ELECTRONICS ASSIGNMENT

1. (a) Electrical conductivity is a material's ability to carry an electrical current when a

voltage is applied. It's represented by the Greek letter sigma (σ) and is measured in
Siemens per meter (S/m).

(b) charge carrier is a particle or hole that moves through a material and carries an
electric charge when an electric field is applied. Charge carriers are responsible for
electrical conduction in various mediums.

©generation and recombination of charge carriers are processes that create or

destroy mobile charge carriers, like electrons and holes, in semiconductors:
Generation describes the process by which electrons gain energy and move from the
valence band to the conduction band, creating a hole in the valence band. This
process produces two mobile charges.
Recombination describes processes by which a conduction band electron loses
energy and re-occupies the energy state of an electron hole in the valence band.
Electrons and holes from the conduction and valence bands, respectively, lose energy
and recombine, annihilating each other.

(d) diffusion current is the electric current that occurs when charge carriers, like
electrons or holes, move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. This movement is due to the random thermal motion of the charge
carriers

(e) Drift current is the electric current that occurs when charged particles, like
electrons and holes, are moved by an electric field. It's a key concept in
semiconductor devices, especially in understanding how diodes and transistors work.

(f) Higher concentration region is the region in which more number of electrons is
present while lower concentration region is the region in which less number of
electrons is present.
(g) Hole is a positive charge carrier that's created when an electron is absent from a
specific location in an atom:

(h) Convection current is the movement of charged particles in response to

mechanical forces, rather than an electric field. Convection currents can occur in
insulating mediums, such as liquids, rarefied gases, or vacuums.

(i) Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter

their properties.
 (j) Depletion layer, also known as a depletion region, is a region in a semiconductor
material where the flow of mobile charge carriers has decreased. This region is
insulating and acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons and holes.

(k) Donor is an impurity atom that donates electrons to a semiconductor crystal,

making it more negatively charged and creating an n-type semiconductor,

(l) Acceptor is an impurity atom in a semiconductor that takes an electron from the
crystal and becomes negatively charged. This process creates a p-type semiconductor

QN 2. Explain the characteristics of: conductor, insulator and semiconductor materials

Characteristics of conductors: -
• Free movement of electrons: Conductors allow electrons to move freely with little to no
resistance. This is because they have a high number of free electrons and an atomic structure that
facilitates the flow of electricity.

• Zero electric field: The electric field inside a conductor is zero, which allows electrons to
flow.
• Zero charge density: The charge density inside a conductor is zero, which means that positive
and negative charges cancel each other out.
• All points at the same potential: All points of a conductor are at the same potential.
• Malleable: Conductors are highly malleable, meaning they can be handled without breaking.
• Resistant to wear: Conductors have high resistance against wear and can be exposed to
extreme conditions without being affected.

Some metals that are used as conductors in electronics include:

• Gold: Resistant to oxidizing and sulfurs creation at room and higher temperatures.

• Silver: Resistant to oxidizing and has the lowest resistance among the other precious metals.

• Platinum: Does not react with oxygen and is resistive to chemical reagents.

• Palladium: Has the ability to absorb hydrogen.

Characteristics of insulators includes: -
• Resistivity: Insulators have higher resistivity than conductors or semiconductors.
• Tightly bound electrons: Insulators have tightly bound electrons that make it difficult for them
to move.
Solid: Insulators are usually solid in nature.
• Breakdown voltage: The voltage at which an insulator becomes electrically conductive is
called its breakdown voltage.
• Dielectric constant: Insulators have a high dielectric constant or dielectric strength.
• Permeability: Insulators have high permeability toward air.
• Creepage distance: The distance along the surface of an insulator that prevents arcing.
Examples of insulators include:
Glass, Paper, PTFE, Wood, Cloth, Mica, Quartz, Ceramic, Plastic, and Rubber.

Characteristics of Semiconductors includes: -

• Electrical properties
Semiconductors have electrical properties that fall between those of conductors and
insulators. They can conduct electricity under certain conditions, but not others. For example, at
low temperatures, semiconductors act as insulators, but at room temperature or when exposed to
light, voltage, or heat, they can conduct electricity.
• Sensitivity
Semiconductors are sensitive to light and heat, and can be sensitive to magnetism.
• Impurities
The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or dopants, added to it.
• Crystal structure
Semiconductors are usually crystalline in form, with atoms grouped together to form a crystal
lattice.
• Applications
Semiconductors are used to make diodes, integrated circuits (ICs), and transistors. They are also
used in semiconductor lasers, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and photodetectors.

QN 3: Explain the following: Energy band, valency band and lower energy band, forbidden gap
Energy band is a group of energy levels for electrons in a solid material. Energy bands are the
result of grouping electrons in the same orbit that have different energy levels. Energy bands are
the basis for understanding how electrons behave in solid materials. They determine a material's
electrical and electronic properties, and whether it will act as an insulator, semiconductor, or
conductor.

Valence band is the highest filled band of electron states in a material at absolute zero
temperature. It's made up of the energy levels of valence electrons, which are the electrons in an
atom's outermost shell. The valence band is located below the conduction band, which is the
energy band of free electrons.
Lower energy level is called the ground state. The ground state is the energy level where an
electron normally occupies and has the lowest energy
The ground state energy is the lowest possible energy for the highest energy electron in an
atom. For example, the ground state of the electron in hydrogen is 1s, while the ground state of
the highest energy electron in sodium is 3s.

Forbidden gap, also known as the band gap, is the energy difference between the valence band
and the conduction band in a material. It's a gap where electrons cannot exist because of the
wave nature of electrons. The forbidden gap has no energy, so no electrons remain in this band.

QN 4: How would you compare the band gap between the semiconductor and the insulator
The band gap of an insulator is larger than the band gap of a semiconductor:
The band gap is the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band. The
valence band is where electrons normally are, and the conduction band is where electrons are
free to move and conduct electricity.
Insulators
Have a band gap that's usually greater than 4 electron volts (eV). This large band gap makes it
difficult for electrons to gain enough energy to move from the valence band to the conduction
band. This restricts the flow of electrons and limits conductivity.
Semiconductors
Have a band gap that's less than 3 eV. This smaller band gap allows electrons to move to the
conduction band with less energy. This means that semiconductors can conduct electricity under
certain conditions.

QN 5: If a pure semiconductor material has an increase in temperature, what will happen to:
a) The resistance of the material.
b) The current carrying capabilities of the material.
c) Some of the electrons in the valence band?
When the temperature of a pure semiconductor material increases, several changes occur:

a) The resistance of the material: The resistance decreases. This is because increasing
temperature provides more thermal energy to the semiconductor atoms, which in turn increases
the number of charge carriers (electrons and holes) available to conduct electricity. Therefore, the
material becomes less resistive.
b) The current-carrying capabilities of the material: The current-carrying capability
increases. With more charge carriers available due to the increased temperature, the
semiconductor can conduct more current.
c) Some of the electrons in the valence band: Some electrons gain enough energy to move
from the valence band to the conduction band. This transition from the valence band to the
conduction band means more free electrons are available for conduction, enhancing the
conductivity of the semiconductor.
QN 6. What is the forbidden gap in semiconductors?
The forbidden gap in semiconductors: Also known as the band gap is the energy difference
between the valence band (where electrons are bound to atoms) and the conduction band (where
electrons are free to move and conduct electricity). In semiconductors, this gap is relatively
small, which allows electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction band when
energy (like heat or light) is supplied.

QN 7. What is the P-type and N-type semiconductor?

• P-type semiconductor: Created by adding trivalent impurities (such as boron) to pure
semiconductor material. This adds holes (positive charge carriers) because the impurity atoms
have fewer electrons than the semiconductor atoms.
• N-type semiconductor: Formed by adding pentavalent impurities (such as phosphorus) to the
semiconductor, which introduces extra electrons (negative charge carriers) because the impurity
atoms have more electrons than the semiconductor atoms.

QN 8. What are two types of charge carriers in semiconductors:

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles that move through the conduction band.
• Holes: Positively charged carriers that represent the absence of an electron in the valence band

QN 9. Why silicon is widely used semiconductor material:

Silicon is widely used due to the following reasons: -
• Abundance: Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
• Cost-effective: It's relatively inexpensive to process and manufacture.
• Properties: Silicon has an ideal band gap for many electronic applications, good thermal
stability, and forms a stable and protective oxide layer (silicon dioxide).

QN 10. What are two types of semiconductors:

• Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconductor materials without any significant impurities.
• Extrinsic semiconductors: Semiconductor materials that have been doped with impurities to
change their electrical properties.

QN 11. What are the two types of extrinsic semiconductor?

• N-type: Doped with pentavalent impurities thus providing extra electrons
• P-type: Doped with trivalent impurities thus creating holes

QN: 12. Why extrinsic semiconductors are used in electronics manufacturing and not intrinsic
semiconductors:
Extrinsic semiconductor is used in electronics manufacturing due to the following: -
• Control over properties: Doping allows precise control over electrical properties, such as
conductivity.
• Enhanced performance: Extrinsic semiconductors have more charge carriers, improving their
performance in electronic devices
QN 13. What are two types of impurities added to the semiconductor:
• Trivalent impurities: For creating P-type semiconductors (e.g., boron).
• Pentavalent impurities: For creating N-type semiconductors (e.g., phosphorus).

QN 14. How many Valence electrons does a pentavalent impurity atom Have?
The pentavalent impurity has 5 valence electrons.

QN 15. What are examples of pentavalent impurity atoms?

Examples of pentavalent impurity atoms are; Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb).

QN 16. How many Valence electrons in a trivalent impurity atom have?

The trivalent impurity atom has 3 valence electrons.

QN 17. What are examples of trivalent impurity atoms?

Examples of trivalent impurity atoms are; Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga).

QN 18. What are the majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductor?

Electrons are the majority charge carrier in N-type semiconductors

QN 19. What are the minority charge carriers in N-type semiconductor?

Holes are the minority charge carrier in N-type semiconductors

QN 20. What are the majority charge carriers in P-type semiconductor?

Holes are the majority charge carrier in P-type semiconductor

QN 21. What are the minority charge carriers in P-type semiconductor?

Electrons are the minority charge carrier in P-type semiconductor

QN 22. DRAWING

QN 23. What happens when applying a reverse bias to a PN junction diode?

When applying a reverse bias to a PN Junction diode it increases the width of the depletion
region, causing the diode to block current flow. Only a very small leakage current flow.

QN 24. DRAWING

QN 25. What happens when applying a forward bias to a PN junction diode?

When applying a forward bias to a PN junction diode it reduces the width of the depletion
region, allowing current to flow easily from the P side to the N side, thus the diode conducts.