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Building services -4
Module :1
 18ARC73- BUILDING SERVICES – IV(ACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL)
CONTACT PERIODS : 3 (Lecture) per week
PROGRESSIVE MARKS : 50
DURATION OF EXAM: 3 Hrs
THEORY MARKS : 100
OBJECTIVE: To explore the role and capacity of sound in all its variations and to enhance aural
experience in built environment- within and without.
COURSE OVERVIEW
MODULE 1 (Introduction to Sound and Room Acoustics)
1) Introduction to Sound: Origin and nature of sound, its characteristics and measurement–
Amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength, velocity of sound, sound pressure, sound intensity,
decibel scale, sound and distance – inverse square law. human hearing, auditory range for
humans (Frequency and Intensity – threshold of audibility and pain), pitch (association with
frequency), tone, loudness (association with amplitude and intensity), Phon.
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:1 2) Room Acoustics: Reflection - Nature of reflection from plane, convex and concave surfaces,
diffraction, Absorption, Echoes, focusing of sound, dead spots, flutter echo. Room resonances,
Reverberation - reverberation time (RT) calculation using Sabine’s and Eyring’s formulae. Effect
of RT on speech and music.
MODULE 2 (Acoustical Tools, Measurements and Materials)
3) Acoustical Tools and Measurements: Use of SLM (Sound Level Meter), AI (Articulation Index),
STI (Speech-Transmission Index), Speech Intelligibility. Sound Attenuation. Absorption
coefficients of acoustical materials, NRC value, NC Curves for various spaces.
4) Acoustical Materials: Porous materials, panel absorbers, membrane absorbers, acoustical
plasters, diffusers, cavity or Helmholtz resonators. Role of functional absorbers, Adjustable
acoustics and variable sound absorbers. Acoustical correction and retrofits to existing spaces.
 COURSE OVERVIEW

MODULE 3 (Acoustical Design)

5) Acoustical Design of Auditoriums - Multipurpose Halls: History of Greek, Roman theatres.
Use of IS code 2526 - 1963 for design and detailing of Auditoriums - Cinema Halls -
Multi_x0002_purpose Halls - Halls for speech and music.
6) Acoustical Design and Detailing of Other Spaces – Open air theatres, Halls for Indoor Sports,
home theatres, recording studios, open plan offices, etc. Need and use of sound reinforcement
systems, sound masking systems and speech privacy.
MODULE 4 (Noise reduction and Control-II)
7) Constructional measures of noise control and sound insulation -Enclosures, Barriers,
Sound insulation (AC Ducts and plants), Vibration isolation – control of mechanical noise, floor,
wall, ceiling treatment.
8)Sound Isolation. Construction details of composite walls, double walls,
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:1 floating floors, wood-joist floors, plenum barriers, sound locks, etc. STC (Sound Transmission
Class) ratings.
MODULE 5 (Noise reduction and Control-II)
9) Industrial noise: Sources of industrial noise - impact, friction, reciprocation, air turbulence
and other noise. Methods of reduction by enclosures and barriers.
10) Introduction to Urban Soundscape – Introduction to Urban noise, Noise sources - Air traffic,
Rail traffic, Road traffic, Seashore and inland. Traffic planning against outdoor noise. Noise
reduction and control by Site planning, Town planning and Regional Planning consideration.
Role of Architects / Urban Planners in shaping the urban soundscape. Sustainable design
strategies in building acoustics.
 Acoustics is a science which deals with the sound.
Also it is a science which deals with the planning, design and
construction of building to achieve the proper acoustical
conditions within the building and surrounding of the building.
Acoustics is also provided for correcting the defects in building
units and components of the structure. Mainly the absorption
and dissipation of exterior and interior noise (that is outdoor and
indoor noise) and their insulation against sound. Acoustics is a
science of sound, which deals with origin, propagation and
auditory sensation of sound, and also with design & construction
of different building units to set optimum conditions for
producing & listening speech, music etc. The knowledge of this
science is essential for proper functioning of theaters,
auditoriums, hospitals, conference halls, etc. also buildings are
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:1 becoming increasingly mechanized. Use of A.C, work machines,
appliances like: vacuum cleaners, typewriters, etc., noise pattern
of building has increased, leading to greater need of noise
control.
In areas such such as :
speech, music, sound recording and reproduction, telephony,
sound reinforcement, audiology, architectural acoustics, and
noise control have strong association with the sensation of
hearing.
© Acharya's NRV School of Architecture
 Sound is a form of energy. It travels in waves through an elastic medium and causes fluctuation of
pressure and particle displacement.
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a
medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas.
Sound moves through a medium from the point of generation to the listener. When an object vibrates, it sets the
particles of the medium around it vibrating. The particles do not travel all the way from the vibrating object to the
ear. A particle of the medium in contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position. It
then exerts a force on the adjacent particle.As a result of which the adjacent particle gets displaced from its
position of rest. After displacing the adjacent particle the first particle comes back to its original position. This
process continues in the medium till the sound reaches your ear. The disturbance created by a source of sound in
the medium travels through the medium and not the particles of the medium.
A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the particles of the medium set neighbouring
particles into motion. They in turn produce similar motion in others. The particles of the medium do not move
forward themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward. This is what happens during propagation of sound in a
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Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the medium and are called mechanical waves. Air is
the most common medium through which sound travels. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and
compresses the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called a compression (C), This
compression starts to move away from the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates
a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R), As the object moves back and forth rapidly, a series of compressions
and rarefactions is created in the air. These make the sound wave that propagates through the medium.
Compression is the region of high pressure and rarefaction is the region of low pressure. Pressure is related to the
number of particles of a medium in a given volume. More density of the particles in the medium gives more
pressure and vice versa.

© Acharya's NRV School of Architecture

 Thus, propagation of sound can be visualised as propagation of density variations or
pressure variations in the medium.
Terms related to Sound :
§ Frequency - Pitch
§ Intensity - loudness
§ Amplitude
§ Wavelength
The high point of a transverse wave is a called the crest, and the low point is called the
trough. For longitudinal waves, the compressions and rarefactions are analogous to the
crests and troughs of transverse waves. The distance between successive crests or
troughs is called the wavelength. The height of a wave is the amplitude. How many crests
or troughs pass a specific point during a unit of time is called the frequency. The velocity
of a wave can be expressed as the wavelength multiplied by the frequency.
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© Acharya's NRV School of Architecture

 Vibrations transmitted through an elatic material or a solid , liquid or gas with frequencies in the range of
20- 20,000 hertz capable of being detected by human organs of the hearing . Transmitted vibrations of any
frequency.
All Sounds originate in the vibrations of the material objects.
The source of all the sound waves is vibration

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© Acharya's NRV School of Architecture

 How do we hear?
We are able to hear with the help of an extremely sensitive device
called the ear. It allows us to convert pressure variations in air with audible frequencies into
electric signals that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve. The auditory aspect of human
ear is discussed below.
The outer ear is called ‘pinna’. It collects the sound
from the surroundings. Thecollected sound passes
through the auditorycanal. At the end of the auditory
canal there is a thin membrane called the ear drum or
tympanic membrane. When a compression of the
medium reaches the eardrum the pressure on the
outside of the membrane increases and forces the
eardrum inward.Similarly, the eardrum moves
outward when a rarefaction reaches it. In this way
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:1 theeardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified
several times by three bones (the hammer, anvil and
stirrup) in the middle ear.The middle ear transmits the
amplified pressure variations received from the sound
wave to the inner ear. In the inner ear, the pressure
variations are turned into electrical signals by the
cochlea. These electrical signals
are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve,and the
brain interprets them as sound.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUNDS
• Sound is form of energy.
• It requires medium to propagate.
• Sounds requires definite interval of time to travel from one point to another point in a medium.
• Its velocity smaller than the velocity of light.
• Velocity of sound is maximum in solids, which have high bulk modulus and least in gas.
•Mechanical wave , Longitudinal wave
• FREQUENCY f:
- Frequency is the rate of repetition of a periodic event.
- Frequency of a sound wave is determined by the number of times per second a given molecule of air
vibrates about its neutral position.
- The number of displacements or oscillations that a particle undergoes in 1 sec. is frequency. Each
complete displacement is called a cycle.
- Its unit is hertz. Hz.

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:1 INTENSITY : I
Sound intensity, also known as acoustic intensity, is defined as the power carried by sound waves per
unit area in a direction perpendicular to that area. The SI unit of intensity, which includes sound
intensity, is the watt per square meter (W/m2).
Sound intensity I [W/m2] = power per unit area
• Intensity corresponding to hearing threshold: 1 pW/m2
• Sound intensity level:
 WAVELENGTH
• It is a distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration.
• It is the distance between adjacent regions where identical conditions of particle displacement occur.
• It is the distance travelled by sound radiation from an object during one period of oscillation of the
object or the crest to crest distance.
• The distance travelled equals the product of rate and time.
λ = V/F

λ=Wavelength
V=Velocity
F= Frequency
The rate is the velocity of
sound.
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λ ƒ = c (velocity)

Wavelength = Speed of
sound/ frequency
 Sound pressure
The average variation in atmospheric pressure above or below the static pressure due
to a sound wave is called the sound pressure.
The unit of SP is the microbar.
The standard scale used to measure sound pressure in physical acoustics extends over a wide range,
which makes it awkward to deal with. Furthermore, it does not take into account the fact that the
ear does not respond equally to the changes of
sound pressures at all levels of intensity. For these reasons, sound pressures are measured on a
logarithmic scale, called decibel scale.
• Timbre -
Sounds may be generally characterized by pitch, loudness, and quality.
Sound "quality" or "timbre" describes those characteristics of sound which allow the
ear to distinguish sounds which have the same pitch and loudness.
Timbre is then a general term for the distinguishable characteristics of a tone.
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 The audible range of sound for human beings extends from about 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (one
Hz = one cycle/s). Children under the age offive and some animals, such as dogs can hear
up to 25 kHz (1 kHz = 1000 Hz). As people grow older their ears become less sensitive to higher
frequencies.
Sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sound or infrasound. If we could hear
infrasound we would hear the vibrations of a pendulum just as we hear the vibrations of the wings of
a
bee. Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound of frequency as low as 5 Hz.
Whales and elephants produce sound in the infrasound range. It is observed that some animals get
disturbed before earthquakes.Earthquakes produce low-frequencyinfrasound before the main shock
waves begin which possibly alert the animals.Frequencies higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic
sound or ultrasound. Ultrasound is produced by animals such as dolphins,bats and porpoises. Moths
of certain families have very sensitive hearing equipment. These moths can hear the high frequency
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:1 squeaks
of the bat and know when a bat is flying nearby, and are able to escape capture. Rats also play games
by producing
Threshold of hearing
The threshold of hearing is the weakest sound that the average
human ear can detect. It varies slightly from person to
person.However it is roughly around 20 Hz
Threshold of pain
The threshold of pain is the strongest sound that the human ear
can tolerate which is 20000Hz
 LOUDNESS AND LOUDNESS LEVEL
v The loudness of a sound (that is, the magnitude of sensation) depends not only on the pressure of the
sound but also on its frequency spectrum.

v The loudness can be described quantitatively in terms of another subjective characteristic of sound, the
v so called loudness level which itself is defined in terms of the sound pressure and frequency of a pure
tone. These curves are the well-known Fletcher-Munson Contours of equal loudness.

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 The standard scale used to measure sound pressure in physical acoustics extends over a wide range,
which makes it awkward to deal with. Furthermore, it does not take into account the fact that the ear
does not respond equally to the changes of sound pressures at all levels of intensity. For these reasons,
sound pressures are measured on a logarithmic scale, called decibel scale.
The ear mechanism is able to respond to both very small and very large pressure waves by virtue of
being nonlinear; that is, it responds much more efficiently to sounds of very small amplitude than to
sounds of very large amplitude. Because of the enormous non-linearity of the ear in sensing pressure
waves, a nonlinear scale is convenient in describing the intensity of sound waves. Such a scale is
provided by the sound intensity level, or decibel level, of a sound wave, which is defined by the
equation:

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Decibel
The logarithmic ratio of intensity of a sound to Standard intensity is called decibel or relative intensity
of sound
I = Actual Sound intensity in W/m2
I0= Thresh-hold of audibility 10-12 W/m2
 How Does the Decibel Scale Work?
A human ear is more versatile than you can think. With rising sound levels, the built-in mechanism of
our ears reduces its own sensitivity. Our ears also have an exceptional range of handling different
levels of sound power. A human ear can discern the dropping of a pin in close range as well as the
roaring of a jet engine far away. Although we can make out if there is a rise in the number of pins
dropping, we can not really distinguish if there are 1000 or 1001 pins dropping since our ears are not
a linear device.
A decibel scale is a logarithmic scale and works differently than a ruler (which is a linear scale). On a
ruler 10 cm is twice as long as 5 cm or 30 cm is thrice as long as 10 cm but on a decibel, scale levels
go up in powers of 10. This means that if there is an increase of 10 decibels on the dB scale, it
translates to a 10-fold increase in sound intensity and it corresponds to doubling in sound intensity as
well. The lowest audible sound on a decibel scale is 0 DB. Here is a quick look at some of the everyday
sounds we hear and how the noise level dB looks like for each of these sounds. As per research, if one
is exposed to noise level dB of 85 decibels for 8 continuous hours or 100 decibels for even 15 minutes,
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Relationship of Decibel to Hertz
Hertz measures the amount or frequency of air pressure change by the vibration. Decibels measure
the resulting change in air pressure which the vibrating object creates. This means that decibels
measure the loudness or the power of sound while hertz measures sound’s frequency. We cannot
convert from decibel to Hz and vice versa as they measure different components of sound waves.
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 This is inverse square law - Relationship between
the Intensity of the sound and distance
is any physical law stating that a specified physical
quantity or intensity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the a)source of
that physical quantity. The fundamental cause for
this can be understood as geometric dilution
corresponding to point-source radiation into
three-dimensional space
If you are a distance r from the source, the area of
the imaginary sphere over which the spherical
wave is spread is
A = 4πr2.
Substituting this into the previous equation gives Where
I = P/4 π r2
P is the sound power
where P is the Power of the source.
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:1 As you move further from the source, r increases
A (r)is the surface area of the sphere of radius r
and the intensity of the wave decreases. Thus the sound intensity decreases as 1/r2 from the
Therefore the intensity decreases as an "inverse- centre of the sphere
square law" with distance r, that is like 1/r2. Thus the sound intensity decreases as 1/r2 from the
For a spherical sound wave the intensity in the centre of the sphere
radial direction as a function of distance r from the
centre sphere is given by:

This is inverse square law - Relationship between the

Intensity of the sound and distance
 SOUND IN ENCLOSED SPACES
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 Phenomena related to Changes in the direction of sound travel
Sound waves change their direction of travel through four categories of phenomena :
§ REFLECTION,
§ REFRACTION,
§ DIFFRACTION
§ DIFFUSION.
§ TRANSMISSION
§ ABSORPTION
These phenomena can occur when changes occur in a sound wave’s medium of travel. These physical
principles are the same as those that occur in the optical world with light.
REFLECTION
When a sound wave encounters a sharp discontinuity in the density of a medium, some of its energy is
reflected.
Reflective surfaces are typically smooth and hard.
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:1 Occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the surface of an obstacle.
• In the case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every side of the enclosure continuously until
the sound energy reduces to zero.
• The amount of waves reflected depends on the smoothness, size, and softness of the materials of
enclosure.
• The angle of incidence of sound rays is equal to that of the reflected rays only if the surface of the
reflector is flat. But when it is curved,the angles are different.
Intentional use of non-absorptive surfaces that enhance a lively acoustical sound quality,
typically for nightclubs or music venues. Sound is sometimes desired to enliven music venues and
night clubs. Sound reflection is when reflective acoustical surfaces add controlled vibrancy to spaces.
 REFLECTION OF SOUND

The angle of incidence of sound rays is

equal to that of the reflected rays only if
the surface of the reflector is flat. But
when it is curved, the angles are different.

Reflection is the return of a sound

wave from a surface. If the surface
dimension X is larger than about 2 to
4 times the wavelength X of the
impinging sound wave, the angle of
incidence^/ will equal the angle of
reflectioni^r.
Forexample, 1000 Hz corresponds to
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:1 a wavelength of 1.1 ft; therefore, a
surface dimension (length or width)
of about 4A. = 4X1.1^41/2f t will
reflect sound energy wavelengths of
1000 Hz and above. When an array of
suspended panels is used to direct
reflected sound energy toward the
audience, the individual panels
should be of varying sizes to prevent
creating a "rasping"sound.
 Refraction

This is the bending of sound when it travels from one medium into another medium. The difference
in the composition of the two different media bends the sound.
i.e. the angle of incidence changes into an angle of refraction as it travels into the new medium.
Remember that sound travels faster in some materials than others. Sound waves travel outward in
straight lines from their source until something interferes with their path. When sound changes
mediums (enters a different material) at an angle other that 90 degrees, it is bent from its original
direction. This change in angle of direction is called refraction. Because of the angle, part of the wave
enters the new medium first and changes speed. The difference in speeds causes the wave to bend.
The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material properties (elastic modulus and
density) for that material.

Diffusion
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This is the scattering of waves from a surface. It occurs as a result of the texture and hardness of the
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the sound.
The direction of the incident ray changes when it strikes the surface of the obstacle.
Satisfaction is achieved when sound is heard in all direction at equal level.
 It occurs when the surface depths of hard-surfaced
materials are comparable to the wavelengths of the
sound. However the direction of the incident sound
wave is changed as it strikes a sound diffusing material.

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v Diffusion is extremely important in rooms for musical

performance. When satisfactory diffusion has been
achieved,
 Diffraction is the change in direction of propagation of
sound waves due to their passage around an obstacle.
(A truck located behind a building can be heard because
the sound waves bend around the corners)
The properties of diffraction:
1. When an obstacle is large in relation to the
wavelength of the incident sound, a sharp ‘shadow’
is cast
2. When an obstacle is small in comparison to the
wavelength of the incident sound wave, the sound is
scattered in all directions.
3. When the size of the obstacle is comparable to the
wavelength, the sound is scattered in a complex but
regular pattern , which depends on the shape, size
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:1 and absorptive properties of the obstacle and
wavelength of the sound and its direction of
propagation with respect to the obstacle.
In auditoriums, because impinging sound waves will
readily diffract around panels that are smaller than their
wavelength, suspended panels must be carefully
designed to be large enough (length and width) to
effectively reflect the desired wavelengths of sound.
 Absorption
When sound waves hit the surface of an obstacle, some of its energy is reflected while some are lost
through its transfer to the molecules of the barrier.The lost sound energy is said to have been absorbed by
the barrier. The thickness and nature of the material as well as its softness and hardness influences the
amount of sound energy absorbed.
Ø It is defined as the reciprocal of the area of sound absorbing material which absorbs the same
amount of the sound energy as that of 1 square meter of an open window
Ø The effectiveness of a sound absorbing material can be expressed by its
Ø absorption coefficient α
Ø The coefficient describes the fraction of the incident sound energy that a material absorbers
Ø Theoretically it can vary from 0.0-1.0
Ø When it is 0.0- No sound energy is absorbed
Ø When it is 1.0- Perfect absorption with all the incident sound energy absorbed
Ø Good absorbing materials have α-0.55 to 0.95
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Ø Absorption co-efficient for building materials- 0.01 to 0.99
Ø Materials with low absorption coefficients are sound reflecting materials α- less than 0.2
Ø Absorption co-efficients are determined through lab tests
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 •A SOUND REFLECTED OFF A SURFACE THAT ARRIVES AT THE LISTENER AFTER THE DIRECT SOUND.
SOMETIMES THOUGHT OF AS REVERBERATION, BUT AN ECHO IS VERY DISTINCT WHILE
REVERBERATION IS A MIXED TOGETHER SOUND WHICH DECAYS GRADUALLY.
•ECHO IS HEARD AS DISTINCT REPEAT, 100 MILLI-SECONDS (1/10 SEC) OR GREATER, FROM WALLS
AND CEILING WITH PATH- LENGTHS GREATER THAN 15 METERS (45FT) APART.
• DEFECTS CAN BE REMOVED BY - BY SELECTING PROPER SHAPE OF THE HALL.
- PROVIDING ROUGH AND POROUS INTERIOR SURFACES.
Not all the sound that hits matter is absorbed . Some of it is reflected .That means sound bounces off
the solid matter the way a tennis ball bounces off a wall , Sond reflected back is called ECHO

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 ROOM FLUTTER :
• Among all the undesirable acoustical phenomena, one that is associated with the shape of a room
is flutter echo.
• It usually occurs between a pair of parallel, opposite walls in a room.
• It is most noticeable in a rectangular room when one pair of opposite walls is smooth and highly
reflective and the other two opposite walls are treated with absorptive materials.
• A single impulsive sound such as a sharp hand clap, produces a multiple echo as the impulse is
reflected back and forth between the pair of reflective walls.
Room flutter frequently occurs in uncarpeted room where the ceiling and floor are highly
reflective and the walls are broken with windows, doors, hangings, pictures etc.
It can be eliminated by avoiding the use of parallel walls, or by breaking up the uniformity of such
walls with doors, windows, bookshelves etc.

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 CREEP (WHISPERING GALLERIES) :
When the reflection of sound from a source happens along a curved surface near the source, although the
sound can be heard at points along the surface, it is inaudible away from the surface.
A phenomenon closely associated with the reflections from curved surfaces is the tendency for sound
especially in the high frequencies to travel or ‘creep’ around the large concave surface.
This phenomenon has become famous in connection with St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, Gol Gumbaz in
Bijapur and it can be observed in many other concave structures
A whisper directed along such a concave surface may be heard distinctly at least 200 feet
away. Impulsive sound such as a hand clap, will travel around the gallery several times.

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 SOUND FOCI:
Concave domes, vaults or walls will focus reflected sound into certain areas of the
rooms. This causes hot spots at other audience positions.

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:1 Reflection of sound
from a domed ceiling
Section illustrating reflection of
Plan showing reflection of
sound form a barelled ceiling
sound from a concave rear
which has a radius of curvature
wall having its center of
equal to the height of the room
curvature at C
Sound foci: In case of concave reflecting interior surfaces, certain spots are formed where reflected sound
waves meet and create a sound of large intensity. These spaots are known as the sound foci.Remedies:
They can be eliminated by avoiding curvilinear interiors or by providing highly absorbent materials on the
foc
 SOUND FOCI :
Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected
sound waves at certain spot, creating a sound of large
intensity.
These spots are called sound foci.
This defect can be removed by
(a) geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces, including
ceilings
(b) providing highly absorbent materials on focusing areas.

Sound foci
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 4. DEAD SPOTS :
Owing to the focusing effect of concave surfaces, localized concentrations of sound are formed.
These excessive concentrations are formed at the expense of deficiencies of reflected sound at other
localities in the room. The regions of deficiency are sometimes called “dead spots”.
In these localities especially in large rooms, the sound level usually is inadequate for satisfactory hearing.
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound foci. Because of high concentration of reflected
sound at sound foci, there is deficiency of reflected sound at some other points. These points are
known as dead spots. where sound intensity is so low that it is insufficient for hearing.
This defect can be removed by
a) installation of suitable diffuser so that there is even distribution of sound in the hall

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 REVERBERATION:
The persistence or prolongation of sound in a hall even though the source of sound is cut off is called
reverberation.
The time taken by the sound to fall below the minimum audibility level after the source stopped
sounding is called reverberation time.This is the persistence of sound in an enclosed space as a result
of continuous reflection or scattering of sound after the source has stopped. It is one of the most
prominent behaviour of sound in an enclosure.
v However some reverberation is essential for improving quality sound.
v The time during which the sound persists is called the reverberation time of sound in the hall.
v As per Prof. W .C. Sabins reverberation time ‘t’ is given by formula :-
t= 0.16V /A
where
V=volume of room in cubic meters
A= total absorbing power of all the surfaces of room/ hall.
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:1 Reverberation Time
The reverberant sound in an auditorium dies away with time as the sound energy is absorbed by
multiple interactions with the surfaces of the room. In a more reflective room, it will take longer for
the sound to die away and the room is said to be 'live'. In a very absorbent room, the sound will die
away quickly and the room will be described as acoustically 'dead'.
But the time for reverberation to completely die away will depend upon how loud the sound was to
begin with, and will also depend upon the acuity of the hearing of the observer. In order to provide a
reproducible parameter, a standard reverberation time has been defined as the time for the sound to
die away to a level 60 decibels below its original level. The reverberation time can be modeled to
permit an approximate calculation. .
 SABINES LAW
• Sabine came up with a formula that architects and engineers could use when
designing a concert hall so they could achieve the best reverberation time for their
particular venue.
• Sabine found that 2 to 2.25 seconds was an optimal reverberation time for a
concert hall, and around 1 second was optimal for a lecture hall.
• If a lecture hall had a reverberation time of more than one second, students
would have to contend with multiple words at once.

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RT = 0.16V/A
Where V = room volume (m3)
A= ∑a = total room absorption (sabins)
a = s1α1 + s2α2 + s3α3 + …
α = absorption coefficient of material at given frequency
s = surface area (m2)
 REVERBERATION:

It is persistence of sound in the enclosed space, after the source of sound has stopped.Reverberant sound
is the reflected sound as a result of improper absorption.
Excessive reverberation is one of the most common defect, with the result that sound once created longs
for a longer duration resulting in confusion with the sound created next.However, some reverberation is
essential for improving quality of sound. Thus, optimum clarity depends upon correct reverberation time
which can be controlled by suitably installing the absorbent materials.
Reverberation time should remain within limits as
per Indian Standard Code: 2526- 1963.
Se /no Recomende Acoustics
d in seconds

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:1 1 .50 to 1.50 Excellent
2 1.50 to 2.00 Good

3 2.00 to 3.00 Fairly good

4 3.00 to 5.00 Bad

5 Above 5 .0 Ver Bad

seconds
 The statistical method of room acoustics analysis involves the use of reverberation time (RT)
equations. These include the Sabine equation, Eyring equation, and others. These equations calculate
the reverberation time of the room based on its volume and internal absorption . While the mental
model of sound propagation is that of waves, reverberation is a diffuse field that develops after more
than a second of decay and after a great deal of room reflections have occurred. After the
introduction of an impulse of sound energy into the space, the reflection-density at the listener
increases with passing time and a diffuse field develops. This assumes that the room meets certain
criteria, namely that it has a “mixing” geometry, low absorption, and no concentrated absorption. A
“big concrete shoebox” serves as a theoretical example.
Eyring assumes a constant mean free path
length and a stepwise energy decay, i.e. all
sound particles lose a part of their energy at the
same time [7]. Sabine assumes only one energy
value.
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:1 SABINE EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / A
EYRING EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / [Aair - ST logn (1 - αavg)]
where:
V - Volume (m3)
RT - Expected Reverberation Time (s)
A - Total Absorption (m2)
αavg - Absorption Coefficient (avg. all surfaces)
Aair - Air Absorption (m2)
ST - Surfaces Total Area (m2)
The results obtained from both the equtions slightly differ.
 MASKING :
• Noise has the effect of reducing the sharpness of hearing; that is it
elevates the threshold of audibility at that point.
• *Noise means the unwanted sound.
• This shift in ‘threshold of audibility’ is called masking, and the shift, in
decibels, defines the amount of masking.
• Therefore, very intense low frequency hums or noises are troublesome
source of interference for the hearing of speech or music since they mask
nearly the entire audible range of frequencies.
• In other words : When two separate sources of sound are perceived
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:1 simultaneously, the perception of each is made more difficult by the
presence of the other. This effect is known as masking and is defined as
the number of decibels by which the threshold of audibility of a sound is
raised by the presence of another sound.
• Masking is greatest when two sounds are close in their frequencies, since
the ear has greater difficulty separating them.
• Also, a low frequency will more effectively mask a high frequency than
the reverse.
 ACOUSTICAL DESIGN OF ROOMS

Planning for good acoustics in a building begins with the selection of the site and continues through all stages of
designing. The architect will avoid inexcusable errors in design if he sets up a check list of the necessary and
sufficient measures to be taken for obtaining good acoustics

1. The site should be selected in a quietest surrounding.

2. The making of a noise survey (properties of materials like NRC etc., existing surroundings) to determine how
much sound insulation must be incorporated in a building to meet specified requirements of quietness.
3. The arrangement of the rooms within the building
4. The selection of the proper sound insulation constructions.
5. The control of the noise within the building, including solid borne as well as air borne noise.
6. The design of the size and shape of each room that will insure the most advantageous flow of properly diffused
sound to all audiences and that will enhance the aesthetic qualities of speech and music.

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:1 7. The selection and distribution of the absorptive and reflective materials and constructions that will provide
the optimum conditions for the growth, decay and steady state distribution of sound in each room.

8. The supervision of the installation of the acoustical plaster and other materials whose absorptivity will depend
on the manner of application.

9. The installation of sound amplification equipment under the supervision of an engineer wherever necessary.

10. The inspection of the finished building including tests to determine whether the required sound insulation,
sound absorption and other acoustical properties have been satisfactorily attained.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD ACOUSTICS
1. All noises, whether of outside or inside origin, should be reduced to levels that will not interfere
with the hearing of speech or music.

2. The room’s shape and size should be designed :

• to give proper diffusion to the sound,

• Reinforce the sound reaching the audience , especially towards the rear,
• Contribute to the attainment of a favorable ratio of direct to reflected sound for all auditors.
Absorptive materials are added. Special wall and ceiling surfaces to act as reflectors are added.
Splays and other irregularities are added to provide proper diffusion of sound.
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:1
3. The reverberation time should approach the optimum characteristics which are determined by
volume and type of room. The fluctuations in the growth and decay curve should be such as to
yield optimum reverberation conditions.
4. Provision should be made for reinforcing the speech and music in a room so the sound level
will be adequate in all parts of the room

In small room, this requirement can be met by the proper design of reflective surfaces (walls,
floor and ceiling).
 In a large room, in addition to the proper design of the reflective surfaces, a high quality sound
amplification system is indespensable.
• In view of the differences between speech and music, the requirements stated above are not
identical for speech rooms and for music rooms.

• There are however certain broad features that apply to both: freedom from disturbing noise,
proper shape ( a room shape that is good for music usually will be satisfactory also for speech)
and a sufficient sound level for all auditors.

• For the average listener, a sound level of about 65 dB is adequate for good intelligibility of speech
in reasonably quite surroundings(noise levels of about 40 dB) and this level is the optimum
average level based on listener preference for both music and speech.
• and all good music rooms, as in all other rooms in which listening is a required function, the noise
level should be low – atleast 2-3dB lower than the unavoidable noise level of an attentive
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:1 audience during the silent pauses in music.

• In a noisier environment a higher levels of speech and music are preferred and required.

• The noise level of an attentive audience is ofcourse a variable quantity, depending on the size, age
and other aspects of the individuals, but the average level is about 40dB.