CASA Instrument Rating

(IREX) –
Ground Based Navigation Systems
(GBNS)
Lesson 01 – NDB and ADF
 INTRODUCTION
Introduction

Introduction References
• Scope; • FTA IREX Text Chapter 4,
• Principles of operation, • ATC IREX Text Chapter 4,
• NDB limitations and errors,
• CASA NDB Notes.
• ADF intercepts and tracking,
• The 2-D NDB Approach.
OBJECTIVES
 OBJECTIVES

• Demonstrate an understanding of the principles of operation and

limitations of the Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) and Automatic
Direction Finder (ADF),
• Extract from operational documentation the rated coverage of NDB’s,
• Explain the errors associated with the NDB’s,
• Given heading and relative bearings to NDB’s;
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation
•The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
is a radio navigation beacon
broadcasting on the low to medium
frequency band between 200 and
400kHz,
•Transmission power with vary from
beacon to beacon and can be
between 100w to 3kW, giving signal
ranges of 30 to 500nm,
•Civilian AM Radio Stations can also
broadcast in this band and be
picked-up by the aircraft equipment
as well.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation
•The NDB radiates both a Ground
Wave and a Sky Wave,
•It is the Ground Wave that we
use to navigate by and the aircraft
equipment is designed for this,
•The Sky Wave can cause
interference in the aircraft
equipment.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Mountain / Terrain effect;
• Ground wave can be reflected by high
terrain,
• The receiver then receives the signal
from different directions,
• This causes the needle of the
instrument to oscillate between the
various signals (ie giving different
bearing indications).
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Co-Channel Inference;
• Caused by transmitters in the vicinity
transmitting on the same or adjacent
frequencies,
• Mitigated by allocating different
beacons in the same area well
separated frequencies,
• At night sky waves can travel a lot
further than the ground waves from
the same NDB and this may generate
interference from other NDB’s
operating on the same (or a similar)
frequency some distance away.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Night Effect;
• The NDB signal may have a more limited
usable range at night due to the higher
possibility of reflected sky waves,
• During the day the sky wave signals are
attenuated (absorbed) by the ‘D’ layer of
the ionosphere,
• At night when solar radiation stops, the
‘D’ Layer of the ionosphere is de-ionised
and disappears so the signal reaches the
higher layers (eg the ‘E’ Layer) where it
can be reflected back to Earth.
• This means that some NDB ranges (‘Rated
Coverage’) are reduced at night.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Thunderstorm interference;
• Electrically active thunderstorms
generate electromagnetic energy (and
hence radiate signals) across a wide
frequency band,
• This band can include the frequencies
that NDB’s transmit on,
• When flying near an active
thunderstorm the aircraft receiver can
pick up these signals causing the
needle on the instrument to point to
the thunderstorm or oscillate
between the beacon and the
thunderstorm.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Quadrantal Error;
• As the signals arrive at the aircraft
structure they are reflected in
different directions and mix with the
direct line signals being received,
• This results in false bearing
indications,
• The errors are least along the
longitudinal and lateral axis of the
aircraft and greatest in between (ie
‘The Quadrants’).
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Costal effects – Range;
• The signal will be attenuated by the
surface it is travelling over,
• Different surfaces will attenuate the
signal at different rates,
• Land will rapidly attenuate the signal,
whereas water will not,
• This is why NDB’s have a greater
range (rated coverage) over water
than over land.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Principles of Operation – Limitations

•Coastal Effects – Refraction;
• Given the different conductivities
between land and water masses, the
signal will bend (refract) towards the
land mass,
• This can give false bearing indications
and the NDB can appear to be closer
to the coastline than it actually is,
• The further inland the beacon is, the
greater the effect will be;
• Signals crossing the coastline at 90°
are not subject to refraction.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Rated Coverage
•Given the limitations just
outlined it makes sense that the
range at which NDB signals are
able to be used would be subject
to limitations to minimise these
effects and errors,
•The Rated Coverage is the
maximum distance at which
signals can be used to fix a
position,
•Refer Jepp Radio Aids AU-37.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Using NDB’s
•NDB’s are not precision nav aids,
•When operating within the rated
coverage of an NDB, bearings will
be accurate ±5°,
•Pilots will also have to keep track
to within an accuracy of ±5°,
•NDB’s are drawn on charts as four
rings of dots, surrounding a solid
ring, surrounding a dot.
 The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Aircraft Equipment
•Aircraft equipment will consist of;
• An antenna,
• A control panel,
•Both can have various
appearances depending upon
manufacturer and age.
 The Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Aircraft Equipment
•The equipment in the aircraft used
to pick-up NDB signals is the
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF),
•ADF needles will always point
directly at the station,
•ADF equipment has 3 types of
presentations;
• Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) or
Fixed-Card ADF,
• Rotating Card ADF,
• Remote Magnetic Indicator (RMI).
 Orientation with the fixed card ADF

Once the station has been tuned and

identified, the fixed card ADF indicates the
direction to the station as a number of
degrees measured clockwise from the
aircraft nose.

As an aid to orientation, you can draw a

map to get the picture clear. An aircraft
heading of 205‫ ﹾ‬M.
The ADF indications the NDB is 120 ‫ﹾ‬
around to the right of the nose. This is
expressed as 120 ‫ ﹾ‬R (“R” stands for
relative to the aircraft nose).
 Orientation with the fixed card ADF

Finding the magnetic track to or from the

station. Look at the needle of the ADF and
imagine it superimposed over the DG at the
same angle.

•The point of the imaginary needle now

indicates the magnetic track or bearing to
the station.
•If the ADF needle points front of your
aircraft, your position is to the station.
•If the ADF needle points behind of your
aircraft, your position is from the station.

This example is your aircraft is 145 ‫ ﹾ‬M from

the station.
 Orientation with the fixed card ADF

The CASA IREX exams do not use the

graphics of instrument. But you can find the
track to or from the station use the formula;

H + A = TS (HATS)
•H is the Heading in degrees magnetic.
•A is the ADF reading.
•TS is the magnetic track “To” the station.

E.g.; Heading 205 ‫ ﹾ‬M, the ADF reads 120 ‫ ﹾ‬M.

What is track to or from the station?

205 + 120 = 325 (To the station) – 180 = 145

145 ‫ ﹾ‬M from the station

 Enroute Navigation
Drift
Introduce the wind from the south. Even
though the aircraft maintains a constant
heading of 090 ‫ ﹾ‬M, the wind will cause it to
move sideways. Its actual path across the
ground is called as “Track Made Good
(TMG)”.

The angle between the heading and TMG is

called as “Drift”.
 Enroute Navigation

Drift
Example;
A pilot is maintaining a heading of 050 ‫ﹾ‬
M. the TMG is 043 ‫ ﹾ‬M, what drift is the
aircraft experiencing?
•Step 1; Draw the line to represent the
track.

•Step 2; Place the aircraft on the

according to the heading. To the right, if
the heading is bigger than the track. To
the left if it is less.
Answer; 7 ‫ ﹾ‬of left drift
 Enroute Navigation

Enroute Navigation with the fixed

card ADF
For enroute navigation, you will find the Track
Made Good and Drift.
Example;
The Flight Planned Track (FPT) from A to B is 090
‫ ﹾ‬M. Maintain the heading 085 ‫ ﹾ‬M. You tune your
ADF to the NDB, the ADF reads 176 ‫ ﹾ‬M.
What TMG and Drift are the aircraft experiencing?

Solution;
Use HATS formula. Heading 085 + ADF needle
176 = 261 M‫ ﹾ‬To the station. If the ADF needle
points behind of your aircraft, your aircraft position
is from the station; 081 ‫ ﹾ‬M
TMG = Your present track
Answer; TMG is 081 ‫ ﹾ‬M and 4 ‫ ﹾ‬left drift
 Enroute Navigation

Intercept a required track

Most instrument approach requires the airplane to track outbound on a
particular track and then intercept another track.
 Enroute Navigation
Intercept a required track
Example;
Present Heading is 085 ‫ ﹾ‬M, the ADF needle reads 175 ‫ ﹾ‬M. You want to intercept on 090 ‫ ﹾ‬M
with 30 ‫ ﹾ‬intercept angle. What is heading to intercept?
•Step 1; Find the track you are on (To find TMG, use HATS formula).
HATS; heading 085 + ADF needle 175 = 260 ‫ ﹾ‬M To the station, remember you’re
if the ADF needle points behind of your aircraft, your position is from the station; 080 ‫ ﹾ‬M.
TMG is 080 ‫ ﹾ‬M
•Step 2; Compare the track you are on to required track. Decide whether you must turn to the
left or right to regain the required track. *be careful, check the heading and then orientate if
you are inbound or outbound.

Turn right
 Enroute Navigation

Intercept a required track

Example;
Present Heading is 085 ‫ ﹾ‬M, the ADF needle reads 175 ‫ ﹾ‬M. You want to intercept on 090 ‫ﹾ‬
M with 30 ‫ ﹾ‬intercept angle. What is heading to intercept?
•Step 3; Turn onto a heading to intercept the required track.
•If you turn right to intercept, the track intercept + intercept angle
•If you turn left to intercept, the track intercept – intercept angle

Turn right 090 + 030 = 120

Answer; Heading 120 ‫ ﹾ‬M

OBJECTIVES
 OBJECTIVES

• Demonstrate an understanding of the principles of operation and

limitations of the Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) and Automatic
Direction Finder (ADF),
• Extract from operational documentation the rated coverage of NDB’s,
• Explain the errors associated with the NDB’s,
• Given heading and relative bearings to NDB’s;
ANY QUESTIONS?
Next Lesson
Lesson 02 – VOR