Chap 4

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 1
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
HARAMAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
Degree Program :BSC. In Electrical and Computer Engineering

Course Code: - ECEG 3052
Course name : Electrical Materials and Technology
Chapter 4: Semiconductor materials
Prepared by: MSc. Amanuel K.
10/8/2024 HU/HIT/SECE/ Electrical material and technology

Content
2
 Introduction to Semiconductors
 Determining the percentage ionic character of compound
semiconductor
 Fermi Energy Level
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
 Hall Effect
 Analysis of Drift and Diffusion
Currents
HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

1. Introduction to Semiconductors
3
 Semiconductors are the solids having energy gap 𝐸𝑔 between

conductors and insulators.
 Their conductivity is more than that of dielectrics but less than
conductors.
 They are basically electronic materials.
 They are available in following forms:
 Elements such as silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
 Compounds such as GaAs, InP, AISb, CdTe, ZnSe etc
 Alloys such as 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠𝑥 𝑃1−𝑥 2 , 𝐻𝑔𝐶𝑑𝑥 𝑇𝑒1−𝑥 etc

Cont.…
4
 Semiconductors are also classified as follows:

 Intrinsic
 Extrinsic
 n-type
 p-type
 The elemental forms of pure Si and pure Ge are intrinsic.
 In intrinsic form they are not useful.
 They are, therefore, doped by dopant to make extrinsic
semiconductors .
 Extrinsic forms are directly useful and are widely employed in
manufacturing of the solid state devices.
Cont.…
5
 They belong to the category of alloys and compounds.

 Electronic industry requires a purity better than 1:109 in pure
Si and Ge.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are primarily of n-type and p-type.
 They may be in compound form such as GaAs, CdTe etc…
 They may be in alloy form 𝐻𝑔𝐶𝑑𝑥 𝑇𝑒1−𝑥
 A number of semiconductor compounds are available in
oxide, halide and sulphide forms also…
 The n-types and p-types are used to make n-p junction for
diode, n-p-n and p-n-p for transistors.

Cont.…
6
 Properties of semiconductors
 They are generally hard and brittle, and negative coefficient
temperature resistance.
 In contrast with conductors their conductivity increase with
purification.
 They are widely used as rectifiers, amplifiers, and photocells.
 Their properties are greater importance in telecommunication,
power electronics, computer hardware.

Cont..
7
 Merit of semiconducting materials

 They are much small in size. For example, the gauge length of
be as small as 0.25m and thickness of wafer as less as 0.1mm.
 They are very light in weight. For example large number of
transistors on its Ics weigh 146 gram.
 They operate on low voltage, for example 9 volt, 3volt, 1.5
volt.
 They consume negligible power.
 They have a long life.
 They do not develop any creep effect and hardly show any
ageing effect.

Cont…
8
 They are least affected by shock loads and are almost shock
proof.
 They operate instantly and do not require any pre-heating.
 They operate over a practically fruitful wide range of
temperature.

Cont.…
9
 Characteristics of semiconducting materials.

 Main characteristic of semiconducting materials with their
conductivity.
 Their conductivity increase in temperature and increase in
voltage.
 This increase is 10 to 20 times on adding 1 ppm impurity.
 Some more salient (signal) characteristics of semiconductors

are give an as follows:
1. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance. It
means that:

Cont.…
10

2. Determining the percentage ionic character of
compound semiconductor
11
 Compound semiconductors are generally composed of mixed

bonding.
 Normally the mixed the bonding in them is of ionic-covalent
type.
 It results due to the difference in electronegativity's of the
elements forming the mixed bond.
 The ionic character thus imparted may be determined from
“Pauling equation” given by:
2
−0.25 𝐸𝑁𝑃 − 𝐸𝑁𝑄
𝐼𝑐 = 1 − 𝑒 100 Equation 1.

Cont.…
12
 Where 𝐼𝑐 is percentage of ionic character, 𝐸𝑁𝑃 and 𝐸𝑁𝑄 are the

electronegativity of atoms P and Q forming the mixed bond.
 Difference in electronegativity of about 1.7 to 1.8 corresponds
to 50% ionic character.
 Some examples of ionic-covalent bonded compound
semiconductors are the followings:
 GaP, GaAs, GaSb
 ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe
 InP, InAs, InSb
 Cds, Cdse etc…

Cont.…
13
 Example 1: estimate the percentage ionic character of the

compound semiconductor InAs and GaAs using Pauling’s
equation. The electronegativity's are 1.5 for In, 2.2 for As, and
1.8 for Ga.
 Solution : using Pauling’s equation given bye equn. 1,
 we have for InAs:

3. Fermi Energy Level
14
 The Fermi energy level 𝐸𝐹 corresponds to the highest filled

energy level at 0 K.
 The free electrons occupy energies up to 𝐸𝐹 at 0 K.
 When the temperature goes up above 0 K, some lower energy
electrons at energy E(E < 𝐸𝐹 ) move up to higher energy levels
E > 𝐸𝐹 .
 This motion of electrons under an applied electric field occurs
only when the electrons are located in partially filled energy
bands.

Cont.…
15
 Fermi energy level of a metal can be determined by :

3𝑛 2 3
𝐸𝐹 = Equation : 2
2𝜌𝜖
 Where n is number of free electrons per unit volume of a
metal, and 𝜌𝜀 is an energy density constant whose value is
6.82 x 1027 /𝑚3 𝑒𝑉 3 2 .
 Number of free electrons in some metals are given in Table 1.

Cont.…
16
 Fermi – Dirac Probability Function and Temperature

Effect
 The thermal behavior of electrons in an atom can be
explained by Fermi – Dirac probability function p(E) given
by:
1
p(E) = Equation : 3
1+ 𝑒 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 𝑘𝑇
 Table 1: Number of free electrons in some metals.

Cont…
17
 Where k is Bolzman constant, and T the absolute temperature,

Fermi – Dirac distribution shown in Figure 1.
 It illustrate that p(E) = 0 or 1 at T = 0 K. variation in p(E)
with increasing temperature is also shown Figure 1.
 At higher temperatures, more and more electron occupy
energy greater than Fermi energy.
 The kinetic energy of electrons in a metal having maximum
energy is equal to its Fermi level.
 Only some electrons may attain this level.

Cont.…
18
 The Fermi energy level of some elements is given in Table 2.

 The value of p(E) is 0.5 at cross-over point.
 This point is invariant at all temperatures.
 Thus the Fermi energy level can also be defined as the level at
which probability of occupation by an electron is 50%.
 For E > 𝐸𝐹 + kT, in equation 3, the exponential term in
denominator becomes too large than unity.
 Therefore, Equation 3, may be rewritten as :
p(E) = 𝑒 − 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 𝑘𝑇
Equation 4.

Cont.…
19
Figure 1: The Fermi – Dirac distribution of free electrons

as a function of temperature
Cont.….
20
 Table 2: Fermi energy level of some elements
 Example 2: There is 5 % probability for an electron to occupy

an energy state which is 0.4eV above the Fermi energy.
Estimate the temperature at which this can happen.
 Solution, using equation 3 for Fermi-Dirac probability
1
distribution. p(E) = 𝐸−𝐸 𝑘𝑇
1+ 𝑒 𝐹

Cont.…
21

3. Intrinsic Semiconductors
22
 Reason of unsuitability of intrinsic semiconductors:

 The conduction of electron from valence band to conduction
band needs crossing-over the forbidden gap.
 The applied electric field required for this conduction is
extremely high in intrinsic semiconductors.
 For example, the forbidden gap in germanium is 0.7eV and in
silicon 1.1eV.
 The distance between the locations of electrons near an ion
core and away from it is about 1A.

Cont.
23
 Thus semiconductor of an electron from valence band to

conduction will take place when a field gradient of about
0.7V/1A in Ge and 1.1V/1A in Si is applied.
 On the other hand, thermal energy at room temperature can
exited limited number of electrons across the energy gap.
 The number of electrons crossing-over the forbidden gap may
be calculated by Fermi-Dirac probability distribution.

Cont.…
24
 Energy Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

 The energy diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2: Energy diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor showing energy level of

conduction band, valence band, energy gap and intrinsic energy

Cont.…
25
 It shows that the Fermi level 𝐸𝐹 lies in the middle of

forbidden energy gap 𝐸𝑔 .
 This Fermi level is also referred to as intrinsic energy level 𝐸𝑖 .
 The energy gap 𝐸𝑔 is equal to the difference in the energies of
valence band 𝐸𝑣 and conduction band 𝐸𝑐 .
 The term 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 in equation 4, is therefore equal to 𝐸𝑔 2 .
 For pure germanium, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 is 𝐸𝑔 2 - 0.35eV, which is
13.5 times higher than kT at room temperature (=0.026eV).

Cont.…
26
 Number of electrons crossing-over to conduction band:

 If the total number of electrons available in valence band for
semi conduction is N, and out of this n numbers cross-over to
conduction band, then 𝑛 𝑁 = p(E).
n = 𝑁𝑒 −𝐸𝑔 2𝑘𝑇 Equation 5.
 Holes, mobility and conductivity
 Definitions, if n number of electrons cross the gap, n sites
become vacant in the valence band.
 This vacant sites are called holes.
 Thus the number of electrons 𝑛𝑒 and number of holes 𝑛ℎ are
equal (𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ ).

Cont.….
27
 Both: electrons and the holes take part in semiconduction.

 Electron conduct in the conduction band and the holes in the
valence band.
 They move opposite direction with certain drift velocity 𝑣𝑑
under an applied field gradient ζ .
 This movement of electrons and holes is known as
mobility.
 Mobility of an electron and a hole is designated by 𝜇𝑒 and
𝜇ℎ respectively, and is defined as
𝑣𝑑
𝜇= Equation 6.
ζ

Cont.…
28
 Effect of temperature : mobility is a temperature sensitive

property, and decrease with increasing temperature.
 They are vary with temperature as 𝜇𝑒 ∝ 𝑇 −2.4 and 𝜇ℎ
∝ 𝑇 −2.2 .
 Its value is more for electrons than for holes 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇ℎ .
 Since both these charge carriers (electrons and holes)
contribute towards conduction, hence conductivity σ of an
intrinsic semiconductor is obtained from
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒ℎ 𝜇ℎ equation 7.

Cont.…
29
 Where 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒ℎ = e is electronic charge, 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ are carrier

concentrations per unit volume of electrons and holes
respectively.
 Intrinsic carrier concentration of an electron or a hole in
germanium at 300 K is 2.5 x 1019 /𝑚3 .
 Examples 3: Determine the intrinsic carrier density of pure
silicon whose resistivity at room temperature is 3000ohm m.
the mobility's of electrons and holes in silicon at room
temperature are 0.14 and 0.05𝑚2 /V s. Electron charge e
=1.602 x 10−19 C.

Cont.…
30
 Solution: we know that the resistivity 𝜌 = 1 𝜎, and 𝑛𝑒 =

𝑛ℎ = 𝑛 in an intrinsic semiconductor . From equation 7.

Cont.…
31
 Example 4: The mobility's of silicon are 𝜇𝑒 = 0.17 𝑚2 / V –s

and 𝜇ℎ =0.035𝑚2 /V –s at room temperature. If the carrier
density in the material is known to be 1.1 x 1016 /𝑚3 ,
calculate the resistivity of silicon.
 Solution . As 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒ℎ 𝜇ℎ

4. Extrinsic Semiconductors
32
 The conduction in extrinsic semiconductors occurs due to the

presence of foreign impurities.
 Deliberate impuring of intrinsic semiconductors is done by
adding impurities to obtain extrinsic semiconductors.
 The impuring agents are called dopants, and the process is
known as doping.
 The dopant are elements either of the third column or the fifth
column of the periodic table.
 They increase the conductivity of semiconductors
considerably.

Cont..
33
 Based on the type of dopants used, extrinsic semiconductors

are classified as:
 n-type and p- type
 n-type semiconductor is also called negative or electron
carrier type.
 p-type as positivity or hole carrier type.
 n-type semiconductors and their energy diagram
 the fifth column elements such as As, Sb or P are used as
dopants.
 Figure 3(a) shows a germanium crystal doped with
phosphorous .

Cont…
34
Figure 3, n-type semiconductor (a) germanium doped with fifth column phosphorus
and (b) energy diagram showing donor energy level.

Cont.…
35
 Four of the five electrons in the outermost orbit of phosphorus

atom forms a tetrahedral bond with four germanium
neighbors.
 The fifth electron remains loosely bound to its parent atom,
and moves in the electric field of germanium crystal with an
electron orbit of about 80𝐴0 radius.
 The energy of fifth electrons is close to the conduction band,
and is shown in figure (b).
 This energy level is known as donor energy level 𝐸𝐷 as the
dopant has donated one of its electron to the semiconductor.

Cont.…
36
 Law of mass action

 The cross-over of fifth electron into the conduction band is
much easier than it would have been from the valence band.
 The energy needed to excite the fifth electron into the
conduction band is known as ionization energy 𝐸𝑖 and is given
in table 3.
 The number of donor level electrons excited into the
conduction band at room temperature is large, as 𝐸𝐼 << 𝐸𝑔 .
 The number of electrons in the conduction band are more than
the number of holes 𝑛ℎ in the valence band (i.e. 𝑛𝑒 > 𝑛ℎ ).

Cont.…
37
 The electrons remain the majority charge carriers. However,

the law of mass action (𝑛𝑒 x 𝑛ℎ = constant ) holds good.
 p-type semiconductors and their energy diagram
 an intrinsic crystal can also be doped by elements of third
column such as Ga, In or Al.
 Doping of a silicon crystal by an aluminum atom is illustrated
in figure 4(a).
 Aluminum requires a fourth electron in addition to three
electrons in its outer orbit to form a tetrahedral bond.
 The fourth electron comes from the neighboring silicon atom.

Cont.….
38
 Table 3: Ionization energies of Dopants in intrinsic

semiconductors

Cont.…
39
 Figure 4: p-type semiconductor (a) silicon doped by third column aluminum, and
(b) energy diagram showing acceptor energy level.

Cont.…
40
 Migration of electrons from silicon atom creates a hole in it.

 The hole thus created (in silicon) moves around aluminum
atom with a positive charge.
 Acceptor energy level: calculations reveal that the holes orbit
at a radius of about 80A, and are close to the valence band.
 The energy level possessed by them is known as acceptor
energy level 𝐸𝐴 , and is shown in figure 4(b).
 The ionization energy needed to excite the holes into the
valence band are given in table 3.
 The holes are majority charge carriers in this case (𝑛ℎ > 𝑛𝑒 ),
and the law of mass action holds goods hers also:

Cont.…
41
 The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors, both n-type and p-type, may

be found from equation 6. Knowing that 𝑛𝑒 ≠ 𝑛ℎ .
 Example 5: the resistivity of Ga-Sb at 300 K is found to be 2x10−3 ohm –
m. The electron and hole motilities are 0.3 and 0.1 𝑚2 / volt-sec
respectively. Calculate the carrier density. Given e = 1.6 x 10−19 coulomb.

Cont.….
42
 Example 6: a current of density 1000A/𝑚2 flows through a n-

type germanium crystal. This crystal has a resistivity of
0.05ohm m and the electron mobility of 0.4 𝑚2 /V s. Calculate
the drift velocity and time taken by the electrons to travel
100𝜇𝑚in the crystal

Cont.…
43

Cont.…
44
 Example 7: a p-type germanium rod, 10mm long and 1mm in

diameter, has a resistance of 100ohm. Determine the impurity
concentration in the rod. The mobility of holes in germanium
=0.19𝑚2 /V s.

Cont.…
45

5. Hall Effect
46
 Hall Effect mean: the electron in a n-type semiconductor and

the holes in a p-type semiconductor usually drift in the
direction x of an applied electric field.
 When a magnetic field is applied in z-direction which is
perpendicular to the direction of drift of holes or electrons,
they tend to deflect.
 This is an undesirable effect and needs to be prevented.
 Establishment of an electric field along y-direction to prevent
deflection of holes or electrons is known as Hall effect.

Cont.…
47
Figure 5: Establishment of electric field along y-direction to

prevent deflection of holes along x-direction is called Hall effect
Cont.…
48
 Explanation of the phenomenon: let us take a p-type

semiconductor bar of length l, width b and thickness t in the
field of an electric current 𝐼𝑥 and a magnetic flux density 𝛽𝑥 as
shown in figure 5.
 A single hole in the bar experience a force 𝐹𝑦 along y-
direction whose magnitude is given by
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑒𝑘 ζ𝑦 − 𝑣𝑥 𝛽𝑧 equation 8.
 Where 𝑒ℎ is the charge on hole, ζ𝑦 is the electric field
strength along y-direction, and 𝑣𝑥 is the velocity of drifting
holes.

Cont.…
49
 Hall Voltage : to maintain steady state flow of holes down the

length of bar, it is desired that the holes do not deflect.
 Therefore, 𝐹𝑦 in equation 8 must be zero and hence
ζ𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 𝛽𝑧 equation 9.
 Establishment of ζ𝑦 along the width of the bar is known as
Hall effect.
 The resulting voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐵 along y-direction is called Hall
voltage and is given by
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = ζ𝑦 b equation 10.

Cont.…
50
 Significance of Hall effect, hall coefficient etc.

 The idea of hall effect is utilized to determine :
 Nature of an unknown semiconductor ; whether n-type or p-
type,
 Mobility of the semiconductor,
 Conductivity, and
 Resistivity of the semiconductor .

Cont.…
51
 Hall coefficient : an unknown piece of semiconductor whether

n-type or p-type can be investigated by measuring the Hall
coefficient 𝐻𝑐 . It is found from:
1
𝐻𝑐 = equation 11.
𝑒𝑘 ℎ0
 Where ℎ0 is hole concentration. A negative value of 𝐻𝑐
indicates n-type and a positive value confirms p-type
semiconductor .

Cont.…
52
 Hall angle : it is the non-vanishing angle made by the total

electric field in a semiconducting sample, with the x-axis
along which the carriers drift.
 Hall generator is a hall effect based measuring device which is
used measure high amplitude a.c and impulse currents, and
very high direct current.
 Such high currents are used in testing of cables lightening
arresters, circuit breakers etc.
 Hall generator employ semiconducting materials in their
construction.
 It is because the hall coefficient of semiconductor s is high as
compared to metals whose hall coefficient is very small.

6. Analysis of Drift and Diffusion
Currents
53
 Two kinds of currents flow in a semiconductor

1. Drift current due to electric field , and
2. Diffusion current due to gradient of carrier concentration.
 Flow of these currents apply to both: to the electrons as well
as to the holes.
 Since the conductivity associated with conduction electrons is
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 .e.𝜇𝑒 and with conduction holes 𝜎ℎ = 𝑛ℎ e𝜇ℎ ,
 Therefore the current density associated with drift of electrons
and holes, due to the applied field E ma be written as
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 e𝜇𝑒 E equation 16.
𝐼ℎ = 𝑛ℎ e𝜇ℎ E equation 17.

Cont.…
54
 Diffusivity : according to diffusion theory given by Fick’s 1st

law for steady state condition, the net flow of carriers along x-
axis (in one-dimensional case) is given by
𝑑η 𝑑η
= −𝐷𝑠 A equation 18.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
 Where η is density of carriers, 𝑑η 𝑑𝑡 is the number of
carriers diffusing per unit time into a cross-sectional area A
normal to the direction of diffusion x,
 𝑑η 𝑑𝑥 is concentration gradient, and 𝐷𝑥 is diffusion
coefficient along x-direction.
 The term 𝐷𝑥 is popularly known as diffusivity. It is a constant
and is the system characteristic.

Cont.…
55
 The minus sign in above equation indicates that when

concentration increases, the flow of particles due to diffusion
occurs in negative x-direction.

References
56
1. L. Solymer & D. Walsh, “Electrical Properties of Materials”, Oxford

University Press, London, 2014.
2. K.H. Jurgen Buschow et. al., Editors-in-chief, “Encyclopedia of
Materials: Science and Technology”, Vol. 4, Elsevier, 2011.
3. A.J. Dekker, “Electrical Engineering Materials”, Prentice-Hall of
India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2009.
4. K.M. Gupta, “Electrical and Electronics Engineering Materials”,
Umesh Publications, Delhi, 2006.
5. K.M.Gupta and Nishu Gupta “Advanced Electrical and Electronics
Materials (Process and Applications)”, Advanced Material Series by
Scrivener Publishing, Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Canada,
2015.

57
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HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 1

Degree Program :BSC. In Electrical and Computer Engineering

Chapter 4: Semiconductor materials

Prepared by: MSc. Amanuel K.

10/8/2024 HU/HIT/SECE/ Electrical material and technology

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Semiconductors are the solids having energy gap 𝐸𝑔 between

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Semiconductors are also classified as follows:

 They belong to the category of alloys and compounds.

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Merit of semiconducting materials

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Characteristics of semiconducting materials.

 Some more salient (signal) characteristics of semiconductors

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Compound semiconductors are generally composed of mixed

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Where 𝐼𝑐 is percentage of ionic character, 𝐸𝑁𝑃 and 𝐸𝑁𝑄 are the

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Example 1: estimate the percentage ionic character of the

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 The Fermi energy level 𝐸𝐹 corresponds to the highest filled

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Fermi energy level of a metal can be determined by :

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Fermi – Dirac Probability Function and Temperature

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Where k is Bolzman constant, and T the absolute temperature,

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 The Fermi energy level of some elements is given in Table 2.

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

Figure 1: The Fermi – Dirac distribution of free electrons

 Table 2: Fermi energy level of some elements

 Example 2: There is 5 % probability for an electron to occupy

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Reason of unsuitability of intrinsic semiconductors:

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Thus semiconductor of an electron from valence band to

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Energy Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

Figure 2: Energy diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor showing energy level of

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 It shows that the Fermi level 𝐸𝐹 lies in the middle of

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Number of electrons crossing-over to conduction band:

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Both: electrons and the holes take part in semiconduction.

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Effect of temperature : mobility is a temperature sensitive

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024

 Where 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒ℎ = e is electronic charge, 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ are carrier

HU/HIT/SECE/Electrical material and technology 10/8/2024