Lecture 5: HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

5.0 Introduction
Thermodynamic variables describing the state of the air usually change more rapidly in the
vertical than in the horizontal. We therefore need to learn the vertical changes that are involved.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Explain and derive a hydrostatic balance
2. Discuss Alimetry and height computations of upper air soundings
3. Discuss the Geopotential and
4. Show how the reduction of pressure to sea level
5. Discuss the Hydrostatics of special atmospheres

5.1 Hydrostatic balance

If one moves upward from sea level, the amount of air remaining above decreases and the
pressure must also decrease. This is why we experience pressure sensations in the ears when
ascending or descending in an elevator or airplane.

We now consider a force of gravity g acting on a body of mass m.

By Newton’s laws the body should continue falling. However, observation indicates that there is
resistance to this free fall. This means that there must be another force that is acting upwards to
counterbalance g

P-∆P Z+∆Z
∆P ∆Z
P
Figure 5.1: A small atmospheric layer of thickness ∆Z

If we consider layer of thickness ∆Z as shown above, where Z is the vertical distance. Tthe
change in pressure ∆P with height is given by ∆P/∆Z; and in the limiting process as ∆Z becomes
dP
very small, , (which governs the sensation felt when landing or taking off on board an
dz
aircraft).

We can derive the force associated with this pressure gradient from the first principles:
 dP F
Now P = F → =
A dz V
Multiplying by the specific volume, α we get
dP
α =, the pressure owing to the decrease of height or pressure gradient force.
dz

This is the force that counterbalances the gravitational force g

dP
Hence → α = −g
dz

dP 1
or = − ρ g ; α = …………………………………………………(5.1)
dz ρ
Equation 5.1 is the hydrostatic balance equation

We have seen that the hydrostatic force is balanced by the gravitational force, g according to
equation 5.1.
But g varies from one level to another. Therefore, we define dφ = gdz as change in geopotential
between two levels. If we integrate with limits, z, φ, and z = 0, φ = 0, we get

From dφ = −α dp

z
φ =  gdz ……………………………………………………………………….(5.2)
0

Therefore, geopotential φ at any point in the atmosphere is defined as the work that must be done
against the earth’s gravitation field in order to raise a mass of 1 kg from sea level to that point.

z
Thus φ ( z ) =  gdz , is geopotential at height z……………………………….(5.3)
0

φ ( z) 1 z
If we now define Z=
go
=
go 
o
gdz ………………………………….(5.4)

Where go is the globally averaged acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface (taken as 9.8
m/s2); then Z is known as the Geopotential Height.

5.2 Height computations for Upper air soundings

In order to improve on our forecasting, one requires detailed data on the distribution of pressure,
temperature and humidity in the upper atmosphere. Such data are often attained from radiosonde
(an instrument which measures pressure, temp. and humidity and transmits radio signals to a
ground station). The soundings are taken at least twice daily.
  The usefulness of the data is to help determine the elevation at which the various data are
observed.

 To do this, one starts from the hydrostatic equation involving geopotential height..

dΨ = −dp ……………………………………………………………….. (5.5)

dΨ , dp are small difference in geopotential and pressure respectively – two points in a vertical
column.

Using equation of state for moist air

dP
dΨ = − RT * ………….……………………………………………. (5.6)
P

R, T* are gas constants for dry air and virtual temperature respectively.

 If we integrate - geopotential levels ψ1 and ψ2 with corresponding pressures P1 and P2

we get

P2
dP
Ψ2 − Ψ1 = − R  T * ………………………………………………………. (5.7)
P1
P

InP2

Or Ψ2 − Ψ1 = − R 
InP1
T * d ( InP) ……………………………………………(5.8)

 But the radiosonde measures temperature, pressure and moisture content thus a curve of
T* vs pressure a long the vertical can be obtained. (The integral can therefore be
obtained graphically).

 This integral is proportional to the area – P1 and P2 to the left of the virtual temperature
curve.

 A mean, T * can also be found which will have the same area to its left as the observed
temperature curve. If this isolation ( T * ) is selected, equation (5.8) reduces to:

P2
Ψ2 − Ψ1 = − R T * In ………….. …………………………………..(5.9)
P1
 InP

P2

P3

T* →
Figure 5.2: Determination of mean vertical temperature of a layer on an emagram

The choice of accurate T * is made using the method of equal areas. Equation (5.9) can then be
used to calculate the difference in geopotential between two known pressures.

The units of ψ is specific energy.

To obtain the result in geopotential meters, R is expressed in meters, seconds, and degrees Kelvin
and divide by 9.8 i.e.

R T * P2
Ψ2 − Ψ1 = − In …………………………………………….. (5.10)
9.8 P1

287.04 * P2
Or Ψ2 − Ψ1 = − T In …………………………………………
9.8 P1
ψ represents the potential measured in geopotential meters.

ACTIVITY 1

Calculate the thickness in geopotentital feet of the layer from 800 to 700 mb if the mean
temperature of the layer is -3°C and the average mixing ratio of the layer is 3g/kg.
Solution
We make use of equations 5.8 through to 5.10 ;
 1+ ω 
T* =T  ε  In(0.875) = x e x = 0.875
 1+ ω 
 

 3 
1+ 
T = −3
*  0 . 622  = −4.367 o C
 1+ 3 
 
 

T* = 268.633 k

−287.04  700   700 

→ φ2 − φ1 = × 268.633 In   In   − 0.1335314
9.8  800   800 
→ φ2 − φ1 = 1050.6525M
Geopotential Thickness
1050.6525
= = 3447.02 gft
0.3048
*gft (geopotential feet).

5.2.1 Altimetry
- Refers to determination of elevation of some point above sea level.

- Normally done using surveyors’ instruments (e.g. elevations given in geopotential atlases).

- Sometimes the use of pressure altimetry is preferred i.e. measuring atomospheric pressure at a
point and determining the elevation of that pressure in a standard atmosphere is determined.

5.2.2 Reduction of pressure to sea level

Because the various land observing stations are located at widely varying altitude above sea
level, we need to correct all the observed station pressures to a common fixed elevations.

The horizontal variations of pressure are of great importance in determining the future progress
of the weather (normally the horizontal variations are small compared to vertical variations).

The reduction follows from equation (5.9) i.e.

Ψ2 − Ψ1
P1 = P2 e ……………………………………………………………(5.11)
RT *

where P1 is pressure at the bottom of a layer

The sea level pressure (P1) at the bottom of the column depends only upon the measured station
pressure P2, the known geopotential difference between sea level and the station barometer and
the mean virtual temperature of the column of air.

ACTIVITY 2
Suppose the absolute temperature decreases exponentially with height according to the
z
−
formula, T = To e H

where To = 273°C is the temperature at z = 0 and H is the height of the homogenous

atmosphere for To .
z

i) Show that: P = Po e(1−e ) , where Po is the pressure at z = 0.

H

ii) Find the height in km at which the lapse rate of temperature becomes equal to the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.

5.2 Hydrostatics of special atmospheres

It is important to investigate the effect of the hydrostatic equation for certain special atmospheric
cases. Four such special cases are considered in this section.

5.2.1 Homogenous Atmosphere; ρ is constant

If we divide the atmosphere into layers of equal geometric thickness, eah layer will have the
same weight per unit area, so that each layer will contribute equally to the total pressue at the
bottom. Since the surface pressure cannot be infinite these must be only infinite number of such
layers i.e. the homogenous atmosphere has only a finite total height, H (where the pressure is
zero).

The lapse rate, which is very large is unstable i.e. the atmosphere will overturn as convection sets
in. The concept is only useful theoretically.

We assume that the density ρ remains constant within this atmosphere.

dP P =0 z =1
Then = − ρ g →  dP −  ρ gdz (P0=pressure at sea level where height z=0)
dz P = Po z =0

Po= ρgH, where H is the height of homogenous atmosphere or scale height from z0 to z.

RT0 RTo
But g is assumed to be constant → Po= ρRTo → ρ = →H =
Po g

This means that the height of homogenous atmosphere is a function of the temperature at the
bottom T0 and known constants. Where To = 273 k
H has been found to be 8 km

From equation of state, P = ρRT , when P is decreasing T must also decrease.

dP dT
Differentiating equation of state,  =ρR but from the hydrostatic balance equation,
dz dz
dT dT −g
−ρ g=ρ R  =− = −34.1o C / km …………………………(5.12)
dz dz R

This value of temperature lapse rate is not realistic the layer is too small to accommodate this
temperature change.

5.2.2 Isothermal atmosphere

Pressure decreases exponentially with height. As a result, there is no definite upper boundary to
this atmosphere; it thins out gradually with elevation and the pressure goes to zero only at z = ∞.
The height of the corresponding atmosphere appears as a parameter.

In this case, temperature is assumed to be uniform throughout the atmosphere

From the hydrostatic balance,
dP − Pg
= −ρ g → d ρ = dz
dz RT

dP − g dz
z
Po

Po P
=
RT z =0

We obtain, after intergrating and rearranging

− gz
P − gz RT
In = ; P = Po e RT ; but = H …………………………………………(5.13)
Po RT g

Therefore in this atmosphere, pressure decreases exponentially in accordance with the expression
−z
dT
P = Po e H while the lapse rate, = 0 → T = constant……(5.14)
dz

5.2.3 Constant Lapse Rate Atmosphere

In this atmosphere, T varies linearly with height according to the following expression:

dT
T = To − γ z ; where = −γ …………………………………………(5.15)
dz
Using the the hydrostatic balance equation and substituting for T with expression 5.15, we
obtain:
− Pg
z P
Pgdz Pgdz
 −
R(To − γ z ) Po
dP = dz = = dP ……………………….(5.16)
RT R(To − γ z ) zo
 P + g (To − γ z )
In = In
Po R γ To
After integration and rearrangement, we obtain:

+g
(T − γ z ) T  Rγ
P = Po o = Po  
To  To 

+g
Rγ
T  dT
P = Po   and = −γ ………………………………………(5.17)
 To  dz

We now consider three possible scenarios with expression 5.17:

(i) When T decreases with height, P also decreases

(ii) When T increases with height, P will decrease

(iii) When is T constant, → γ = 0 (we don’t consider this since P→∞)

5.2.4 Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate Atmosphere

In this atmosphere, potential temperature is independent of height. This being the case, we
consider Poison’s equation.

k
T  P  R
=  where k = ………………………………………………(5.18)
θ  1000  Cp

I dT k dP dP
Differentiating 5.18: = and substituting for and k (hydrostatic balance), we get
T dz P dz dz

dT − g Rρ T dT − g
= • → = = Γ d ………………………………………………(5.19)
dz C p P dz C p

Γd = 9.76°C/km, the dry adiabatic lapse rate

5.2.5 Standard Atmosphere

The U.S. Weather Bureau at the request of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA) computed the properties of an average characteristics atmosphere up to considerable
heights. It is meant to represent the normal conditions over the US at 40° N and is called the
US or NACA Standard Atmosphere.
The following are the basic specifications of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 32km.
 1. The surface temperature is +15°C and the surface pressure is 1013.250mb
2. The air is assumed to be dry and to obey the ideal gas law
3. The acceleration of gravity is assumed to be constant and equal to 980.665cm-2
4. From sea level to 10.769km, the temperature in the troposphere decreases at the
constant rate 6.50°Ckm-1.
5. From 10.769km to 32km, the temperature in the stratoshre is constant at -55.0°C
This atmosphere is therefore made up of constant lapse rate atmosphere(0 to 10.679 km) and
isothermal atmosphere (10.769km to 32km).
The pressure at any level can be computed from equation 5.14 and 5.17.
A version of the standard Atmosphere used by many countries use gravity of 980.62cms-2
and an isothermal layer which begins at exactly 11km with a temperature of -56.5°C.

ACTIVITY 3
1. Derive the hydrostatic balance equation
2. In what way does the assumption made in homogeneous unrealistic?
3. Explain the reduction of pressure to sea level

Self-assessment/ Revision questions

In which way does moist adiabatic lapse rate differ from adiabatic lapse rate?

Summary
In this lecture, we learnt that thermodynamic variables describing the state of the air usually change
more rapidly in the vertical than in the horizontal. We therefore need to learn the vertical
changes that are involved.
It was also noted that as one moves upward from sea level, the amount of air remaining above
decreases and the pressure must also decrease. This is why we experience pressure sensations in
the ears when ascending or descending in an elevator or airplane. It is this sensation is governed
by the hydrostatic equation, the basis of many vertical computations such as height computations
of upper-air soundings, altimetry, reduction of pressure to sea level. It is also the basis of
derivation of vertical temperature and pressure characteristics in special atmospheres.

REQUIRED READING
1. Hess, S .L., (1959): Introduction to theoretical Meteorology. FSU, Tallahassee, Florida State.
McIntosh, D.H. and A.S. Thom (1972): Essentials of Meteorology. The Wykeham Science series