College of Engineering

EGA324 Mechanical Engineering

Practice

Session 2017/18

Assignment C1 – Aerofoil Experiment

Student Name/Surname
Student number
Lecturer Dr N. Lavery
Group number
Groups 01-16: 16-Feb-18
Submission deadline 5pm Groups 17-32: 23-Feb-18
Date of submission

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 1 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

Summary & Objectives
The main aim of this experiment was to determine the onset of stalling of the NACA0012 aerofoil by
establishing the relationship between the angle of attack and drag and lift coefficients. Air velocities
of 10 m/s, 20 m/s and 30 m/s were varied with different angles of attack.
The AF100 subsonic wind tunnel was used in this experiment. The NACA0012 was fitted to its test
section. The main measurements taken were the ambient temperature and pressure. The readings
recorded included the pressure distribution over and below the aerofoil surface and the resultant lift
and drag forces generated as a result. From the experiment, the stall angle at 10 m/s and 20 m/s
were found to be 120 and was established to be 140 at air velocity of 30 m/s. the maximum lift force
generated was found to reduce at angles of attack beyond the stall angle although drag forces were
not affected. Reynolds’s number was also found to affect the maximum lift force generated. The
data and graphs obtained were compared to previously published theoretical data and were found
to be similar. The graph of lift coefficient against angle of attack plotted in this experiment, for
instance, was found to be similar to that drawn by Graham et al. (1973) along with its theoretical
estimates of occurrence of stall angle.
Objectives of the experiment
I. To determine the relationship between angle of attack and drag and lift coefficients of the
NACA 0012 aerofoil
II. To determine the stall angle of the aerofoil at different wind velocities and the behaviour of
drag and lift forces after the stalling
III. The determine the pressure distribution over and below the upper and lower surfaces of the
NACA0012 aerofoil
IV. To compare the experimental data with published experimental data

Experiment and Methodology

The AF100 subsonic wind tunnel was used in this experiment. This wind tunnel comprises of a
compact and practical open-circuit suction that is well suited for studying aerodynamics. It saves
time and is more economical compared to full-scale wind tunnels. It also gives accurate results when
experiments are carried out with precision. With this wind tunnel, flow past a body can be studied
along with the effects of pressure and velocities. It is also possible to determine basic characteristics
of lift and drag forces especially when used with an aerofoil. In addition, the pitching moment of an
aerofoil can be determined. Since it allows flow visualisation and direct measurements, the wind
tunnel allows the study of pressure distribution above and below the surfaces of the aerofoil. Fig. 1
illustrates the AF100 subsonic wind tunnel used in this experiment.

Figure 1: (a) The AF100 subsonic wind tunnel and (b) the converging nozzle

The test section of the wind tunnel is 305 mm wide, 305 mm high and 600 mm long. In front of the
test section is an aerodynamic effuser or cone. Essentially, it is a converging nozzle through which air
enters the test section. The converging nozzle is illustrated in Fig. 1 (b). It is so designed to accelerate
the air entering the test section linearly. As such, it increases the air velocity in the test section.

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 2 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

Air enters the test section and flows past a grill and a diffuser before moving through a variable-
speed axial fan. This axial fan is fitted at the back of the wind tunnel so as to reduce unsteady flow of
air at the edges. Although air flow through the test section is uniform, it is not laminar. The axial fan
reduces the turbulent nature of the air flow. The grill fitted to the wind tunnel as shown in Fig. 1 (a)
is meant to protect the fan from mechanical damaged that may be occasioned by loose objects.
Once the air leaves the fan, it is channelled to a silencer unit and let out back to the atmosphere.
The NACA0012 aerofoil was used in this experiment. This aerofoil was fitted to the test section of the
wind tunnel. By varying the angle of attack and wind speeds, various characteristics of the aerofoil
were determined. The wind tunnel has a control and instrumentation unit complete with
manometers and other electrical equipment that measure pressure and wind velocities amongst
other important measurements. The various pressure tappings at the aerofoil section are shown in
Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Pressure tapings at the aerofoil test section

Experiment procedure
All measurements and readings at the control unit were reset back to zero. This was important so as
to avoid any readings from pervious experiments being used for the current experiment. A hand-
held data logger was used to determine ambient conditions of temperature and pressure. A PC was
used in data collection. The angle of attack (AoA) was set to 0 0 and the air velocity set to flow to the
test section at 10 m/s. 10 readings at intervals of 2 seconds were taken and recorded. the procedure
was repeated for 20 m/s and 30 m/s. the AoA was also varied from 0 0 to 160 at air velocities of 10
m/s, 20 m/s and 30 m/s. all results were recorded by the PC in table format.
Health and safety requirements

Appropriate protective gear was worn during the entire experiment. These included ear plugs to
protect against noise from the wind tunnel, laboratory coats and closed shoes. No eating, drinking,
smoking was allowed in the laboratory. No activities by students were allowed behind the wind
tunnel as any stray objects could easily get into the wind tunnel and damage the axial fan. No horse
play or practical jokes were allowed in the working area and during the actual experiment to ensure
accuracy of results. The experiment only commenced under the supervision of the lab instructor and
no student was allowed to tamper with the laboratory equipment.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the results obtained from the experiment carried out at 20 m/s and an angle of attack
of 8.10.
Table 1: Table of results for air velocity of 20 m/s and angle of attack of 8 0
Wall pressure upstream, PW = -0.2417 kPa -241.7 Pa
Angle of attack (AoA), α= 8.1 degrees
Ambient temperature, Ta = 17.2 °C 290.35 °K
Ambient pressure, Pa = 994.7 mbar 99.47 kPa
Air density = 1.193681 kg/m^3
Wind tunnel velocity = 20.118 m/s

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 3 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

 Distance Local
from Pressure Relative
Tapping Number leading x/c display, PT Static Cp
edge x (kPa) Pressure
(mm) (kPa)
START 0 0.000 0 0 0
1 0.76 0.005 -0.028 0.2137 0.88466
3 3.81 0.025 -0.042 0.1997 0.826704
5 11.43 0.076 -0.16 0.0817 0.338216
Upper surface

7 19.05 0.127 -0.2 0.0417 0.172627

9 38 0.253 -0.25 -0.0083 -0.03436
11 62 0.413 -0.28 -0.0383 -0.15855
13 80.77 0.538 -0.244 -0.0023 -0.00952
15 101.35 0.676 -0.28 -0.0383 -0.15855
17 121.92 0.813 -0.25 -0.0083 -0.03436
19 137.16 0.914 -0.28 -0.0383 -0.15855
END 150 1.000 0 0 0
START 0 0.000 0 0 0
2 1.52 0.010 -1.026 -0.7843 -3.24679
4 7.62 0.051 -0.792 -0.5503 -2.27809
6 15.24 0.102 -0.655 -0.4133 -1.71095
Lower surface

8 22.86 0.152 -0.59 -0.3483 -1.44187

10 41.15 0.274 -0.51 -0.2683 -1.11069
12 59.44 0.396 -0.41 -0.1683 -0.69672
14 77.73 0.518 -0.41 -0.1683 -0.69672
16 96.02 0.640 -0.38 -0.1383 -0.57252
18 114.3 0.762 -0.34 -0.0983 -0.40694
20 129.54 0.864 -0.31 -0.0683 -0.28274
END 150 1.000 0 0 0
From the results obtained, various graphs were also plotted to characterise the behaviour of air flow
over the upper and below the lower surface of the aerofoil. At various angles of attack and different
air velocities, air flow over the aerofoil behaves differently.

Graph of Cp vs x/c at α=80

2
1
0
-10.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200
Cp

-2
-3
-4
x/c

Upper surface Lower surface

Figure 3: Graph of pressure distribution at AoA of 80 and 20 m/s air velocity

Bernoulli found that fluids moving at a higher velocities exerted less lateral pressure compared to
those moving a lower velocities. In essence, he used the Bernoulli principle to determine how
objects generate lift. The use of an aerofoil in this experiment illustrates the Bernoulli principle. The
streamline shape of the aerofoil and its longer upper surface curvature enables air to flow past its
upper surface at a higher velocity which basically reduces air pressure there (Duprat and Stone,
2016). Due to the lower air velocity and higher air pressure at the lower aerofoil surface, a lift force
is created. Fig. 3 illustrates pressure distribution over the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil.
The figure shows that the air pressure below the aerofoil surface is higher than that at the bottom.
This difference in air pressure creates lift.

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 4 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

 Graph of Cp vs x/c at α=140
2
1
0

Cp
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200
-1
-2
-3
x/c

Upper surface Lower surface

Figure 4: Graph of pressure distribution at AoA of 140 and air velocity of 20 m/s

By increasing the angle of attack to 14 0, the behaviour of pressure distribution changes. From Fig. 4,
pressure below the surface of the aerofoil decreases and the lift force generated becomes less as a
result. Generally, as the angle of attack is increased, the aerofoil orients towards a parallel plane to
the flow of air. Consequently, lift created may continue to increase but at a slower rate as it
approaches the stall angle.

Graph of Cp vs x/c at α=150

1
0.5
0
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200
Cp

-0.5
-1
-1.5
x/c

Upper surface Lower surface

Figure 5: Graph of pressure distribution at AoA of 150 and air velocity of 20 m/s

Fig. 5 shows the behaviour of pressure distribution after the occurrence of stall. Here, no more lift is
generated and the maximum lift previously generated starts to actually drop. Pressure distribution
over the lower surface of the aerofoil decreases as the angle of attack increases.
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to explain the behaviour of air flow in an aerofoil. It can be used
together with the one-dimensional continuity equation to give the two equations below:
1
p1− p2= ρ ( V 1−V 1 ) … … … . i
2 2
2
And A1 V 1= A2 V 2 … … … .ii
Where:
p is pressure, ρ is the density and V is the velocity of the fluid. A is the area over which fluid flows.
Basically, Bernoulli’s equation is critical in providing an intuitive guide to the analysis of fluid flows. It
can be used in analysing one-, two- and three-dimensional fluid flows. Equation (i), for instance,
describes what happens when a fluids flows over a solid body. As the streamlines get closer, an
increase in the flow velocity reduces pressure. Aerofoils like NACA0012 are designed to have air
flowing over its top surface faster than its bottom surface. This phenomenon is governed by the
continuity equation given by equation (ii). With air flowing faster over its top surface, the average
pressure on this part of the aerofoil is less than the average pressure flowing over its bottom
surface. The resultant force is due to this pressure difference and it is the source of the lift force

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 5 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

experienced by the aerofoil. Lift can be defined as the force due to the motion of the aerofoil and
acts in a direction normal to the direction of this motion. Drag force, on the other hand, acts along
the direction of motion of the aerofoil and is similarly caused by the motion of the aerofoil (Abbott,
2012).

Graph of lift and drag coefficients vs AoA

Lift and drag coefficients
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Axis Title

Lift Coefficient Drag coefficient

Figure 6: Graph of lift and drag coefficients showing the location of the stall angle

The equations below were used to determine the values of lift and drag coefficients.
2 x Lift Force
Lift coefficient ,C L= 2
… … … (iii)
ρv S
2 x Drag Force
Drag coefficient ,C d = 2
… … … (iv)
ρv A
Where:
S is the surface area and A is the projected Area.
Table 2 shows the results of the computed drag and lift coefficients at various angles of attack.
Table 2: Table of computed results for lift and drag coefficients

AoA Lift Force Lift Coefficient Air Velocity AoA Drag Force Drag Coefficient
0.1 0.154 0.056565657 10 0.1 0.119 0.043709826
0.1 0.437 0.040128558 20 0.1 0.284 0.026078972
0.1 0.987 0.040281604 30 0.1 0.55 0.022446689
2.2 0.706 0.259320478 10 2.2 0.125 0.045913682
2.2 2.444 0.224426079 20 2.2 0.276 0.025344353
2.2 5.358 0.218671564 30 2.2 0.524 0.021385573
4.2 1.14 0.418732782 10 4.2 0.135 0.049586777
4.2 4.809 0.441597796 20 4.2 0.31 0.028466483
4.2 10.544 0.430323436 30 4.2 0.579 0.023630242
6.1 1.555 0.571166208 10 6.1 0.15 0.055096419
6.1 6.536 0.600183655 20 6.1 0.378 0.034710744
6.1 14.59 0.595449444 30 6.1 0.731 0.02983369
8.1 2.013 0.739393939 10 8.1 0.19 0.069788797
8.1 8.433 0.774380165 20 8.1 0.55 0.050505051
8.1 19.181 0.78281808 30 8.1 1.041 0.042485461
10.1 2.451 0.900275482 10 10.1 0.219 0.080440771
10.1 10.001 0.918365473 20 10.1 0.698 0.0640955
10.1 22.553 0.92043669 30 10.1 1.496 0.061054994
12.1 2.535 0.931129477 10 12.1 0.297 0.109090909
12.1 10.988 1.008999082 20 12.1 0.947 0.086960514
12.1 25.368 1.035322926 30 12.1 2.039 0.083215998
14.2 2.377 0.873094582 10 14.2 0.644 0.236547291
14.2 9.764 0.896602388 20 14.2 2.045 0.187786961
14.2 26.483 1.080828487 30 14.2 2.722 0.111090705
15.1 2.055 0.754820937 10 15.1 0.672 0.246831956

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 6 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

 15.1 8.933 0.820293848 20 15.1 2.717 0.249494949
15.1 22.545 0.920110193 30 15.1 5.94 0.242424242
15.9 2.124 0.780165289 10 15.9 0.752 0.276216713
15.9 8.551 0.785215794 20 15.9 2.924 0.268503214
15.9 20.898 0.852892562 30 15.9 6.497 0.265156617

When the angle of attack increases beyond a certain point, known as the critical angle of attack, the
lift force starts to decrease. This angle depends on the profile of the aerofoil, its aspect ratio
amongst other factors like the speed of the oncoming wind also called the relative wind. The critical
angle of attack, which is essentially the onset of stalling, can be determined by drawing a graph of lift
coefficient against the angle of attack. The point where maximum lift coefficient occurs is the point
where stalling occurs. The angle at this point is the known as the stall angle (Zhang and Schlüter,
2012).
Fig. 7 shows how the stall angle for various wind velocities was determined in this experiment.

Lift force vs AoA Drag force vs AoA

30 8
6

Drag force
20
Lift force

4
10
2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Angle of attack Angle of attack

10 m/s 20 m/s 30 m/s 10 m/s 20 m/s 30 m/s

Figure 7: Location of stall angles using (a) lift force and (b) drag force

From the figure above, stall angle at 10 m/s and 20 m/s is 12 0. For 30 m/s wind velocity, the stall
angle is 140. It can be observed that once stalling occurs, lift force decreases. The opposite is
observed with drag force. When the angle of attack reaches the stall angle, the drag force increases
sharply as illustrated in Fig. 7 (b).
The results obtained from this experiment can be compared to those obtained by Graham et al.
(1973). In their experiments, they used the same NACA0012 aerofoil as used in this experiment and
obtained a graph of lift coefficient against angle of attack similar to that illustrated in Fig. 7 (a). Fig. 8
shows the graph they obtained alongside the Reynolds’s numbers and points of laminar separation.

Figure 8: Graph of lift coefficient against angle of attack (Gregory et al., 1973)

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 7 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

Just like the graph obtained in this experiment (Fig. 7.a), Graham et al. (1973) found that at stall
angles occurred at various air velocities with the typical values ranging from 13 0 to 160. However,
they carried out their experiments at values of Reynolds’s number between 1.44 x 106 and
6
2.88 x 10 . In this experiment, the values of Reynolds’s number used were 101,453.3 at 10 m/s,
202,906.7 at 20 m/s and 304,360 at 30 m/s. Reynolds’s numbers can be used to describe the nature
of flow of a fluid and can tell whether that flow is laminar or turbulent. The equation below was used
to calculate the values of Reynolds’s numbers in this experiment:
ρvL
ℜ= … … …(ii) Where: ρ is the fluid density, v is its velocity while L is the length of the
μ

chord. Conclusion

Although the maximum lift is an important parameter, the lift-to-drag ratio ( C L /C D) is a better
measure of stall angle and aerodynamic efficiency of the aerofoil. At low Reynolds’s numbers, this
ratio is low and increases appreciably as the Reynolds’s number increases. An optimal Reynolds’s
number exists at maximum lift although it does not affect the lift-to-drag ratio above the optimal
value. The angle of attack has been shown to affect the flow of air past the NACA0012 aerofoil.
Increase in the angle of attack increases airflow, and so pressure distribution, below the lower
surface of the aerofoil. In effect, this creates the lift force. Beyond a critical angle of attack, known as
the stall angle, the maximum lift produced reduced. The stall angle was found to be 12 0 for air
velocities of 10 m/s and 20 m/s and 14 0 for air velocity of 30 m/s. The data and graphs obtained
from reference material showed that the range for stall angles for experiments carried out using the
same NACA0012 as used in this experiment was between 130 and 160. The graphs of lift coefficient
against the angle of attack in this experiment was similar to that found in the reference material.

Personal Reflections
What have you learnt about experimental testing?
Experimental testing depends on the use of data to prove a scientific or theoretical idea. By carrying
out experiments, engineers and scientists can test a hypothesis and prove certain theoretical aspects
of a concept. Through the experimental test carried out in this laboratory exercise, various
aerodynamic aspects of the aerofoil were tested. Such parameters as the stall angle, lift and drag
forces and the influence of angles of attack on the lift created were tested and the results compared
to previously published data.
To what degree have the learning objectives been achieved?
All the four objectives set out at the start of the experiment were met. The relationship between the
angle of attack and the corresponding drag and lift coefficients were established. The onset of
stalling was also determined in addition to the pressure distribution of air flow past the aerofoil.
What could be done to improve the learning experience?
The learning experience can be greatly improved by ensuring that each student performs a given
duty or task during an experimental test. This not only ensures the student grasps the basics of the
experiment but will also enable them to understand the role of experimental testing in enriching
theoretical knowledge. Video demonstrations may also greatly enhance the student’s understanding
of the experiment. Also, question and answer sessions should be encouraged before, during and
after the laboratory exercise.

References
Abbott, I. (2012). Theory of Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications.
Duprat, C. and Stone, H. (2016). Fluid-structure interactions in low-Reynolds-number flows.
Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 8 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)

Gregory. N, O'Reilly. C (1973) Low-speed aerodynamic characteristics of NACA 0012 Aerofoil section,
including the effects of upper-surface roughness simulating hoar frost, London: H.M.S.O
Zhang, X. and Schlüter, J. (2012). Numerical Study of the Influence of The Reynolds-Number on the
Lift Created by a Leading Edge Vortex. Physics of Fluids, 24(6), p.065102.

EGA324Technical Report for Assignment C1 9 Student number: XXXXXX (2017-18)