Writing the research report using standard fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and
taking an objective, unbiased approach.
 An instrument is a tool for measuring, observing, or documenting qualitative data. It
contains specific questions and response possibilities that you establish or develop in a
dome of study. Examples of instruments are surrey questionnaire standardized test,
interview, experiment, observation checklist that you might use to observe behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

In qualitative research, different major characteristics are observed at each stage of the research
process:

 Exploring a problem and developing detailed understanding of a central phenomenon

 Having the literature review, play minor role but justify the problem.

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  Stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the
participants’ experiences.
 Collecting data based on words from small number of individuals so that the participant’s
views are obtained.
 Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting a large
meaning of the finding.
 Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative, criteria, and
including the researcher’s subjective reflexivity, and bias.

Similarities and differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Researches

In terms of similarity, both forms of research follow the six or 8 steps in the process of research.
There are minor differences in introduction to the study - the research problem sections.

 In quantitative research the research problem section is used to direct the types of
questions or hypothesis asked in the study, whereas, in qualitative research problem
discussion is typically used to establish the importance of the central idea. Another
similarity exists in the data collection procedure. Both quantitative and qualitative data
collection may employ similar approaches, such as interviews, or observations. However,
in the data analysis, the procedures are quite different. In quantitative research the
investigator relies on statistical analysis (mathematical analysis) of the data, which is
typically a numeric, form. In qualitative research statistics are not used to analyze the
data, instead, the enquirer analyzes words (e.g. transcriptions from interviews) or images
(e.g. photographs)

Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the
way, you may need to rearrange these steps.
 Step 1: Identify and develop your topic. Selecting a topic can be the most challenging
 a research assignment ……..
 Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information. ...
 Step 3: Locate materials. ...
 Step 4: Evaluate your sources. ...
 Step 5: Make notes. ...
 Step 6: Write your paper. ...
 Step 7: Cite your sources properly. ...
 Step 8: Proofread

. Experimental Research - Qualitative & Quantitative

3.1Experimental design

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 An experimental design is a traditional approach to conducting quantitative research. In an
experiment you test an idea or (practice or procedure) to determine whether it influences an
outcome or dependent variables.

When do we use an experiment?

An experiment is used when we want to establish possible cause and effect between the
independent and dependent variable. When independent variable influences the dependent
variable, we can say the independent variable ‘caused’ the dependent variable. The experimental
term for this process is “equating” the groups. Equating the groups means that the researcher
randomly assigns individuals to groups and equally distributes any variability of individuals
between or among the groups or conditions in the experiment. In practice, personal factors that
participants bring to an experiment can never be totally controlled—some bias or error will
always affect the outcome of a study. However, by systematically distributing this potential error
among groups, the researcher theoretically distributes the bias randomly.

Pretests and Posttests

To “equate” the characteristics of the groups, experimental researchers may use a pretest.
Assume that we are interested in whether the special civics class affects students’ attitudes
toward smoking. In this experiment, we could measure attitudes before the treatment (i.e., by
discussing health hazards) and after, to see if the discussion has an effect on students’ attitudes.
In this experiment, we need a pretest to measure students’ attitudes.
A pretest provides a measure on some attribute or characteristic that you assess for participants
in an experiment before they receive a treatment. After the treatment, you take another reading
on the attribute or characteristic. A posttest is a measure on some attribute or characteristic that
is assessed for participants in an experiment after a treatment.

The key characteristics of experimental design

When considering conducting an experimental research it is important or helpful to note key

ideas central to experimental research.

 Random assignment (control and experiment)

 Control over extraneous variables
 Outcome measure
 Group comparison
 Threat to validity

3.2 Quasi-Experiments
In education, many experimental situations occur in which researchers need to use intact
groups. This might happen because of the availability of the participants or because the
setting prohibits forming artificial groups. Quasi-experiments include assignment, but
not random assignment of participants to groups. This is because the experimenter cannot
artificially create groups for the experiment. For example, studying a new math program
may require using existing fourth-grade classes and designating one as the experimental

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 group and one as the control group. Randomly assigning students to the two groups
would disrupt classroom learning. Because educators often use intact groups (schools,
colleges, or school districts) in experiments, quasi-experimental designs are frequently
used.

The quasi-experimental approach introduces considerably more threats to internal

validity than the true experiment. Because the investigator does not randomly assign
participants to groups, the potential threats of maturation, selection, mortality, and the
interaction of selection with other threats are possibilities.

3.3 Survey

Surveys are frequently used when information is needed from large number of individuals.
However, because there are a number of ways of obtaining information, the prons, and cons of
using survey as method of data collection should be considered in each case.

Characteristics of Survey Research Method

 Survey can be used to explore relationship,
 Survey can be combined with other data gathering approaches,
 Survey can be used to examine attitudes and beliefs
 Surveys are mistakenly perceived to be more time and cost effective than other
approaches to information gathering,
 By design, surveys limit data acquisition (semi-structured question),
 Surveys are subject to misinterpretation.

3.4. Case Study

A case study is an important type of ethnography, although it differs from ethnography in
several important ways, case study research may focus on program, event, or activity
involving individuals rather than a group. Case study researchers are more interested in
describing the activities of the group instead of identifying shared patterns of behavior
exhibited by the group. Finally, case study researchers are less likely to identify a cultural
theme to examine at the beginning of a study.

A case study is an in-depth examination of a bounded system. Bounded means that the case
is separated out for research in terms of time, place, or some physical boundaries

Types of cases of Qualitative research

1. The ‘case’ may be a single individual, several individuals, separately or in groups: a
program, events, or activities, (e.g. a teacher, several teachers or implementation of a new
math program).
2. The ‘case’ may represent a process consisting of series of steps (e.g. a college curriculum
process) that form a sequence of activities.
3. The ‘case’ may be selected for study because it is unusual and has merit in and of itself

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 3.5. Ethnographic Design

The term ethnography literarily means “writing about groups of people”. Using this qualitative
design you can identify a group of people; study them in their homes or work place; note how
they behave, think, and talk; and develop a general portrait of the group.
Ethnographic designs are qualitative research procedures for describing, analyzing, and
interpreting a culture-sharing groups’ shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language that
developed over time. What is central in this research is culture. A ‘culture’ is everything having
to do with human behavior and beliefs. (Le Compet, Preissle, & Tesch, 1993:5). It can include,
language, rituals, economic and political structure, life stages, interactions, and communication
styles. To understand the patterns of a culture-sharing group, the ethnographer typically needs to
spend considerable time with group, in the ‘field’ intervening, observing, and gathering
documents about the group to understand their culture- sharing behaviours, beliefs, and
language.

When do we conduct ethnographic Research?

We conduct Ethnographic research when the study of a group provides understanding of a large
issue. We also conduct ethnography when we have a culture-sharing group to study- one that has
been together for some time and has developed shared values, beliefs, and language. A culture
sharing group may be narrowly framed (e.g. teachers, students, or staff members, or broadly
framed (e.g. entire school and their success, innovation, or violence).

Key Characteristics of Ethnographic Research

1. Cultural themes
2. A culture-sharing groups
3. Shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language
4. Field work
5. Description, themes, and interpretation
6. Context or setting
7. Researcher reflexivity

 Reflexivity in ethnographic research – refers to the researcher being aware of and

openly discussing her/his role in the study in a way that honors and respects the
site and the participants.

3.6. Cross-sectional (survey)

In a cross-sectional survey design the researchers collect data at one point in time. They are
recording data about their present views. The design has the advantage of measuring current
attitudes or practices, current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practice. It also provides information
in a short amount of time, such as the time required for administering the survey and collecting
the information.

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Unit 4: Reviewing of the Related Literature
You have studied chapter 6 that the first task of research planning is to know the research
problem to be solved or to be tested. In order to know or define research problem, one has to
know the knowledge accumulated in the past with respect to the topic to be studied –review the
related literature. You are, therefore to consider in this chapter the meaning importance,
techniques and procedures of conducting a review of the literature. You will be able to answer
questions like what are the sources of the review. What are the functions? What are the
components of a review? When does it start and end? How should the review be conducted?

4.1. Assumptions of Reviewing the Related Literature

Humans are the only animals who can take advantage of the knowledge that has been
accumulated through centuries. Unlike other animals that must start life anew with each
generation, human beings begin with and build on the accumulated knowledge of the past.

For any specific research project you may decide to pick up as a research, you must be
thoroughly familiar with both previous theory and research. To assure this familiarity, every
research project has, as one of its early stage, the task of reviewing the theoretical and research
literature.

4.2. Meaning of Review of Literature

There are other terms that are used interchangeably: Review of previous studies literature
survey, library work, desk review, armchair research etc. we preferably use ``review of
literature`` for our present purpose.

What is the literal meaning of literature?

Literature in its ordinary usage refers to the languages, e.g. English literature, geez literature,
Oromo, literature, Somali literature etc. It includes subject content: prose poetry dramas, novels,
stories etc.

What about the meaning of literature in scientific research?

In research, the term literature conveys a different meaning. It refers to knowledge of a

particular area of investigation of any discipline that includes theoretical and practical research
studies.
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What examples could mention as sources of literature for scientific research?

In scientific research, literature includes research journals, periodicals, books, etc. For instance
the Ethiopian Journal Education, Journal of Ethiopian studies, the Ethiopian Journal of
Development Research and the Medical Journal are cases in point. These entire journals publish
rigorous scientific investigations in certain defined areas.

What about ordinary textbooks like, for instance, the one you are reading now? Could they be
considered as literature in scientific research?

Note that ordinary textbooks and purely subjective discussions as in Magazines Gazettes, and
Newsletters are omitted from the list of literature.

Why are these literatures not in the list of literature of scientific research?

It is because they all not records of new knowledge discovered through research. They simply
present discussions based either on existing knowledge or on personal and subjective
experiences.

Now consider the second term ``review``. The term ``review`` is coined from two other words
i.e. ``re``, or again plus ``view`` or see (or read).

So, what does reviewing mean?

Reviewing a literature goes beyond reading a material for understanding. It means reading a
material, understanding the knowledge embedded in it, evaluate the accuracy of that knowledge,
and organize if for a certain use. The term ``review`` means to organize knowledge in a specific
area of research to show that this study would be an addition to this field. The task of the review
of literature is, therefore highly creative and taxing because the researcher has to evaluate and
organize available knowledge of the field in a unique way to provide the rational for one`s study.

4.3. Objective of Review of Literature

One objective of making a review of the related literature is to know the current knowledge in
the field. It helps you to understand what kind of knowledge is developed in relation to the topic
you plan study. Not only the knowledge discovered but also the methods, procedures and tools
used for discovering that knowledge. This may in fact help you learn how to solve the research
problem you are intending to solve.

32
In addition to helping you to acquaint yourself with current knowledge in the field or area in
which you are going to conduct your research, review of literature also serves the following
specific purposes:

 The review of related literature enables you to define the limits of your filed. It
helps you to delimit and define your problem. For example, you may say that the
work A, B, and C have discovered this much about my question; the
investigations of D have added this much to our knowledge. I propose to go
beyond D`s work in the following manner.
 By reviewing the related literature, you can avoid unfruitful and useless problem
areas. You can select those areas in which findings are very likely to add to the
knowledge in a meaningful way.
 Through the review of related literature, you can avoid unintentional duplication
of well- established findings. It is no use to replicate a study when the stability
and validity of its result have been clearly established.
 The review of related literature gives you an understanding of the methods and
procedures that are to be used in conducting the study. It helps you to know
about the tools and instruments that proved to be useful and promising in the
previous studies. The advantage of the related literature is also to provide
insight into statistical methods through which validity of results is to be
established.
 The review of related literature is to know about the recommendation of
previous researchers for further research that they have listed in their studies.
 The review is also useful for identifying gaps and inconsistencies in previous
research and
 The review also helps in providing evidence for discussing of one`s own findings

4.4. Phases of Review of Literature: Beginning and Completion

In which stage of the research work do you need to review the related literature?

33
Normally you need to review the related literature as early as you intend to do research in a
particular area. You keep on defining and redefining and making the problem narrower with the
help of knowledge you get from the review. This means therefore, that review of the literature
begins with the beginning of the selection of a research problem.

Reviewing the literature is not of course tied only to the selection and definition of a research
problem. You may also come up with a research topic as you engage in reading literature for a
purpose other than identification off a research problem.

Review of literature is still not an activity done, completed, put aside or forgotten at one stage of
the research project. It is rather a process that extends up until the last phase of the research,
which is preparing the research report.

4.5. Components of Review of Literature

Basically, the review of literature has two important sections: A conceptual framework (a more
theoretical discussion) and empirical section (a more practical discussion.)

Conceptual framework: The first important part of a review focuses on laying the foundation of
the research work, i.e. preparing the conceptual framework. Preparing the conceptual framework
may involve doing either one or more of the following tasks:

 Understand how the important topic or variables in your research were defined in a
related previous work.
 Identify the research approaches, methods and tools used to solve a related problem in
previous research, and
 Identify and describe a relevant model, paradigm or theory which can be used to explain
the ``what`` and ``how`` of the topics or variables you have already considered in your
research.

Note however, that selecting a certain theory as a conceptual framework for you research
automatically implies getting to know how to define your research problems, hypotheses, and
methods. This because a theory is a general explanation the meaning and relationship of the
variables of your interest. It also indicates how the variables can be observed and measured.

34
Examples will be given on this issue later in this section and now you just focus on the
second section of a review of literature- a section on empirical studies.

Empirical studies: Under the banner of a certain theory or conceptual framework, you may
find a number of specific research investigations being conducted. Each of these specific
investigation might have been conducted either on a certain aspect of the theory or on the full
blown theory but at different times, places, and conditions.

Reviewing specific investigation is useful because it can help you know what is being
neglected (and require your attention), or if there are contradiction in the findings of these
researches (so that you may try to resolve it in your research), or if there is a need to repeat a
certain investigation in your research (perhaps because you may feel that differences in place,
time, methods, and subjects can bring different results).

4.6. Summarizing and Evaluating Literature

There are two important tasks ought to do in reviewing a conceptual framework and
empirical studies. These tasks reflect the very meaning of the term ``review`` already
described previously: Viewing (summarizing), and reviewing (evaluating)

Summarizing the Literature: The first task (i.e. viewing) is to read the relevant theories and
empirical studies and then present a descriptive summary of the ideas contained in the.

What should you include in this descriptive summary?

As regards the descriptive summary of theory, what you are going to include may largely
depend on the purpose of your research. However, you are in most cases, expected to identify
and describe:

 How variables are defined according to the theory?

 What relationship the theory proposes to exist between and among the variables?
 What factors, if any the theory proposes to influence the variables?
 What methods of observations and measurement the theory proposes for collecting
information on the variable?

35
As regards empirical studies, you are expected to include the following when summarizing a
certain research investigation:

 What was the purpose of the investigation?

 Where was the investigation done?
 Who were the participants of the study?
 What was the tool of data collection? and
 What was the finding of the research?

Preparing the descriptive summary of theories and empirical studies is in a way borrowing ideas
from other literature

How do you then take or borrow ideas from relevant literature and prepare the descriptive
summary

There are two ways of borrowing ideas, acknowledge sources, or quoting ideas from other
sources or literature: Direct quotation, and indirect quotation. Direct quotation occurs when you
take ideas from a text as they are: without even changing the language. In such cases, you are
required to put the quoted ideas in quotation marks if the statements are not more than three lines
or put them in indented forms if they are more than three lines so that they can be clearly
identified from the rest of the text.

In most cases, however, you feel more comfortable to take ideas paraphrased in your own
language. Or the idea to be quoted may be lengthy and hence you have to take only the summary
of such a text through indirect quotation-a paraphrased, interpreted, or summarized rather than a
word –by-word quotation. Direct quotation occurs in most cases in preparing the conceptual
framework rather than reviewing empirical studies. On the other hand, indirect quotations
commonly occur in reviewing empirical studies.

What do you do when quoting ideas?

When quoting a certain idea from a text, you should properly mention:

 The name of author or researcher

36
  The year of publication of the literature containing the idea to be quoted, and
 The page number in which the idea appears in a text, when possible

Evaluating the literature: The second important task of the review is to evaluate the idea you
have already summarized; an activity that involves checking:

 The validity or accuracy of the research finding. These require assessing how
appropriate is the method of sampling tools and procedures of data collection may
methods of data analysis.
 If doing the same research in a different place, culture, time and condition may bring
about a different finding.
 If there are alternative approaches that are ignored or neglected in previous
research. This may mean checking aspects of the research problem that was not give
attention, and other techniques and procedures of sampling and data collection tools
to be considered in solving a problem under consideration
How do you conduct the review of literature?

Below are listed general suggestions that guide you during the review. All these suggestion may
not be equally applicable in all kinds of reviews.

 Begin by breaking the research problem into specific components. In studying the
academic problems of secondary schools students, you may need to specify the
component parts of your research problem (say. For example, academic problem) the
following way:
 Academic problem by type
 Academic skills (study skills exam taking skills, and note-taking skills)
 Interest and motivation
 Factors affecting academic performance
 Parental support and enquiry
 Once you identify the specific components, arrange your review by these subtopics and
see to it how the various studies you have reviewed are related to are another. In the
above example, you are required to review literature on the importance of skills and

37
 interests for academic learning and then you proceed to factors responsible for lock of
these skills and interests.
 Being with the most recent studies in the area and then work backward to earlier works.
The best approach to locate the source is to refer to the reference list.
 Read the abstract or summary section of report first in order to determine whether it is
relevant to your topic. This will help you save your time which otherwise would be
wasted.
 Before seriously reading the material, skim first the contents in order to locate the section
that is more pertinent to your work.
 Review critically the related literature already summarized. Note that reviewing is
meaningful when it shows what you say about the study than what the author say in the
study
 Take accurate and concise notes recording at the same time all relevant information about
references.

4.7. General Precautions in Reviewing the Literature

In the light of the discussion we have so far there are certain important precautions you ought to
make during the review.

So what are some of these precautions?

The following precautions are only same of the few to be remembered:

 A void intellectual dishonesty and guard your work against the temptation of
appropriating large portions of the work of another, without acknowledging
indebtedness.
 Guard against being conditioned by the viewpoint of an earlier investigator and the
temptation of blindly following his procedure.
 Merely listing of previous studies without reviewing them or giving their characteristics
is not enough. A very brief account of each investigation (giving at least the result and
the methods) must be provided in the chapter of the review of literature

38
  It is always helpful arrange the previous studies in the chronological order so that
advancement of the field is clearly known to the researcher as well as to the readers.

Citation Styles: Referencing

Referencing acknowledges the sources that you use to write your essay or assignment paper.
In-text citations are used throughout your writing to acknowledge the sources of your
information. The full references for the citations are then listed at the end of your assignment
paper in the References list.

i. APA for Academic Writing (2018-2019)

The Purpose of Referencing/Documentation
A. to identify (cite) other people’s ideas and information used within
your essay or term paper, and
B. to indicate the sources of these citations in the References list at the
end of your paper.

APA Format
The American Psychological Association (APA) format is only one of many
methods of documentation.

Avoiding Plagiarism – Citation Principles for Essays and Term Papers

Within essays, term papers, and any other written assignments (as in all
academic work), you must identify (i.e., reference, document, cite) all
quotations, paraphrases, ideas, and images from someone else’s work. You
must name the original author or source and surround quoted material with
quotation marks or set it in a block format. Copying any material and
submitting it as your own (plagiarism) is an academic offence. Plagiarism
may result in failure on the assignment and, in some cases, expulsion from
university or academic institution based on the regulation and rules of the
institution.
Referencing/Citing Sources Within Your Paper

39
Whenever you use a quotation from an author or summarize or paraphrase a
person’s ideas or research, you must identify (reference/cite/document) the
source. This in-text citation is formatted with parentheses and shows

● the last name(s) of the author(s) of the work, unless already stated or
the first few words of the References list entry (usually the title) if the
author is not known
● the year of publication or n.d. (no date) if the year is not known
● page number(s) if available (if not available, refer to p. 2 of this
handout) .

Citing Short Quotations (fewer than 40 words)

When you incorporate a direct quotation Lee (2007) stated, “The ability to think
into a sentence, you must cite its source. critically is needed in this revolutionary
Author’s name in your text age of technological change” (p. 82).

OR One researcher emphasized that “the

ability to think critically is needed in this
Author’s name in parentheses ( )
revolutionary age of technological
change” (Lee, 2007, p. 82).

Author’s name in your text Lee (2007) stated, “The ability to think
critically is needed in this revolutionary
OR
age of technological change” (p. 82).

Author’s name in parentheses ( )

One researcher emphasized that “the

40
 ability to think critically is needed in this
revolutionary age of technological
change” (Lee, 2007, p. 82).

Citing Long Quotations (40 or more words)

● Use a block format in which all lines of the quotation are indented
approximately half an inch from the left margin.

● Do not use quotation marks.

● Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a colon.

Wang, Johnston, Juarez, and Marks (2010) described effective time management as an
ongoing process: Time management is not a skill that can be achieved at once; it
takes self-awareness, planning, execution, and reflection. The perception about time
management is that the work is done once a schedule is created. In reality, that is
only the first step. Successful students are adaptable and flexible; they are able to
make changes to a schedule because they can purposefully and proactively move
tasks around to adjust to new situations. (p. 27) *period before the parentheses for
long quotations

Citing References Within Your Paper

1st time citing 2nd+ citation 1st time citing 2nd+ citation
The following
a source, using of a source, a source when of the source in
examples
parentheses using authors are another
demonstrate
format at the parentheses named in your paragraph with
APA formatting
end of your format at the sentence authors named
for either
sentence end of your in your
quotations or
sentence sentence
paraphrased

41
 information
taken from a
source.

Type of
citation

One author -------- (Lee, same format as Lee (2007) same format as
2007, p. 82). stated,
1st time 1st time
“---------------” (p.
82).

Two authors ------- (Smith & same format as Smith and Jones same format as
Jones, 2004, p. (2004) found
1st time 1st time
93). that “-----” (p.
93).
(use & between
names) (use and
between
names)

Three to five ---- (Simpson, ----------- Simpson, Stahl, As well,

authors Stahl, & Francis, (Simpson et al., and Francis Simpson et al.
2004, p. 10). 2004, p. 18). (2004) argued (2004) found
that ----------- (p. ----- (p. 18).
10).

Six or more ------------- (Kallai same format as Kallai et al. same format as
authors et al., 2011, p. (2011) noted
1st time 1st time
121). that “----------”
(p. 121).
same format as
Organizations, --------- TransCanada same format as
(TransCanada, 1st time (2006) reported
institutions, 1st time
2006, p. 11). that ------ (p.

42
etc. 11).

as group
author

Group author, ------------------ ---------------- World Health WHO (2010)

no page (World Health (WHO, 2010, Organization reported on the
numbers (use Organization Fostering Health (WHO, 2010) problem, saying
web page [WHO], 2010, Security, para. found that that
headings and Fostering Health 8). --------- ---------
paragraph Security, para. (Fostering (Fostering
(World Health
numbers) 1). Health Security, Health Security,
Organization is
para. 1).
(Name of group para. 8).
written as an
author and its (Name of group
acronym in (World Health
acronym are author and its
subsequent Organization is
written) acronym are
citations) written as an
written) acronym in
subsequent
citations)

No author - --------- (“Ancient same format as The article As well,

article (use Tool Makers “Ancient Tool “Ancient Tool
1st time
title of article in Discovered Fire Discovered Fire Makers
quotation marks Treatment,” Treatment” Discovered Fire
in place of 2009, p. 6). (2009) Treatment”
author’s last summarized ----- (2009) included
name) (p. 6). discussion of-----
(p. 8).

No date ----------------- same format as Buzan (n.d.) same format as

available (use (Buzan, n.d., p. explained that
1st time 1st time
n.d.) 23). -------------- (p.

43
 23).

the official APA

Style website
http://www.
apastyle.org

(2). MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA) STYLE (8th Ed.)

MLA style is mainly used by students in English and the Humanities. It consists of two parts: a
list of works cited, and parenthetical references (also called in-text citations) within the text of
your essay.
For further assistance in writing research papers and citing sources in the MLA style, consult:
MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing.
Tips for Writing the Works Cited List
This is a list of all the sources you have used to research your paper.
1. The list of works cited appears on a separate page at the end of the essay. It is titled (centred,
no quotation marks, no underline):

Works Cited
2. The list is arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name, or, if there is no author, by the
first word in the title. When arranging the list ignore, but do not omit, “The”, “An” or “A” at the
beginning of the title.

3. After the first line each entry is indented ½ inch or 5 spaces. This is called a hanging indent.

4. Each entry presents information in a specific order: the author’s name, the title, the publication
information.

5. Double-space the entire list, both between and within entries.

6. If a book does not give the publisher, or the date of publication, then give what information
you might know in square brackets [ ].

44
7. Each citation in a works cited lists ends with a period.

8. Citations must appear both in the text of your paper (in-text citations) and in the works cited
list at the end of your paper.

9. With a few exceptions, the punctuation for citations in the works cited list is restricted to
commas and periods and follows a format. Periods are used after the author, after the title of the
source, and at the end of the information for each container. Commas are used in the author's
name and between elements within each container.
MLA 8th Edition Page 2 of 20

45
Books
Book, One Author Reference Alexis, Andre. Fifteen Dogs: An
Apologue. Coach House Books,
2015.
In-Text (Alexis 58)

In-Text Citations
In-text citations are intended to direct the reader clearly and easily to the full citation in the
works cited list. These are references in the body of the paper that document quotations,
paraphrases, and the direct use of information and ideas. They are used instead of footnotes or
endnotes. They are sometimes called parenthetical references because the references appear in
parentheses within the text of the essay.
The parenthetical references correspond to the list of works cited. In other words, the
information given in the parenthetical reference should make it absolutely clear to the
reader which source is being referred to in your list of Works Cited. In-text citations is
typically composed of the author’s surname (or whatever comes first in the citation in the works
cited list) and a page number.
If your Works Cited includes only one title by a particular author or editor, you only need
to place the author’s last name and the relevant page number(s) without any intervening
punctuation in your parenthetical reference.
Keep the references in parentheses as brief as possible. If you mention the author’s name or
the title of the source in your text, then you do not include that information in the parenthetical
reference.
e.g. This point has been argued before (McMann 16-19).
McMann has argued this point (16-19).
Others, like Blocker and Plumer (52), hold an opposite point of view.
Stress and a poor diet can have a detrimental effect on proper liver functioning (American
Medical Association 209).

46
If the work has three or more authors, follow the form in the bibliographic entry in your
works cited list: give the author’s last name followed by et al., without any intervening
punctuation. (MLA Handbook, 8th ed., p. 116)
Give the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” then the page number(s).
e.g. Some interesting interpretations of this concept have recently been suggested (Jones et al.
25-37).
If there are citations to material by different authors with the same surname, add the
author’s first initial. If these authors have the same initial as well, use the full first name (MLA
8th ed., p. 55)
e.g. Neurological pathways are created through habitual actions (J. Stevens 87).
If there are two or more titles by the same author in your Works Cited list, give the author’s
last name, the title, followed by the page number(s). Abbreviate the title if it is longer than a few
words. When abbreviating the title, begin with the first word. (MLA 8th ed., p. 55)
e.g. The fashion was very popular in certain parts of Northern England (Pollack, Dickinson 32-
33).
(In the example, ‘Dickinson’ is the shortened title of Pollack’s Dickinson: The Anxiety of
Gender). MLA 8th Edition Page 19 of 20

47
If there is no author, the in-text citation would contain the title. “The title may appear in the
text itself or, abbreviated, before the page number in the parenthesis.” (MLA 8th ed., p. 56)
e.g. Classical Mythology of Greece notes that he was cut up and boiled in a cauldron by Titans
sent by Hera (78).
or
e.g. He was cut up and boiled in a cauldron by Titans sent by Hera (Classical Mythology 78).
Web documents usually do not have fixed page numbers or any kind of section numbering.
If your online source does not have numbering, you have to omit numbers from your
parenthetical references. Do not count unnumbered paragraphs. (MLA Handbook, 8th ed., p. 56)
e.g. Winkfield compares it to the current political environment of Zimbabwe.
The works cited list would include an entry that begins with Winkfield.
If a source, such as a web document, does provide definite paragraph numbers, give the
abbreviation par. or pars. or sections (sec., secs.) or chapters (ch., chs.) along with the paragraph
number or numbers. (MLA 8th ed., p. 56)
e.g. Devereux states that “Finley introduced energy psychology to modern psychiatry in the late
twentieth century” (par. 30).
For audio visual material which is time-based, “cite the relevant time or range of times. Give
the numbers of the hours, minutes, and seconds as displayed in your media player, separating the
numbers with colons.”
Buffy’s promise that “there’s not going to be any incidents like at my old school” is obviously
not one on which she can follow through (“Buffy” 00:03:16-17).
(MLA 8th ed., p. 57) MLA 8th Edition Page 20 of 20

48
Quotations
Short Quotations
 If a quotation runs no more than four lines, put it in double quotation marks and incorporate it
into the text. Put single quotation marks around quotations that appear within those quotations.

 Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the
parenthetical reference. Other punctuation such as question marks and exclamation marks should
appear within the quotation marks if they are part of the quoted passage, but after the parentheses
if they are part of your text. (MLA Handbook, 8th ed. pp. 75-76)

Examples
Shelley thought poets “the unacknowledged legislators of the World” (794).
Dorothea responds to her sister, “what a wonderful little almanac you are, Celia!” (7).
Long Quotations
 If a quotation runs to more than four lines in your paper, set it off from your text by beginning
a new line, indenting half an inch from the left margin. For a single paragraph or part of a
paragraph, do not indent the first line more than the rest of the quotation.

 Do not use opening and closing quotation marks.

 For long quotations, a period at the end of a quotation is placed before the parentheses.

 If starting a new paragraph within the block quotation, indent its first line.

Example
At the conclusion of Lord of the Flies, Ralph, realizing the horror of his actions, is overcome by
great, shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose under
the back smoke before the burning wreckage of the island; and infected by that emotion, the
other little boys began to shake and sob too.

Source: MLA Handbook for Writers and Research Papers, 7th Edition, 2009
For Further Assistance Contact Your Instructor or Librarian

49
 ii.

General Guidelines
 Your list of references should begin on a separate page, with the title "Works Cited".

 Arrange entries alphabetically, using the last name of the author. If no author is given, alphabetize by
the title, eliminating any initial A, An, or The.

 Begin each entry at the left margin. Indent the following lines one-half inch from the left margin.

 Double-space within each entry, and between each entry.

 Follow carefully the punctuation, underlining, and capitalization in the examples.

 Shorten the name of the publishing company by eliminating articles (A, An, or The), business
abbreviations (Co., Inc., Ltd.), and descriptive words (Books, House, Press). However, when citing a
University Press, add the abbreviation "UP" (Ohio State UP). If the publisher’s name is the name of one
or more persons, cite the first surname only (Abrams).

In-Text Citation
Parenthetical references
 The list of Works Cited at the end of your paper tells your reader what resources you used to write your
paper. To avoid plagiarism or taking credit for ideas that are not your own, you must also indicate in the
text of your paper precisely what is borrowed from a source and where to locate that information in the
source.

 The in-text citation usually appears in parentheses and corresponds directly to an entry in your list
of Works Cited.

 The author's last name and the page number are usually enough to indicate the location in the
source.
 If the author's name is used in the sentence, do not repeat it in the citation.

In-Text Examples Author’s name in text Sellers had expressed that the market changed in the 17th
century (91-92).
Author’s name in reference …Sellers view on economic growth is not widely
embraced among Historians (Cassell 9).
Multiple authors of a work The literature also indicates (Hamilton and Spruill 231)
that modest improvements have been made to training
programs.
Two locations Sellers market and democracy theory does have merit
(91-92, 261).
Two works cited (Salzman 38; Sellers 198)
References to volumes and pages (Crowell 4: 19-22)
Corporate authors (Chrysler Group, 2009 Annual Report 36-39)
Work with no author (Time 22)

50
 Unit five - Sampling

The Need of Sampling

The what of sampling and Population

Let’s assume that you need to know the attitude of parents in the town you live about the
provision of sex education in schools.

Can you collect your data from all of the parents? Please try to explain your reasons.

It is mostly impossible to collect information (data) from all individuals of a town or a schools
etc. this is because, first you will not have time to contact with all individuals, secondly it
requires too much money and finally it needs too much materials and resources.

To solve the above problems you need to take only some individuals as samples from the
population. A population is any collection of specified group of human beings or of non-human
things such as objects, educational institutions, geographical areas etc. a population with finite
number of members is a finite population and a population with infinite number of members is
an infinite population. On the other hand a sample is a group of subjects selected from a
population to be included in a study. Members of a sample are active participants in a study.

Population: a collection of specified group of human beings or non human beings.

Sample: group of subjects selected from a population to be actively in a study.

Steps in Sampling

Sampling is the process by which a relatively small number of individuals or events is selected
and studied to find out something about the entire population from which it was selected. Your
system of sampling should enable you to select individuals that will be most useful for your
study. For these there are three important steps.

1.1.1. Defining population

51
In order to select samples, first you have to know very well about your population. If you want to
study about Addis Ababa teachers’ attitude towards the provision of sex education in schools,
your population will be all the teachers of Addis Ababa schools, if you want to study factors that
affect the achievement of female students at Minilik II Secondary School etc. so first clearly state
your population.

Determining Sampling Frame

Once the researcher selected the population to be studied, the next step will be to get a complete
list of the members of the population. This is most possible if the population is finite and small,
other wise you will simply indicate the total number of the population.

Sampling frame tells you the total size of the population and helps you decide the number of
samples to be taken and the type of sampling to be used.

For example, of you are interested to study teachers’ attitude towards their profession in your
school, the sampling frame is the name of all teachers in the school.

In a study about problem of rural students in a particular school, what will be the sampling
frame?

Have you got it? Okay. That is the names of all rural students in the particular school.

Selecting a representative Sample

After defining a population and getting the complete list of all members, the next step is
selecting individual samples from the sample frame. Here you will identify the subjects who will
actively engage in the study.

In selecting individual members to be included as samples of study, the sample subjects should
be truly representative of the population.

Let’s say that you want to study the attitude of teachers from school X about sex education,
which are 60 in number. For your study let’s say that you have taken 3 teachers as samples and
their attitude was found good; that is they support the provision of sex education in schools.

52
Can you say that the attitude of school X’s teachers is generally good? Why?

Have you thought about it? Since 3 teachers can not be good representatives of 60 teachers, it is
difficult to generalize about the teachers’ attitude. So sample subjects should not be too small.

At the same time representativeness of samples should be maintained in relation to the different
variables that may affect the study. For example let’s say that you want to study the attitude of
your town’s community about the use of contraceptives. Then assume that you took only
schoolteachers as samples and you found that the subjects have positive attitude towards
utilization of contraceptives.

Can you generalize that the residents of the town have positive attitude to use contraceptives?
Why?

Have you thought about it? It is difficult to generalize the result in that way. This is because
teachers are educated persons; so they ill have better awareness about the uses of contraceptives,
than other persons who are not educated. So you cannot generalize the result to other people who
are not educated. For the result to be generalizable the samples should contain subjects form
educated and non-educated members of the town. Also the subjects’ religion may influence their
attitude towards using contraceptives. So the sample should constitute members form various
religions.

Methods of Sampling

Dear Colleague, in the previous section you have seen about the need of sampling and the steps it
involves. Then it is necessary to learn about the different ways of taking samples form a
population. This is what you are going to know after reading this section.

5.1. Probability sampling

5.1.1. Methods of Probability Sampling

In this type of sampling each member of a population has a predetermined chance (probability)
of being included in a sample. There are different methods of selecting a probability sample.
Let’s see them one by one.

53
 5. 1. 2. Simple Random Sampling
Let’s say that there are 15 teachers in your school who have a weekly ‘Equib” (ዕቁብ). At first,
let’s say these teachers wanted to decide who should take the first ‘Equib’.

Mostly in what way should a person who will take the ‘Equib’ be determined? Let you think
over it please.

Have you thought about it? Mostly in ‘Equib. Pieces of papers will be taken, the names of all the
persons will be written and draws will be taken out. Then the person who will take the ‘Equib’
will be known. Simple random sampling will be conducted in the same way. Here every member
in the population will have an equal chance to be selected if 10 members will be selected form a
population of 100 members; every member will have 10/100 or 1/10 chance to be included.

What will be the chance of a member to be selected in a sample of 30 out of a total population of
200? The chance is 30/200 or 3/20

There are three mechanisms for simple random sampling

(i) Using Lottery Method

This is like what you have seen above about ‘Equib’. Let’s represent the size of a population by
letter ‘N’ and a sample size by ‘n’. to take n number of samples form the population of ‘N’ by
using a lottery method, follow the following steps.

a) Assign all the subjects numbers form 1 to N

b) Prepare tickers (pieces of papers)
c) Rite numbers on the tickets form 1 to N.
d) Wrap the tickets
e) Take out ‘n’ number of tickets randomly
f) The members of the population who contain the numbers drawn will be samples for your
study.

For expel let N=90 (Population) and n=20 (sample). You will give numbers form 1 to 90 for the
subjects. Then you will write these numbers in pieces of papers1, 2, 3, ….. 90 and you will wrap
them. Finally, you will ask someone to draw 20 tickets. The 20 tickets may contain, for e.g., the

54
numbers 6, 11, 14, 19, 20, 22, 27, 30, 38, 44, 50, 57, 60, 63, 69, 72, 75, 83, 84 and 88. So
members containing these numbers will be your sample subjects.

(ii) Using Random Number Table

Simple random sampling can also be conducted by using a table containing numbers written
randomly (see Appendix B).the steps for selecting samples by using a random number table are
as follows.

a) Assign numbers for members of the population from 1 to N.

b) Take a random number table (Appendix B) and select any number from any where. For
example you can take the number coinciding to the 4 th row and the 6th column, which is
16376. This may be your starting point.
c) The number of digits you will read depend on the total number of the population=N. if
N=90 you will read two digits, if N=150 you will read three digits and so on.
d) The number of digits you will read will be selected randomly. For e.g if N=150 you can
start with the first (163) or the middle (637) or the last (376) digits.
e) Then begin to read in any direction (to the right ( ) or to the left ( )or up ( ) or
down ( )
f) Ignore those numbers that are greater than N and those which may appear two times
g) Stop counting after you get the required number of sample subjects (n)
Example

N=150 (total population) n=20 (sample size)

Let’s take 16376 as a starting point and consider the last three-digit (376) and read down ward.

…… ……. …… ……. …… ……. …… ……. ……

…… ……. …… ……. …… ……. …… ……. ……
…… ……. …… ……. …… ……. …… ……. ……
…… ……. …… …… ……. 39440 53537 71341 ……
…… ……. …… ……. 91782 60468 81305 …… ……
…… ……. …… ……. 53498 18672 …… …… ……
…… ……. …… ……. 31016 71194 …… …… ……
…… ……. …… ……. 20922 …… ……. …… ……
…… ……. …… ……. 59533 …… ……. …… …….

55
From appendix B continue reading to identify the numbers of the remaining 18 students to be
included in your sample

Have you identified them? Okay. They will be those members holding numbers 146, 005, 027,
048, 136, 072, 038, 032, 092, 060, 132, 133, 023, 147, 115, 076, 089, 063

5. 1. 3. Systematic Radom Sampling

Here:

a) You will begin with a list in which all the N members will be arranged in alphabetical or
some other order
b) To select a sample of size n, first find K, which is
K=N
n
c) Take any number between 1 up to K. then begin to take every Kth element for your
sample.
K=70
=7
10
Then you may take 5 as a starting point and you will take every 7 th member i.e. the 5th member,
the 12th, 19th, 26th, 33rd, 40th, 54th, 61st, and 68th members will be included as your samples.

Can you list the numbers of members you will take if you start with the 2 nd member in the above
example? Let you try please.

Have you listed them? Well. They will be the 2nd, 16th, 23rd, 30th, 37th, 44th, 51st, 58th, and 65th.

5. 1. 4. Stratified Random Sampling

This is used whenever there are different subdivisions in the population, which are important to
be considered in the study. For example depending on their religion people may differ in their
attitude to use contraceptives (birth controlling mechanisms). So religion will be important strata
to be considered. In such cases samples will be selected proportionally. The steps involved are

a) Count members form each strata. For example out of N=150 the following religions
distribution may be found.
- Orthodox 5o

56
 - Muslim 40
- Protestant 30
- Catholic 25
Others 5
N= 150
b) Determine the proportion n N. let the sample size required is 30 so n=30. The proportion
will be 30/150=1/5=0.2
c) Multiply the number of members in each strata by the obtained proportion i.e. 0.20 this will
give you the member of members to be included in your sample.

Orthodox 50x0.2 =10

Muslims 40x0.2 =8
Protestant 30x0.2 =6
Catholic 25x0.2 =5
Other 5x0.2 =1
N 30

d) After determining the numbers to be taken from each stratum, you can employ simple or
systematic random sampling to select the specific sample subjects.
5. 1. 5. Cluster Sampling
This is used when the members of the population can be grouped in to different clusters due to
the greater number of the members. In your school for example, students can be clustered by
grade level from 1 to 8 or schools can be clustered by woredas or zones etc. let’s say you want to
study the work habits of male and female students in your school. To do this

a) First you will define the clusters in terms of grade levels 1 st grade, 2nd grade, rd grade and
4th grade.
b) You will take randomly students belonging to one of the above clusters for example 3 rd
grade students.
c) If the members of the selected cluster are small in number, you can include all of them in
the study. But if the number of the members is many you can select samples subjects
from the cluster by using simple random or systematic random sampling method.

57
  Simple Random Sampling:- the process of selecting sample subjects by using a lottery
method or using random number table.
 Systematic Random Sampling:- the process of selecting sample subjects by taking
every kth member from the population.
 Stratified Random Sampling:- the process of taking sample subjects proportionally
from different strata of the population.
 Cluster sampling:- a sampling method that involves the taking of members of randomly
selected sampling units of a given cluster.

5.2. Non- probability sampling

5. 2. 1. Methods of Non-Probability Sampling

Probability sampling procedures that include some form of random selection are not always
appropriate or desirable. There are a number of reasons why simple random sampling may not be
appropriate. For example, a researcher may not have access to the whole group. Also it may be
economically difficult and time consuming to take samples from the possible study population.
In such cases, non-probability sampling methods may be employed. In non-probability method
there is no assurance that every member has some chance of being included in a sample. This can
be employed in different ways.

5. 2. 2. Purposive Sampling

Here you will select samples that meet your purpose. The samples to be selected are assumed to
be rich in the information required. The selection of members is based on a criteria that will be
established first. There are variations in purposive sampling.

a) Available/Comprehensive/ Sampling.
Ehen you find members of a population possessing the required characteristic small in number,
you may include all of them in your study. For example, you may need to study the problems
faced by disabled students in your school. Assume that the number of disabled students in the
school is 15. Here it will not be difficult to include all of them in a study. This is what available
sampling mean

58
 b) Maximum Variation Sampling
In such method, you ill take members showing maximum difference with respect to a behavior or
characteristic. Let’s say you want to compare the classroom participation of high achieving and
low achieving students. In this case you may take very high achieving and very low achieving
students: those subjects showing the greatest achievement difference.

c) Extreme Case Sampling

This involves taking members that have a special characteristic. If you want to study the study
habits of ‘gifted’ students in your school you will take only those who are very high achieving
students. In contrast, to study the study habits of academically weak students, you will take very
lo achieving students. N both cases the method of sampling employed is Extreme Case
Sampling.

d) Typical Case Sampling

In contract to b and C, this one takes the middle position. If you need to study the study habits of
students in general you may take students who are average achievers rather than the extreme
high or low achieving students.

5. 2. 3. Quota Sampling
In this case some strata or grouping population will be considered. The grouping variable may be
age, sex, race, area etc. the allocation of sample subjects will be simply determined as a quota.
For example to study the attitude of students towards mathematics you may simply allocate 15
male and 15 female students will out considering their proportion.

Purposive Sampling:-selection of sample subjects that meet the required purpose of the
researcher.

Quota Sampling:-the selection of sample subjects by representing different characteristics of

the population with no regard to the proportion of subjects to be selection

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Unit Summary

In order to collect data a researcher must first select subjects to become sources of information
for the study. In other words he/she needs to take sample. Sampling is a process by which small
number of members of a population will be selected and studied. Taking samples for a study
saves time, money, materials, and resources. In sampling there are three steps first the researcher
needs to define the population, and then determine the sampling frame and thirdly selecting a
representative sample. There are different methods of sampling that can be seen under two
categories: probability sampling and non probability sampling. In probability sampling members
of the population will have an equal and a known probability to be selected as samples. Under
this category there are simple Radom, Systematic random. Stratified random and cluster
sampling methods. In non probability sampling all members of the population will not have
equal chance to be included in the sample. Subjects will be selected depending on their relevance
cither to the study being conducted or to the representativeness of the characteristic of the
population. In this category we find purposive sampling (which has four variations of available:
Maximum variation, extreme case and typical case methods) and Quota Sampling.

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UNIT SIX: DATA COLLECTION

Types of Data Collection Tools

6.1. Questionnaire
Let us say that you want to study the attitude of your school teachers towards self contained
method of teaching and you need to get information form them.

How are you going to get the information you nee? Can you mention some methods?

To get the information you may ask different question in different ways. You may write the
questions on a paper and give it to each of the sample teachers or you may ask them orally.
When questions are written and given to sample subjects that are called a questionnaire. So, a
questionnaire is an instrument consisting of a series of questions about some topic/topics. It is a
highly structured method of data collecting tool.

Questionnaires can be used to get information about many educational aspects. Such as the
attitudes of teachers towards their profession, t he job satisfaction of teachers, the students’
attitude toward subject matters (for e.g. Mathematics, language, etc.)

Questionnaires can be classified in terms of the nature of questions that are used.

In what ways, generally questions can be asked? How you present questions to your students?
Let you think about this, please.

You might have mentioned True-False, multiple choices, matching, short answer, completion
etc. when we look at these types some are to be answered by selecting the correct answer and
others are by writing something. In case of questionnaires, questions may be required to be
responded by placing a mark {“3” or “X”} on some alternatives provided or by writing responses
in words. Here while the questions that require you to put a mark are called closed-ended
questions, those, which require you to write your responses, are known as open-ended questions.
However, you have to note that there are no correct answers for questions in a questionnaire.

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 6. 1. 1. Closed Ended Questionnaire
These are also called restricted or structured type. Here respondents are given a set of alterative
form which they are asked to choose the one that most closely represents their views.

Can you mention some advantages of presenting closed-ended questions? Here are some that you
might have mentioned. They are easy to respond, take little time to fill out, easy to tabulate and
analyze etc. Also there are some disadvantages (limitations) of using closed-ended
questionnaires.The respondent might have a response other than the ones that are given as
alternatives. So by closed ended questions he/she may be forced to give responses out of his/her
need.

Here are some sample questions in a closed-ended type questionnaire. The questionnaire is
designed to get information about the attitude of teachers towards self-contained method
teaching

Direction put “3” where appropriate

1. Self-contained teaching facilitates integration Strongly Agree disagree Strongly disagree

of different types of subjects agree

2. Self contained teaching increases teacher

student acquaintance

These are also called unrestricted or unstructured questionnaire. Any type of choices does not
follow the questions in open-ended questionnaires. The subjects are required to write their
responses in their own words.

What advantages do you think open-ended questions will have? What about their limitations?

Here are some advantages that you might have stated: they enable you to get deep responses,
they provide freedom to the respondent to give you his/her opinion in a way he/she likes, and
they enable the respondent to clarify his/her responses. On the other hand using open-ended

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questions may make tabulation, organization and interpretation of data more difficult than closed
ended questions.

Here are sample questions of a questionnaire of open-ended type. They are about teacher’s
attitude about self-contained method of teaching.

DIRECTION…..
1. What do you think about the contribution of self-contained teaching to the interaction of
the teacher and the student?
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What conditions do you suggest for self-contained teaching method to be effective in
your school?
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Note that a questionnaire open-ended question can follow closed ended questions to obtain more
clarification about the responses of individual subjects. Look at the following example:

“Is there any problem that you faced with self contained teaching?”
Yes No
“If your answer for the above question is ‘yes’ would you mention the problem you faced?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

The appropriateness of either open ended or closed ended questions depend upon some factors.
One important consideration here is the objective of the questionnaire. For example on the one
hand you may want to know your respondents degree of agreement or disagreement. In another
condition you may want to know how your respondents arrived at a certain point of agreement or
disagreement.

What type of questions do you think are suitable for each of these conditions?

If your objective is to lead the respondent express agreement or disagreement with respect to a
specific point of view, close-ended questions will be more suitable. However, when your need is

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to learn about the process’ by which the respondent arrives at a particular point of view, on open-
ended question is likely to be more appropriate.

Closed Ended Questionnaire: a questionnaire consisting of questions that offer respondents a

set of answers to choose the one that reflects their views.

Open Ended Questionnaire: a questionnaire consisting of questions that are not followed by
any kinds of specified choice but require respondents to write their answers.

Have you seen how the objective of your questionnaire will direct you in the type of question
you will include in your questionnaire? Now let’s turn to another technique of data collection.

6.2. Interview
Let you consider the following conversation between a researcher and a teacher on the issue of
self contained teaching.

Researcher (R): What grade levels are you teaching by now?

Teacher (T): I am teaching at grade 2

R: you teach them all subjects?
T: yes, mainly the academic subjects
R: Ok; so that is a self contained type of teaching
T: yes I had also taught them when they were at grade 1
R: what advantage have you got from self-contained teaching?
when you compare it to the earlier method you used?
T: yes, it has some advantages and limitations as well. In the
first place it enables me to know my students very well….
On the other hand as you know in this school the number of
students in one class is too many as a result you will not
have time to properly make a follow up of each student.

It is through such sort of conversation that a researcher will try to get information when he/she
uses interview as a technique of data collection.

Can you state the difference between questionnaire and interviews as techniques of data
collection? Please. Let you think on it and write some points below.

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Here is the basic difference that you might have mentioned. As you go through the interview
method, be sure, you will be able to state more and more differences. For now the ways the
questions will be presented is one source of difference. As you have seen earlier questions in a
questionnaire will be prepared on a paper and the respondents are required to provide their
responses by putting a mark or by writing on a space given in the questionnaire. But in interview
the researcher will present the questions orally and the responses from the respondents will also
be given orally. And it is the researcher that will write or record the responses given by the
respondents.

Now let’s define what interviews mean. Interview is the process of interaction or communication
in which a sample subject gives the needed information verbally in a face to face situation.

What characteristics of interview can you infer from the definition given? Look at the definition
again and think some characteristics please.

Have you though the following points? Interview involves interaction so that there will be at
least two individuals; interview is to be conducted verbally: the interviewer and the interviewee
being in a face to face situation, it is intended to get information. These are characteristics of
interview that we can directly extract from the definition.

Using interview will enable a researcher to get in-depth information by clarifying the questions
he/she asks more and more to the interviewee. However, the interviewer may also face different
problems when using interviews.

Can you mention some problems an interviewer may encounter/face/ when using interviews to
collect data? Please try to write some on your notebook.

Let us see some of them together. First of all it is time consuming. Let’s take an example: let’s
you have taken 40 students for a study you areconducting in your school; and let’s say that you
have prepared 25 open ended questions and give them questions in a questionnaire form for 20 of

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your samples. At the same time let you try to get information form the remaining 20 students by
orally presenting the 25 question in the form of interview.

Which method in the above situation will help you get information faster?

I hope you will say the questionnaire method. When you interview students you will interact
with them individually /one by bone/. So you need longer time to finish your interview with all
the 20 students.

Have you noticed another source of difference between interview and questionnaire what is that?

It is in the time required to get information. Questionnaire will enable us to get information more
rapidly than interview. Another limitation of an interview is that it is impossible to keep
anonymity of the respondent. That means the subject giving his/her answers to the questions may
not want to be exposed or known. However, this is impossible in case of interview. In the case of
questionnaire the researcher can not know the particular individual who gives responses for a
questionnaire. Let’s take an example. A researcher wanted to know the sexual experience of
his/her sample subjects and he/she included the following question (s)

Question Have you experienced sexual intercourse?

Answer Yes
Question how many partners did you have?

When you look at the above questions is it through a questionnaire or face to face interview that
you will be more likely to get the correct information? Why? Let you think about it please.

I hope you have said a questionnaire. The reason is that the subject giving the response through a
questionnaire feels that the researcher will not know his/her personal secrets unless he/she is
made to write his/her name. But when the subject is being interviewed face to face he/she
doesn’t want to tell his/her personal secret to the interviewer because he/she suspects that the
interviewer will expose him/her and spoil his/her name to other people. Therefore, anonymity is
relatively impossible in interviewer. The type of questions the interviewer asks, the way he/she
presents the questions and the way he/she interprets the responses of the sample subject may be

66
influenced by his personal bias. For example a researcher concerned about self contained
teaching may being his interview in the following way.

Question: “you know that recently self-contained teaching is being practiced in our schools for
grade 1-4. This is a practice, which is widely used in many developed countries. Their
advancement seems to be the fruit of their proper treatment (handling) of their children in their
early school years. So on your side what benefit do you think this self contained teaching will
have in our schools?”

When you look at the above interview question how will it influence the response to be given by
the sample subject being interviewed?

Have you tried to look at the influence? You tried? Good. In the first place the interviewer seems
that he/she by himself/herself supports the practice and he/she tried the subject to feel that other
countries have become advanced due to the fact that they taught their children using self
contained teaching. He/she is directing the response to be given by the subject to be in support of
the practice. The interviewer may by himself/herself has his/her own view about self contained
teaching but he/she must keep that for himself/herself and allow the subject to reflect his/her own
idea with out any influence.

Beyond the above mentioned limitations the fact that interview requires higher cost and the
presence of pressure up on t he subject to respond are other limitations of interview technique.
Cost of recording and processing the information is very high. There are two types of interview.
These are:

6.2.1. Structured Interview

This is the one in which the procedure to be followed is determined before conducting the
interview. The same types of questions are presented in the same order to each subject. The
interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or modify the questions, to add extra ones or to change
their order.

What benefit do you think a structured interview will have to a researcher? Let you try to think
about it.

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Have you come up with any idea? Presenting similar questions to all subjects in the same
sequence will enable the researcher to compare their response. So that variations in responses
will be attributed not due to variations in the interview but due to actual differences between the
respondents (subject)

Structured interviews may also present to the interviewee questions that do have alternative
responses. For example, in a study to discover the types of conflict between parents and
teenagers, a researcher may raise the following question to the interviewee.

“Have you ever had any disagreement with either of your parents (your father or your mother)
because of :
a. Drinking?
b. Too many friends?
c. Dating with opposite sex?
d. Smoking?

Then following this question other subsequent question may follow to get more elaboration of
the responses.

6.2.2. Unstructured Interview

Like open-ended questions in a questionnaire, unstructured interview provides greater flexibility.
Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided
beforehand, the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and timing of the questions.
He/she can thus rephrase the question, modify them, and add some new questions to his/her list
while conducting the interview.

Can you mention the advantage of using unstructured interview?

Earlier when we discuss about open-ended questions we have said that they allow the respondent
to express his/her views in the way he/she likes. This is also what we can observe from
unstructured interviews. It permits much freedom to the interviewees to talk about the problem
under investigation. And as a result we will be able to get in depth information. But unstructured

68
interview is not with out limitation. The researcher may face problems of organizing,
categorizing and analyzing information obtained through unstructured interview.

Structured Interview:- an interview in which similar questions will be presented in the same
order with no modifications in them.
Unstructured Interview:- an interview in which questions will be modified or added when they
were presented for subject.

6.3. Observation
In our everyday life we are all observers. We constantly observe the physical environment and
the people around it. Observation involves watching but information from sight is supported by
that received through other senses: through hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting. The
information from these various senses are usually combined, processed and interpreted in
complex ways to form our observation – our mental images of the world and what is going on in
it. Our everyday observations will enable us to effectively participate in the world around us to
gain knowledge about the environment and to improve and refine our relation in the social world.

Now, when we come to observation in research, it fulfills similar purposes but there are some
important differences. Also the aim of observation in research is to collect information about the
world. However, observation in research is not usually done simply to enable the researcher
improve his/her participation in the world. Its aim is the production of knowledge about specific
issues, which can be used by others in a variety of ways.

Another distinctive feature of observation in everyday life and observation in research is with
respect to the way the observation is organized.

What thing have you observed on your way to school in the past two days? If you remember one
important thing, that is enough. But have you had a plan for your observation?

If you had a plan to take an observation of the thing, that is good. If you had not that is what is
common for most of us in our everyday observation. In research, observation is planned and

69
conducted in a systematic way, rather than happening spontaneously and haphazardly as it usual
in everyday life.

Also the ways observations are recorded, interpreted and used are different for observations in
research and everyday observation. In research, observations are systematically recorded rather
than stored in personal memory, and they are carefully interpreted and analyzed by employing
systemic and planned procedures.

Advantages and limitation of Observation

Like questionnaire and interview, observation will have its own advantages and limitation. Let’s
say that you want to study the social behavior of children in a certain elementary school. For this
study let’s say that you have three possible ways of obtaining data:

I. To give your sample subjects a questionnaire containing questions concerning aspects

of social behaviors in schools.
II. To orally ask your subjects about the ways they interact socially with other children
in their schools.
III. To go to their school and observe and record how they socially interact each other in
play activities.
What can be the relative advantage of gathering information through observation like in the
above case? Please let you try to list down some points. First of all, observation gives direct
experience. It makes it possible to study a certain behavior as it actually occurs. The researcher,
rather than asking questions in different ways, will simply watch what his/her subjects do and
say something about it.

Secondly, especially when the sample subjects are children like the case above, and when they
are not able to read and comprehend questions very well, taking data through observation will be
advantageous. In other words observation help to get information on the behavior of those who
can not speak and therefore can not take part in interviews or those who can not complete
questionnaires like babies, very young children etc.

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Another advantage that can be obtained form using observation is that it can be a useful check
and a supplement to information obtained from other sources. So the information given by
people about their own behavior through interviews can be compared with their actual behavior
that is observed.

Up to now we have seen the advantages of using observation. Now let us discuss about the
limitation that is about the problems we may face in using observation.

Let’s say that you are assigned as a supervisor in your school. And you go to the class of one of
the teachers to evaluate his/her teaching ability.

Do you think that the teacher you are watching will teach in the same way as he/she usually
teaches his/her students? Why? Let you think over this and state your reasons. Have you stated
some points? Okay: let’s try to see it together. The teacher may feel that your evaluation is very
important for his career structure. Consequently, he/she may try to take any possible care in
his/her method of teaching when he/she knows that you are present in his/her classroom to
evaluate him/her. Therefore, the presence of observers by itself may make subjects to be
observed to change their actual behavior. This is one main limitation of observation. Let’s turn to
another situation.

Let’s say that you want to study the history of a certain church in your surrounding. In the church
let’s say that there are different things as old books, different kinds of crosses (‘Meskel’) drums
(‘Kebero’). TSINATSEL. etc. you want to look at these and take their photographs.

Do you think that you can take photographs for all the properties mentioned above? For which
property (properties that the priests will not allow you take photographs?

So the event that you may be interested to observe may not be easy to get it. This is another
limitation of observation method.

Thirdly the observer may interpret his/her observation in the way he/she likes. Let’s say that two
supervisors come to your classroom to evaluate your teaching. With one of them you do not have
any acquaintance. But fortunately the other one was your high school friend with whom you

71
have a close relationship still now. He is a person who usually wants to stand beside you in any
situation. But no one knows that you are friends.

Which supervisor will most likely evaluate you positively?

The one who is your friend may more likely evaluate you positively. Likewise, if more than one
person observe the same event or situation their interpretation is likely to be different. This
shows that there is personal input (bias) in the meaning to be given to what is being observed.

In addition, observation is time consuming and costly. Therefore, you may be forced to observe
small number of individuals. This may limit the information to be obtained and make the study
less likely to be generalized for larger number of individuals. For e.g. we can not say that
teachers in a certain school are not effective in their classroom management by observing only 3
out of 40 teachers in the school.

Observation can be conducted in a structured way. Here a list of behaviors to be observed will be
stated and you will check if the behavior is present or absent. For example to know about the
teaching procedures of teachers in a certain school and judge its effectiveness, you may list out
the types of procedures you need to observe and then check by a mark “3” for their presence or
absence as follows.

Yes No
1. Does the teacher revise the earlier lesson to students?
2. Does the teacher assess the students understanding by
using oral questions?
3. Does the teacher praise his students when they correctly
answer questions?

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Unit 7: Communicating Research Results or Reporting Research
results
7.1 purpose of report writing

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the
most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalization and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated
to others. Researches results must invariable inter the general store of knowledge. All this
explains the significance of writing research report. There are people who do not conceder
writing of report as an integral part of the research process. but the general opinion Is in favors
of treating the presentation of research

Results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project, writing of report is the
last step in a research study and requires a are of skills some whit different from those called for
in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher
with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose. The
following are the important purpose of the writing the reports;

1) Presenting the results

2) Easy to understand the findings to all
3) To take the modification in the research work
4) Future reference
5) Guidance to other researchers
6) Formal completion
7) Witten evidence
8) Finding new idea

7.2 Different steps in writing report

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter ;(b) preparation of the
final outline (c)preparation of the rough draft: (d) rewriting and polishing;(c) preparation of the
final bibliography and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet
a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding.

Logical analysis of the subject matter-it is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject –(a ) logically and
(b) chronologically. the logical development is made on the basic of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often

73
consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing of making something usually follow the chronological order reparation of
the final outline: it is the next step in writing the research report outlines are the framework upon
which long written works as constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the
material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

Preparation of the rough draft- this follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to
write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the
procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitation
faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalization
and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned

Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft-this step happens to be most difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The
careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While
rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or
presentation. The researcher should also see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has
unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a
marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loses bricks. In addition
the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent
or not. He should check the mechanics of writing –grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the final bibliography-next in order comes the comes the task of the preparation
of the final bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report , is a list of book in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done . it should contain all those works which
the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be
divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the
second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern
of bibliography is considered, convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader,
though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography the entries in bibliography should be
made adopting the following order:

For books and pamphlets, the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title , underlined to indicate italics,
3. place, publisher, and date of publication
4. Number of volumes.
Example

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 Kothari, C.R quantitative techniques, New Delhi vikas publishing house pvt. Ltd 1978
Tor magazines and newspapers the order may be as under;
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article , in quotation marks
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue
6. The pagination

Example

Robert V. Roosa coping with short-term international money flows, the banker London, d
September 1971, p995.

The above e examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used, but one
should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing important is
that, whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.

Writing the final draft this constitutes the last. The final draft should be written in a concise and
objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as it seems there may be
and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology
and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be
incorporated in the final draft as the happen to be most effective in communicating the research
findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain
interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt
to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution or problem and must add
to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader

7.3; Layout of the research report

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the
study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods
and thus form an opinion of how seriously the financing are to be taken. For this purpose there is
the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should
comprise (A) preliminary pages ;(B)the main text and (C) the end matter. Deal with them
separately.

(A) Preliminary pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a little and date, followed by acknowledgements
in the form of preface or foreword then there should be a table of contents followed by list of

75
tables and illustrations so that the decision- maker or anybody interested in reading the report can
easily locate the requires information in the report.

(B) Main text

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Tile of
the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and them follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main
section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the
following sections; (i) introduction (ii) statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) the
results ;( iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) the summary.

(i) Introduction -the purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the
readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e enough
background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered
worth investigating. a brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that
the present study can be seen in that context . the hypotheses of study, if any ,and the
definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the
introduction of the report.

The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader
would like to know in detail about such ting: how was the study carried out? What was its basic
design? If the study was an experimental one, then what was the experimental manipulation? If
the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions
were asked (the questionnaires or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If
measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers?
Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: who were the subjects? How
many were there? How were thy selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the
probable limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be
clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary
lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed,
must also be narrated

(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations-after introduction, the research report

must contain a statement of finding and recommendations in non-technical language so
that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive,
at this point they should be put in the summarized form
(iii) Results –a detailed presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results is the next step in writing
the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report,
extending over several chapters. The result section the report should contain statistical

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 summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the result should be
presented in logical sequence and splitter into readily identifiable sections. All relevant
results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is
the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and
from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the
researcher must rely on this own judgments in deciding the outline of his report. ``
nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was
concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which
he arrived, and basses for his conclusions``5.
(iv) Implication of the results- Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again
put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should state the
implications that flow from the results of study, for the general reader is interested in the
implication for understanding the human behavior. Such implications may have three
aspects as stated below:
a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study .
c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestion for the kind of research that would provide answerers for theme

It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summaries and
recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly
related to hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forest of
the probable future of the subject and indication of the kind of research which needs to be done
in that particular field useful and desirable.

(v) Summary- it has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings
and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.

(c) end matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones, bibliography
of sources consulted should also be given. Index ( an alphabetical listing of names, places
and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariable be given at the end of the report. The value of
index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

7. Mechanics of writing a research report

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There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the
research report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously
adhered to, and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as soon as the
materials for the research paper have been assembled. The following points deserve mention so
far as the mechanics of writing a report are concerned:

(1) Size and physical design –the manuscript should be written on unrolled paper 81/2” x11” in
size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at
least one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at
the right hand of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The
paper should be neat and legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be
double-spaced on one side of the page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.
(2) Procedure- various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (all such steps have
already been explained earlier in this chapter).
(3) Layout- keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem the layout of the report
should be thought of an decide and accordingly adopted (the layout of the research report and
various types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a
guide for report –writing in case of a particular problem).
(4) Treatment of quotations- quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced,
forming an immediate part of the text, but if a quotation is of a considerable length ( more
than four or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indicated at least half
an inch to the right of normal text margin.
(5) The footnotes-regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
a. The footnotes serve two purpose viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in the
report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research text
but still of supplemental value. In other worked, footnotes are meant for cross-references,
citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation to explanation of a
point of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is neither an end nor a means of
footnotes for scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for
scholarship dose not need to be displayed.
b. Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which
they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual
material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
c. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter
separately. At the number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a quotation.
At the foot the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a little above
the line. Thus its corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in the case of
statistical tables and other numerical materials, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the
link one may be used to prevent confusion.

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d. Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by
double space.
(6) Documentation style –regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given
work should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition
used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be
described space.
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a
bibliography) followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and data of publication;
4. Pagination references (the page number)

Example

John gassner, masters of the drama, new York: dover publications, inc. 1954. P. 315.

(ii) Regarding multivolume reference

1. Author’s name in the normal order;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and data of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (the page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically

For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination

reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under :

Example 1

“Salamanca,” encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition.

Example 2

“ Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” dictionary of national biography. But if there should be a

detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and pagination reference may be found
necessary.

(iv) Regarding periodical reference

1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;

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5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference

Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not only by
author, but also by the name of the collector.

(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference

In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows ;

1. Original author and title

2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.

Example 3

j.f. jones, life in Polynesia, p. 16. Quoted in history of the pacific ocean area, by R.B. Abel, p.
191

(vii). Case of multiple authorship

In there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only the
first is given and the multiple authorship is indicated by “ or “and other”

Subsequent references to the same work need not be as detailed as stated above. If the work is
cited again without any other work intervening, it may be indicated as ibid, followed by a comma
and the page number. A single page should be referred to as p., but more than one page is
referred to as pp. if there are several pages referred to at as trench, the practice is to use often the
page number, for example, pp. 190ff, which means page number 190 and the following pages;
but only for page ‘190f’. roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of the volume
of a book. Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or loc. Cit. ( loco citato, in the place cited) is
two of the very convention abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op . cit. or loc. Cit. after the
writer’s name would suggest that the reference is to work by the writer which has been cited in
detail in an earlier footnote but intervened by some other references.

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes- the first item after the number in the footnote is
the author’s name given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma, after the
comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A” “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted
and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed
by a comma. Information concerning the edition is given next. This is followed by a comma.
Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The
place of publication is then state; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated from, if the place

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 happens to be a famous one such as land. For London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for new
Delhi and so on. This entry is followed by a comma. Then the volume, the comma should be
omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c1978], [1978]. The entry is followed by a
comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma if both
are given. A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should remember
that the documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine article and periodical
literature follow a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the
bibliography.

Certain English and latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes
to eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most common abbreviations
frequently used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to recognize them as well as he/she
should learn to use them):

Anon., anonymous

Ante., before

Art., article

Aug., augmented

Bk., book

Bull., bulletin

Cf., compare

Ch., chapter

Col., column

Diss., dissertation

Ed., editor, edition, edited

Ed.cit edition cited

e.g., exempli gratia:for example

eng., enlarged

et. al., and others

et seq et sequens : and the following

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ex., example

f.ff., and the following

fig(s)., figure(s)

fn., footnote

ibid., ibidem: in the same plase(when two or more successive footnotes refer to

the same work, it is not necessary to repeat completer reference

for the second footnote. Ibid. may be used. If different pages are

Referred to, pagination must be shown).

Id., idem: the same

Ill., illus.,or

Illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s)

Intor. Intro., introduction

L,or ll, line(s)

Loc.cit., in the place cited;used as op.cit.,(when new reference

Loco citato is made to the same pagination as cited in the previous not)

Ms. Mss., manuscript or manuscripts

N.B.,nota bene; note well

n.d., no date

n.p., no place

no pub., no publisher

no(s) number(s)

o.p., out of print

op.cot in the work cited (if reference has been made to a work and new

opera citato reference is to be made, ibid., may be used; if intervening reference

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 has been made to different works, op.cit. must be used. The name of

the author must precede.

p.or pp., page(s)

passim: here and there

post: after

rev., revised

tr., trans., translator, translated, translation

vid or vide see, refer to

viz., namely

vol.or vol(s) volume(s)

vs., versus: against

8.use of statics, charts and graphs- a judicious of statistics in research reports is often considered
a virtue for it con tributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the material
and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than a
thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs
and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be
suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should
be neat and attractive.

9. The final draft- revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great
care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions
like: are the sentence written in the report clear? Are they Grammatically correct? Do they say
what is meant? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically? “Having at
least on colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful. Sentences
that seemed self evident may strike others as a non-sequitur.

A friendly critic, by pointing out passages that seem unclear or illogical, and perhaps suggesting
ways of emending the difficulties, can be an invaluable aid in achieving the goal of adequate
communication. “6

10. Bibliography-Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as

discussed earlier

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11. Preparation of the Index- At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the
value of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide to the reader. Index may be prepared
both as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or
concepts along with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report;
whereas the latter gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should
always be arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for
names of authors, subject-topics, concepts like ones.

7.5: PRESENTING THE RESULTS

The primary task in the research is the data presented in tabular form should first be discussed
and explained. At the same time the researcher should avoid repeating the whole data that the
table contains. While explaining the tables, it is always necessary to cite relevant column
numbers and row numbers fro the convenience of the reader. The statistical materials presented
in the tables should be systematically checked for accuracy. Besides explaining the tables, the
researcher has to interpret the data on the basis of evidences. Such interpretation is the basis of
generalization. Arrangement of ideas and the methodical and systematic presentation is an aid to
draw the attention and evoke the interest of the readers. Heading should be specific, brief and
represent the content. Headings and sub-heading all the attention of readers as to the materials
presentation. There must be uniformity and consistency in presentation of ideas, punctuation,
capitalization, abbreviations, footnotes, quotations, acknowledgement and bibliography, typical
and summary sentences at the beginning end f the paragraph, capitalization of key phrases and
sentences will make the presentation meaningful and logical.

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