LABORATORY WORK

DMX 3401
Thermodynamics and Fluid
mechanics

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 DMX 3401
Thermodynamics and Fluid mechanics
Laboratory work

Introduction
Laboratory experiments are compulsory for the course Thermodynamics and fluid
mechanics, as for any other course in engineering. Laboratory experiments give the
student opportunity to verify certain engineering principles and elaborate on
engineering phenomena in the laboratory which provide the student a clear in-depth
understanding of the theoretical aspects.

Through laboratory work, the students are also expected to learn how the experiments
are planned, conducted with properly sequenced procedure giving attention to safety
of all concerned and that of the equipment used, record data, analyse and report
findings. The students should also learn how to handle equipment, tools and
instruments with care for intended purposes.

Experiments in most cases involve team work, and thus the students need to carry out
their parts of the work, while having a thorough understanding of what others are
expected to do.

In order to serve the purpose of conducting laboratory work related to the course, the
students who enter the laboratory should therefore;

1. Read the instructions given and listen to the advice given by the laboratory
staff, and follow them.

2. Not engage in unrelated discussions during the experiments and while

remaining in the Laboratory.

3. Not use mobile phones while experiments are conducted.

4. Not behave disturbing others in the laboratory.

5. Not play with equipment and tools in the laboratory.

6. Record data on a separate sheet which has to be signed by the relevant

instructor.

7. Produce and submit individually, a laboratory report for each experiment

according the format given.

Students please note that if you do not submit laboratory reports before the due date
you are likely to fail in obtaining the eligibility to sit for the final examination of the
course, in spite of good performance in other continuous assessment components.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Experiment No. 01 - Redwood Viscometer

Aim
To study the variation of viscosity of an oil with its temperature

Introduction
Lubricants are used mainly for two reasons:
1. To reduce the resistance to relative motion between two surfaces in contact under
pressure, and
2. To reduce wear of surface in contact under pressure and eliminate danger of seizure
as much as possible
There is a tendency for a fluid to resist the relative motion, between two surfaces. This
manifests itself as a shearing force and the degree of resistance is measurable in terms
of material property, viscosity.
The viscosity of oils changes temperature and tend to decrease with the increase of
temperature. Maintenance of a suitable viscosity under all operating conditions is
essential. Hence, the lubricant must have a variation of viscosity within the suitable
range of values for operating temperature range.

Apparatus
Redwood viscometer, Thermometers, stop-watch

Theory
It is known that as the temperature rises its resistance to flow (viscosity) is reduced
and hence the time taken to flow a certain amount of oil is also reduced. Therefore, if
is the time taken to collect 50cm3 of oil, the viscosity of the oil in Redwood seconds (T)
is given by the following equation.
𝑇 = 10𝜃
The viscosity in centipoise
𝐵
𝜇 = (𝐴𝑇 − ) 𝜌
𝑇
Where,
 = Time to collect 50 cm3 of oil
T = Viscosity in Redwood seconds
A and B = instrument constants
µ = viscosity of oil in centipoise
ρ = relative density of oil
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Procedure
Diagram of Redwood Viscometer

(1)Level the viscometer on the table.

(2) Pour the supplied sample of oil into the inner cylinder C, up to the level indicated
by the pointer.
(3) Pour water into the outer cylinder.
(4) Switch on electric heater to supply heat to the water.
(5) When the water temperature (T2) is slightly above the oil temperature (T1), measure
the time taken to collect 50cm3 of oil.
(6) Repeat the same for different oil temperatures.

Calculations:
Find the viscosity in Redwood seconds and centipoise using following data and draw
the graphs for both oils:
(1) Viscosity in redwood seconds vs. temperature
(2) Viscosity in centipoise vs. temperature
(3) Log Viscosity (in Redwood seconds) vs. log temperature

Data:
A = 0.026 B=0.4
Specific gravity of Coconut oil = 0.87
Specific gravity of Engine oil = 0.93
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Discussion
Discuss on the followings;
 Lubricants and their uses
 The use of log scale graphs
 SAE classification of lubricants.
 What is mean by Multigrade and Monograde oil
 Other important properties of oils used in IC engines
 Possible experimental errors related to this experiment
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Experiment No. 02 - Flash point of oils

Aim
To find out the flash point of given sample of the oil

Introduction
There are two important temperatures at which substances, especially volatiles ignite.
These are termed flash point and fire point.
The flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which a volatile liquid can
vaporize to form an ignitable mixture with air. Determining a liquid's flash point
requires an ignition source. At the flash point, the vapour may cease to burn when the
source of ignition is removed.

The fire point is a temperature slightly higher than the flash point, and is defined as
the temperature at which the vapor continues to burn after being ignited.

Theory
There is no specific theory associated with this experiment. The flash point is
determined and compare with the standard values.

Apparatus
PENSKY MARTIN Flash Point Tester complete with Thermometer, Gas connection,

and Sample of oil to be tested.

Procedure
1. Connect gas supply to the gas inlet of the flash point tester with regulator fully
closed.
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

2. Pour oil to be tested into the brass vessel up to the mark and place the cover
assembly on the vessel
3. Insert a thermometer probe in the pocket provided for it, ensuring that the probe
does not touch any metal parts or the oil.
4. Connect mains to the tester and switch the power on and adjust the thermostat
control to setting ‘5’ on the control knob.
5. Connect stirrer, switch it on and set it to low speed.
6. Open the gas and light ignition jets and adjust to give two small flames the size
of jasmine buds.
7. When the temperature has risen to 50oC, start testing for flash point by rotating
the knurled knob at the top of the upright column. This action opens the lid of
the vessel and applies the ignition flame to the interior of the vessel
simultaneously. The application of the flame should be approximately 3 seconds.
The flash can easily be seen and is accompanied by a short “plopping” noise.
Continue testing for the flash at each 5oC and tabulate observations.
8. Continue the procedure up to a temperature at which burning occurs.
9. Turn off heater, connect air compressor and test for flash while the oil is cooled
down and tabulate the results.

Discussion
Discuss on the followings;
 The importance of flash and fire points of oils
 Effect of flash point on lubricating oils
 Possible experimental errors in this experiment
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Experiment No 3: Metacentric height of floating bodies

Objective: To determine metacentre height for floating bodies.

Introduction:
The Stability of any vessel which is to float on water, such as a pontoon or ship, is of paramount
importance. The theory behind the ability of this vessel to remain upright must be clearly understood at
the design stage. Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically upward. Buoyant force is a force
that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid which results from different pressures on the
top and bottom of the object and acts through the centroid of the displaced volume.

Apparatus:
1. Flat bottomed pontoon (Figure 1).
2. Hydraulic bench.
Theory:
Consider a ship or pontoon floating as shown in figure 2. The centre of gravity of the body is at and
the centre of buoyancy is at “B”. For equilibrium, the weight of the floating body is equal to the

Weight of the liquid it displaces and the centre of gravity of the body and the centroid of the displaced
liquid are in the same vertical line. The centroid of the displaced liquid is called the

Figure 2; Illustrative figure of Figure 3: Centres of buoyancy of floating

Flat bottomed pontoon and submerged objects

"centre of buoyancy". Let the body now be heeled through an angle (Figure 6), will be the
position of the centre of buoyancy after heeling. A vertical line through will intersect the centre line
of the body at and this point is known as the metacentre of the body when an angle is
diminishingly small. The distance is known as the metacentric height. The force due to buoyancy
acts vertically up through and is equal to “W”. The weight of the body acts downwards through “G”

Stability of submerged
Stable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to equilibrium position.
If the centre of gravity is below the centre of buoyancy, a righting moment will produced and the body
will tend to return to its equilibrium position (Stable).
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Unstable equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position.

If the Centre of Gravity is above the centre of buoyancy, an overturning moment is produced and the
body is (unstable).

Note: As the body is totally submerged, the shape of displaced fluid is not altered when the body is
tilted and so the centre of buoyancy unchanged relative to the body.

Figure 4: Stability of submerged objects

Stability of floating objects:

Metacentre point : the point about which the body starts oscillating.
Metacentric height GM: is the distance between the centre of gravity of floating body and the
metacentre.

If lies above a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable and is regarded as positive.

If lies below an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium is unstable and is regarded as

negative.
If coincides with ”G”, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Procedures:
1. Assemble the pontoon by positioning the bridge piece and mast i.e. locate the mast in the hole
provided in the base of the vessel and clamp the bridge piece fixing screws into the locating holes
in the sides of the vessel.
The 'plumb-bob' is attached to the mounting dowel located on the mast and is allowed to swing
clear of and below the scale provided

2. Weigh the pontoon and determine the height of its centre of gravity up the line of the mast by
balancing the mast on a suitable knife edge support and measuring the distance from knife edge to
outside base of pontoon.
3. Fill the hydraulic bench measuring tank, or other suitable vessel, with water and float the pontoon
in it. Trim the balance of the pontoon by applying one of the small weights provided to the bridge
piece at the required position so that the vessel floats without any list, this condition being indicated
by the plumb-bob resting on the zero mark.
4. Move the vertical weight on the mast 600mm from pontoon top surface and place the horizontal
weight at zero position.
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5. Check whether plumb-bob resting on the zero mark. Then move the horizontal weight left and right
direction from the zero mark and take readings of angle.

Calculations:
Determination of Metacentric height
Practically
𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑃 × 𝑥 Mext
Take momentum around “M”
𝑤(𝐺𝑀)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑤(𝐺𝑀)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑃 × 𝑥
𝑃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ×𝑥
𝑤(𝐺𝑀)
𝑦 =𝑚×𝑥

Theoretically

Where = volume of displaced liquid

OG=86; for 60mm vertical distance from the top surface of pontoon.

Draw the graph between sin θ (y-axis) and offset distance (x-axis), then obtain GM practically. Also
calculate the GM theoretically.
Discussion:
1. Are there any difference between theoretical and practical values? Then discuss.
2. Important of metacentre height with suitable examples.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
DMX 3401 Laboratory work

Experiment No. 04 - Thermal Conductivity

Aim
To determine the thermal conductivity of materials of high & low thermal conductance

Apparatus
Thermal conductivity apparatus

Theory
Conduction heat flow through a body of constant cross sectional area is given by the Fourier
Equation.
𝑄 ∆𝑇
= 𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑡 𝐿
Where,
Q = heat flow in J
A = Cross sectional area in m2
∆T = Temperature difference in oC over length L
L = Length in m
t = Time in seconds during which heat of Q flows through the body.
K = Thermal conductivity

We can experimentally determine the heat passed through a body of uniform cross section
over a known time period. With the known temperatures, length and cross sectional area, we
could calculate the value thermal conductivity.
In this experiment heat is supplied through a hot water flow through one end. The temperature
difference between inlet and outlet streams gives the heat given off to the specimen.
𝑀
𝑄 = 𝐶(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝑡
Under steady conditions measured volume of water in a known time gives the heat flow rate
(Q).
𝑉𝜌
𝑄= 𝐶(𝑊2 − 𝑊-----------------
1)
(1)
𝑡
(Where V is the volume of water collected in m3 and  is the density of water = 1000 kg/m3).
According to the Fourier equation of heat conduction the heat conducted down the stainless steel
specimen.
𝐾1 𝐴(𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
𝑄= ------------------ (2)
𝐿1
Equation (1) = (2): Therefore,
𝑉𝜌 𝐾1 𝐴(𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
𝐶(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) =
𝑡 𝐿1
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

𝑉𝜌𝐶𝐿1 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝐾1 =
𝐴𝑡(𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
According to the Fourier equation of heat conduction, the heat conducted down the copper specimen is:
𝐾2 𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄=
𝐿2 ----------------- (3)
Equation (1) = (3): Therefore,
𝑉𝜌 𝐾2 𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐶(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) =
𝑡 𝐿2
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝐿2 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝐾2 =
𝐴𝑡(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Procedure
1. Assemble the apparatus with one short specimen (stainless steel specimen – low
conductivity material) in the lower position and one long specimen (copper specimen –
high conductivity material) in the upper position.
2. Apply a thin smear of heat contacting fluid at the ends of the specimens before assemble.
3. Insert the thermocouples into the holes provided in the sample and connect up the
potentiometer measuring instrument to the terminals provided on the front of the panel.
A small amount of contacting fluid should be used on each thermocouple.
4. Place the Dewar vessel in position over the specimens.
5. Fit the thermometers (T1 and T2) into the special leak proof connections provided on top
of the calorimeter base (left hand-water out, right hand-water in).
6. Connect the water pipes from the water supply to the header tank, header tank to the inlet
of the apparatus, the apparatus outlet connection to drain via the spring valve provided,
and the header tank over flow to drain.
7. Turn on the water supply. Adjust flow rate to the apparatus by means of the valve clip on
the outlet line, ensuring there is a sufficient water flow to the constant pressure tank to
provide a small but regular overflow and that there is a supply to the apparatus giving a
temperature difference of approximately 8oC between the two thermometers. Any air
blockages in the water lines to and from the apparatus can be cleared by progressively
squeezing such air from the tubes.
8. Check whether the supply voltage as indicated on the serial number plate label of the
apparatus is correct. Then connect the apparatus to a single phase AC supply point.
9. Switch on and check that the indicating lights above the main switch and the ammeter are
in on.
10. The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the current supplied to the
heater block, using control knob. Turn the knob fully clockwise so that the maximum
current is supplied to the heater until temperature T1 stabilizes at approximately at 80oC,
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DMX 3401 Laboratory work

and maintain this temperature until each of other three thermocouples read a constant
temperature.
11. Record the following in two minute intervals.
a. W1 – Water inlet temperature
b. W2 – Water outlet temperature
c. T1...T4 – Thermocouple temperatures
d. V – volume of water collected in a known time t (take t as 2min)
The following readings should be taken at two minute intervals over a period of ten minutes.

Calculations: find out thermal conductivity values for both copper and stainless steel specimen
using following data.

Data:
Diameter of both specimens = 25 mm
Lcu = 50 mm
Ls/s = 25 mm
Specific Heat Capacity of water =4200 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 𝐾

Discussion
Discuss on the followings;
 Importance of thermal conductivity
 Accuracy of experimental values of conductivity
 Experimental errors that could have significant effect on the measured values
 Methods to minimise such errors