Introduction

Language development in Early Childhood Development is a critical part of a child's overall

growth. During the ECD phase, children rapidly acquire language through listening, speaking

and interacting with their environment. The writer seeks to justify the developmental stages

which are pre-linguistic, first words, combining words, sentence construction, conversations

and social language stage. A child's development is supported by caregivers and educators

through everyday interactions, storytelling, songs, and exposure to different words and sounds

for example an infant watching television or a cell phone playing cartoons or animal sounds,

setting the stage for future literacy and academic success.The writer also seeks to justify the

factors that influence language development which are Environment, Genetics, social

interaction, cognitive ability, culture and disabilities.

Conceptual analysis

According to Owens (2015) language development refers to the process by which individuals

acquire and develop the ability to communicate using language, including the ability to

understand and produce spoken and written language. Moreover language development

according to Holf (2014) is the process by which children learn to communicate through

language.Therefore language development is the process by which children learn to

communicate effectively by speaking words or gestures. According to Janet (2014) Early

Childhood Development is the time from conception to the age of eight where children

develop foundational skills, abilities and values that shape their future.Patricia (2011)

highlights ECD as the period where infants are exceptionally sensitive to language acquisition,
this is when children's brains are uniquely wired to absorb and process language through social

interaction, underscoring the importance of communication and interaction during this phase.

Thus making early childhood development the process of growth, development and learning

that occurs from birth to the age of 8 years.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Nativists

1. Eric Lenneberg

One of Lenneberg's key points is the Critical Period Hypothesis, which suggests that there is a

specific window from early childhood until around puberty when language acquisition occurs

most effectively. During this period, typically from birth to around 8 years of age, children's

brains are particularly receptive to linguistic input. Lenneberg argued that after this critical

period, the ability to acquire language diminishes significantly, indicating that language learning

is biologically constrained. Lenneberg also highlighted the concept of innateness in language

development. He posited that children are born with an inherent capacity for language,

supported by the idea that certain cognitive structures necessary for language acquisition are

hardwired into the brain. Another important aspect of Lenneberg's theory is the role of

biological maturation. He asserted that language development is closely tied to neurological

and anatomical changes that occur in early childhood. For example, as the brain develops,

specific areas become specialized for language processing, facilitating the rapid acquisition of

linguistic skills during these formative years. Lenneberg also noted the universality of language,

observing that all human languages share common features, which supports the idea of a
universal grammar. This notion suggests that regardless of the linguistic environment, children

have an innate understanding of grammatical structures that guide their language learning. This

innate knowledge allows them to construct and understand complex sentences, often

surpassing the linguistic input they receive from their surroundings.

2. STEVEN PINKER

Steven Pinker is a leading advocate of nativist theories regarding language development,

particularly in children aged 0 to 8 years. His work emphasizes the idea that the capacity for

language is an innate human trait, fundamentally rooted in our biology. One of Pinker’s key

contributions is the concept of the Language Instinct, which he elaborates on in his book of the

same name. He argues that humans are born with a specialized faculty for language, suggesting

that the ability to acquire language is a natural instinct rather than a learned behavior. This

aligns with nativist perspectives that view language acquisition as an inherent capability of the

human brain, distinct from other forms of learning. Pinker supports his argument by

highlighting the phenomenon of poverty of the stimulus. He points out that the linguistic input

children receive is often insufficient to explain the complexity of the grammatical structures

they ultimately acquire. For example, children are exposed to incomplete sentences and

irregular forms, yet they manage to construct complex grammatical sentences. This suggests

that children possess innate grammatical rules that enable them to infer and generate

language, reinforcing the idea that language development is not solely dependent on

environmental exposure.

BEHAVIOURISTS
1. IVAN PAVLOV

One of the key points of Pavlov’s work is the concept of classical conditioning, which describes

how a natural reflex can be elicited by a previously neutral stimulus after it has been paired

with an unconditioned stimulus. In the context of language development, this principle can be

seen in how children learn to associate sounds with meanings through repeated exposure. For

instance, when a caregiver consistently uses a word while performing an action for example

saying "milk" when giving a child milk, the child learns to associate the sound of the word with

the object or action, illustrating the conditioning process. Pavlov’s ideas can also extend to

reinforcement and association, which are crucial in language learning. Children are likely to

repeat words and phrases that receive positive reinforcement from their caregivers, such as

praise or attention. This aligns with the behaviorist view that learning is a result of interaction

with the environment, where language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement of

verbal behaviors. Thus, when a child says a word correctly and receives encouragement, they

are more likely to use that word again, gradually expanding their vocabulary. Another

important concept related to Pavlov’s work is environmental stimuli. According to his theory,

children learn to respond to various stimuli in their environment. During the early years,

children are bombarded with linguistic input from parents, caregivers, and their surroundings.

Through exposure to language in different context such as songs, stories, conversations,

children begin to internalize and mimic the sounds and structures they hear, facilitating their

language development.

2. B. F. Skinner
One of Skinner's key concepts is operant conditioning, which suggests that behavior is shaped

and maintained by its consequences. In the context of language development, children learn to

use language through a system of rewards and punishments. For example, when a child utters a

word or phrase correctly and receives positive reinforcement—such as praise, attention, or a

desired object—they are more likely to repeat that behavior. This reinforcement strengthens

the association between the word and its meaning, facilitating vocabulary expansion and

language use. Skinner argued that language acquisition is a learned behavior rather than an

innate ability. He believed that children learn language through imitation and practice. When

caregivers model language, children observe and mimic these verbal behaviors, gradually

internalizing the sounds and structures they hear. This process underscores the importance of

social interaction and environmental input in language learning. Skinner emphasized that the

frequency and quality of verbal interactions with caregivers significantly impact a child's

linguistic development. Another critical aspect of Skinner’s theory is the role of shaping. This

concept refers to the gradual reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired

behavior. In language development, caregivers can encourage a child's language skills by

rewarding progressively more complex language use. For instance, if a child starts by saying a

single word, a caregiver might initially praise that utterance, then shift to rewarding two-word

phrases, and so on. This systematic reinforcement helps guide children towards more

sophisticated language abilities over time. Skinner also acknowledged the importance of

routine and repetition in language learning. Regular exposure to language through storytelling,

songs, and conversations provides children with opportunities to practice and refine their
linguistic skills. This consistent interaction fosters familiarity with language structures and

vocabulary, facilitating more advanced language use as children grow.

3. J. B. Watson

One of Watson's key contributions is his emphasis on environmental factors in shaping

behavior. He argued that children learn language through interactions with their surroundings

and through the responses of caregivers and peers. According to Watson, language

development occurs as children are exposed to linguistic input and receive feedback from their

environment. For instance, when a caregiver speaks to a child and reinforces verbal attempts

with praise or attention, the child is encouraged to continue using language. This process

highlights the role of reinforcement in fostering language skills. Watson believed that language

acquisition is closely tied to the principles of classical conditioning. He suggested that children

learn to associate specific sounds or words with meanings through repeated exposure. For

example, if a child hears the word "bottle" consistently in the context of being given a bottle,

they will begin to associate that word with the object. This associative learning is fundamental

in helping children build their vocabulary and understanding of language. Another important

aspect of Watson's theory is the role of imitation in language development. He posited that

children learn by observing and mimicking the speech patterns and behaviors of those around

them. Through imitation, children acquire new words and phrases, gradually expanding their

linguistic repertoire. This process underscores the significance of social interaction in language

learning, as children often learn language in a communal context, engaging with caregivers,

siblings, and peers. Watson also introduced the idea of habit formation in learning. He argued
that through repetition and reinforcement, children develop habits of speech and language use.

This perspective suggests that consistent exposure to language and regular practice can lead to

the internalization of linguistic structures and vocabulary, promoting fluency as children grow.

INTERACTIONIST

1. Lev Vygotsky

One of Vygotsky's key concepts is the idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). This

refers to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what they can

achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other, such as a parent or teacher. Vygotsky

argued that language development occurs most effectively within this zone, where children are

challenged just beyond their current abilities but supported by interactions that facilitate

learning. Through social interactions, children are introduced to new vocabulary, grammatical

structures, and concepts, which they gradually internalize and use independently. Another

significant point in Vygotsky's theory is the role of social interaction in language development.

He posited that language is primarily a social tool, used for communication and cultural

transmission. Children learn language through interactions with caregivers and peers, who

model language use and provide feedback. Vygotsky emphasized that language is not merely a

cognitive skill but a social practice, deeply embedded in the cultural context in which a child

grows. This perspective underscores the importance of engaging children in conversations,

storytelling, and collaborative activities that enhance their linguistic abilities. Vygotsky also

introduced the concept of private speech, which refers to the self-directed talk that children

use to guide their own thinking and problem-solving. During the early years, children often
verbalize their thoughts aloud, which serves as a critical tool for cognitive development. This

private speech reflects a child’s inner dialogue and helps them process information, plan

actions, and regulate their behavior. As children grow, this private speech becomes

internalized, transforming into silent inner speech that continues to support cognitive

functions, including language processing.

2. J. Brunner

One of Bruner’s central concepts is the idea of the language acquisition support system (LASS).

He proposed that children do not acquire language in isolation; instead, they depend on

interaction with caregivers and the surrounding environment. This support system includes

various strategies that adults use to facilitate language learning, such as simplifying language,

using repetitive structures, and engaging in joint attention. For example, when a parent

describes objects while pointing them out, they provide contextual cues that help children

make connections between words and their meanings. Bruner also emphasized the importance

of scaffolding in language development. This refers to the support and guidance provided by

more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, or peers, which helps children perform

tasks that they cannot accomplish independently. Scaffolding involves adjusting the level of

support based on the child’s current abilities, gradually decreasing assistance as the child

becomes more competent. For instance, during storytelling, a caregiver might prompt a child

with questions or cues, encouraging them to participate and expand their narrative skills.

Another key aspect of Bruner’s theory is the role of narrative in learning. He argued that

storytelling is a fundamental way through which children organize their experiences and make
sense of the world. Through narratives, children learn not only vocabulary and grammar but

also the structure of language and the conventions of communication. Bruner believed that

engaging children in storytelling activities fosters their linguistic development, helping them to

articulate thoughts and emotions more effectively. Bruner identified the importance of play in

language development. He believed that play is a crucial context in which children experiment

with language, test out new words and phrases, and engage in role-playing scenarios. Through

play, children can practice language in a low-pressure setting, allowing for exploration and

creativity in their verbal expressions.

COGNITIVIST

1. JEAN PIAGET

One of the foundational concepts in Piaget’s theory is the idea of stages of cognitive

development. He proposed that children progress through four distinct stages. During the

sensorimotor stage, infants begin to understand the world through their senses and actions,

which lays the groundwork for language development. As they engage with their environment,

they begin to associate sounds with objects and actions, setting the stage for verbal

communication. In the preoperational stage, which spans from ages 2 to 7, children develop

symbolic thinking, enabling them to use words, images, and symbols to represent objects and

experiences. This stage is crucial for language development, as children begin to form

sentences and engage in imaginative play. Piaget noted that during this period, children often

exhibit egocentric thinking, meaning they view the world primarily from their own perspective.

This egocentrism can affect their communication, as they may struggle to understand others'
viewpoints or intentions. Piaget also emphasized the role of cognitive structures in language

acquisition. He believed that children develop mental frameworks, or schemas, that help them

organize knowledge and experiences. As they encounter new information, they either

assimilate it into existing schemas or accommodate their schemas to incorporate the new

information. For instance, when a child learns a new word, they may fit it into their existing

understanding of language or adjust their understanding based on the context in which the

word is used. Piaget also recognized the significance of social interaction in language

development. While he emphasized the individual cognitive processes, he acknowledged that

communication with peers and caregivers plays a vital role in facilitating language learning.

Through interactions, children practice language, receive feedback, and refine their

understanding of words and structures.

2. Bandura

One of Bandura's central concepts is observational learning, which posits that children learn by

watching and imitating others. From a very young age, children listen to adults and older peers,

mimicking the sounds, words, and phrases they hear. This process is essential in language

acquisition, as children often rely on the linguistic models provided by caregivers and their

social contexts. For instance, when a child hears a parent label an object, they are likely to

imitate the word, thereby reinforcing their vocabulary. Bandura introduced the idea of the

social cognitive theory, which integrates cognitive processes with social learning. He argued

that children do not simply imitate behaviors; they also observe the consequences of those

behaviors. For example, if a child uses a new word correctly and receives praise, they are more
likely to use that word again in the future. This feedback loop emphasizes the importance of

social interactions in promoting language skills, as children learn not only through imitation but

also by understanding the social dynamics involved in communication. Another important

aspect of Bandura's theory is the role of modeling. Children are influenced by the behaviors of

significant adults in their lives, such as parents, teachers, and peers. These models provide a

framework for language use, including vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Bandura

suggested that effective modeling involves not only demonstrating language use but also

providing context and reinforcement, which helps children understand how to apply language

in various situations. For example, when adults engage children in conversations, they model

turn-taking, questioning, and elaboration, all of which are crucial for developing conversational

skills. Bandura also highlighted the significance of self-efficacy in language learning. He believed

that children's confidence in their ability to use language impacts their willingness to engage in

communication. When children receive positive reinforcement and encouragement, they

develop a sense of competence, which boosts their motivation to experiment with language.

Conversely, negative feedback or criticism can inhibit a child's willingness to speak or use new

vocabulary, leading to anxiety about their language abilities.

STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES

Pre-linguistic phase ( before the actual - At birth the the baby utters the first sound "

production of words birth cry"

- The cry is an important part because it opens

- Is from 0 to 6 months vocals preparing for speech work.

- it is followed by vocal sounds expressing

discomforts due to hunger, excitement, wet

nappies, pain

- At this stage starts cooing, producing sounds

that are noisy or shrilling and these sounds are

like vowel like

-These are the sound a child makes initially

and these sounds are vowels like and

consonants are largely absent.

- We can only say a child has acquired speech

when it can associate words with objects and

also when the child is able to pronounce

words correctly so that they are readily

understood by those people around.

- The baby coos, gurgles squeals, and

soliloquizes. The first sounds are characterized

by consonants e.g. mm nnnn bbbb etc

Bubbling ( from 6 to 9 months) - The child babbles, it picks the initial language

skills and repeats certain sounds, the babbling

 is the sounds are repeated deliberately to

certain people NB: deaf children also babble,

babble talk is characterized by syllables e.g.

“bha”, “ma” “ta” “kaka”.

- The baby develops the will and the desire to

master language and and has a vague

awareness of language.

- The child establishes “passive” vocabularies

understands them but does not use them until

full development of speech.

-The child starts with smallest words with one

or two morphemes e.g. “mama” “papa”

“kaka” etc (boy, girl cat ball).

First word holophrastic phase ( one word Babbling decreases gradually and the child

utterance) picks 3-50 words in its vocabulary.

- It is from 9-18 months -It is the vocabulary building stage.

- The child uses verbs and nouns usually

followed by actions e.g. “go/ enda ” followed

 by a push.

- The child’s one word utterances stand for full

sentences e.g. “bhoya” may mean, where is

the ball?, give me a ball, lets play with a ball

etc.

Two word phase ( connective word) -The child is able to connect two words to

form meaningful sentences.

--From 18 months to 2 years

-Vocabulary increases to needs of the child

e.g. hunger, thirsty, anger, etc.

- One word utterances are dropped and the

child can now use 3-4 word sentences e.g.

“mama kaka’ The child refers to

herself/himself as “nhanha” (egocentric

speech dominates at this stage).

-The child gets frustrated if not understood

and develops an interest in language learning,

the child does not pause between the words

when speaking.

Telegraphic / infinitive phase Just as the telegram writer delivers the least

information using few words, the child does

- from 2 to 4 years the same at this stage, certain words are

systematically eliminated – utterances contain

important words and these are continuously

repeated.

-The child uses words that are mostly nouns

and verbs, non- action verbs, prepositions etc.

-The child shows mastery of language and is

happy always.

The recursive phase -As the child’s language grows, the structural

and functional words are added e.g. tenses

- From 5 to 8 years
number, plurals, suffixes, etc.

-The child can now be involved in continuous

discussions hence the word cursive.

-There are no more language breakdowns. The

child is now able to manipulate language to

meet his or her needs.

- By the time the child is 6years he/she will

have internalized the sound and grammar

patterns of his/her mother tongue.

Implications

As parents, teachers, caregivers, or guardians, there are various ways we can help children in

their language development journey.This includes reading to children regularly, engaging in

conversations, and providing opportunities for them to express themselves verbally. In

addition, introducing children to a variety of vocabulary through books, songs, and games can

help expand their language skills.Another important aspect of language development is actively

listening to children. By showing genuine interest in what children have to say and responding

thoughtfully, we can encourage them to communicate more effectively. It is also important to

provide positive reinforcement and praise for their efforts in learning and using language.

Creating a supportive and encouraging atmosphere can greatly benefit children's language

development. By providing a safe space for children to practice speaking and experimenting

with words, they can build confidence in their language skills.Enhancing children's ability to

think children learn to express themselves verbally.

REFERENCES

Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: William

Morrow

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the

Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford University Press.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Watson, J. B. (1920). Behaviorism. New York: Norton.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

Piaget, J. (1970). The Child's Conception of Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.